Radon measurements in underground mines

and caves from several European countries

Cite as: AIP Conference Proceedings 2076, 050004 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5091643
Published Online: 20 February 2019

Romul Mircea Margineanu

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AIP Conference Proceedings 2076, 050004 (2019); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5091643 2076, 050004

© 2019 Author(s).
 Radon Measurements in Underground Mines and Caves
From Several European Countries
Romul Mircea Margineanu1,a)
1
Horia Hulubei National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, P.O.B. MG-6, 077125 Bucharest-Magurele,
Romania
a)
Corresponding author: romulus@ifin.nipne.ro

Abstract. The noble gas Radon is a chemical element that has no stable isotopes. Radon isotopes result from the disintegration of
238
U, 235 U and 232 Th. The half-life of 222 Rn is 3.8235 days, for 220 Rn is 55.6 s and for 219 Rn is 3.96 s. Radon is the second cause
of lung cancer for the population after smoking, [1, 2]. Medical studies have provided clear evidence of an association between
Radon exposure in homes and workplaces and lung cancer, even at relatively low concentrations of Radon. Radon emanates from
rocks and soils and accumulates in enclosed spaces such as underground mines, basements or houses. Radon is the most important
contributor to the dose of ionizing radiation received by the population. This paper is based on Radon measurements undertaken
by different research groups, in several European countries. The concentration of Radon in underground, in caves and mines, takes
values from tenth of Bq/m3 up to more than one million Bq/m3 .

INTRODUCTION
This paper is based on Radon measurements undertaken by different research groups, in several European countries.
The discovery of Radon was wrongly attributed to the German chemist Friedrich Ernst Dorn. James L. Marshall
and Virginia R. Marshall have shown in an article that the true finder of Radon is Ernest Rutherford, [3]. Ernest
Rutherford in his works discovers that Thorium emanates a radioactive gas. In subsequent experiments with 226 Ra,
Ernest Rutherford and his colleague Frederick Soddy have highlighted the physical and chemical properties of this
radioactive gas, which they rightly placed in the noble gas group. In the research conducted by Ernest Rutherford and
Frederick Soddy, they called this gas ”Radium emanation”, [3].
Noble gas Radon is a chemical element that has no stable isotopes. Radon isotopes result from the disintegration
of 238 U, 235 U and 232 Th. The half-life of 222 Rn is 3.8235 days, for 220 Rn is 55.6 s and for 219 Rn is 3.96 s. The source of
Radon in the atmosphere consists of 238 U and 232 Th content in rocks and soil. Radon, noble gas, exhales from the soil
and rocks into the atmosphere and, due to the large atomic mass, 222, accumulates in the low part of the atmosphere
and in underground in mines and caves. In environment, Radon is found in higher concentrations in atmospheres of
underground workplaces like natural caves and mines, where miners and visitors are exposed to it and its progenies.
Concentrations of radon and its decay descendants in caves vary from levels several times to several thousand times
higher than outdoor air concentrations, [4, 5].
In recent papers it is shown that Radon is the second cause of lung cancer for the population after smoking, [1, 2].
Medical studies have provided clear evidence of an association between Radon exposure in homes and workplaces
and lung cancer, even at relatively low concentrations of Radon, [2, 6]. Generally, in the European Union through
COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2013/59 / EURATOM / 2013 the reference levels of radon concentration for dwellings are
300 Bq/m3 . For working places, most countries set their reference levels at 300 Bq/m3 , and if this value is exceeded,
the Member State must notify the Commission.
For Radon measurements passive and active methods are used. The most widely used method for measuring
radon is based on passive solid state nuclear track detectors. Solid-state nuclear track detector systems use the material
polyallyl diglycol carbonate, (PADC), as their basis for measurement. PADC is a clear, colourless material with the
empirical formula C12H18O7, known more commonly as CR-39 (Columbia Resin number 39) [7]. One of the active
methods used in Radon measurements utilizes AlphaGUARD Radon Monitor working in passive mode, [8].

Exotic Nuclei and Nuclear/Particle Astrophysics (VII). Physics with Small Accelerators
AIP Conf. Proc. 2076, 050004-1–050004-10; https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5091643
Published by AIP Publishing. 978-0-7354-1804-2/$30.00

050004-1
 SOME ASPECTS OF RADON CONCENTRATION IN UNDERGROUND IN EUROPE

Radon in Czech Republic Show Caves

In Czech Republic, two caves were selected for long term Radon measurements, namely: (the Bozkov Dolomite
Caves and the Zbrasov Aragonite Caves, [9]. The long term measurements were undertaken using solid state alpha
track RAMARN detectors. In each cave a number of one to eight detectors were placed depending on the length of
touristic path. In this experiment, the authors used about 200 RAMARN detectors. For short term measurements,
RADIM3 monitors and RADONIC01 airflow ionization chamber (volume 8 L) operating in the current mode with
fast response (1 min), were used. Also, in the same time the atmospheric temperature and pressure were measured.
Radon concentration in the investigated caves varies from 1000 Bq/m3 to 7000 Bq/m3 . The authors conclusion is ”It
is impossible to remove or modify the source or to implement a corrective action in case of caves. The effective doses
can be kept within the limits only by regulating the time spent under the ground.”

Radon in a Greek Cave

The measurement of Radon concentrations were performed in in the Pleistocene cave at Petralona, in Halkidiki,
Northern Greece, 55 km from the city of Thessaloniki, [4]. The Radon measurements were undertaken by solid-
state nuclear track-etch detectors, SSNTDs using Kodak CA 80-15 cellulose nitrate films. The collecting time for the
detectors was about 30 days.
The results obtained by C. Papastefanou et al.,[4], in the investigated cave are: Cave entrance 0.19 kBq/m3 , Inte-
rior Mausoleum1 12.77 kBq/m3 , Interior Mausoleum2 21.28 kBq/m3 , Section B 88.06 kBq/m3 , Precipice (Varathron-
3) 11.91 kBq/m3 , Slaughter-House (Sphagion) 16.87 kBq/m3 . The authors have put in evidence the seasonal variation
of Radon concentration: November - March 12.77 kBq/m3 , March - June 22.42 kBq/m3 , June - August 17.17 kBq/m3
and August - November 10.77 kBq/m3 . The authors conclude that ”226 Ra and 222 Rn, shows that the measured con-
centrations are not significantly different from those of the naturally occurring 238 U concentrations in soil, and that
the high level of radon inside the cave is due to high exhalation rate due to diffusion through the ground pores and or
cracks, and that the cave is an absolutely closed system in order to keep its physiognomy (cast of features)”, [4].

Radon in Kosovo Mine

In Kosovo, the Radon concentration was investigated in Trepca underground mine by Sadik Bekteshi et al.,[10]. The
Trepa mine is located in northern Kosovo and is one of the most ramified and deep mines in Kosovo. This mine
is situated in the so-called Trepca Mineral Belt, being one of the largest lead and zinc ore areas in Europe. In this
mine the Radon concentration was measured with a Continuous Radon Monitor CRM-510 using the method based
on ionising chamber, recording data hourly up to 96 hours, and, also with a portable radon monitor PRM-145. In
the second case, air sample of 0.7 dm3 were collected in special cells and measured after 3 hours, necessary time to
reach the equilibrium of Radon and its progenies. The Radon concentration was measured in 2015 in two campaigns
first from February to April and second from September to December. The Radon concentration in Trepca mine has
an average activity of 286 Bq/m3 and a maximum activity of 691 Bq/m3 . The authors observed that the ”average
radon concentrations were found to range from 245 Bq/m3 (horizon V) to 441 Bq/m3 (horizon XI). Most enhanced
values, up to 691 Bq/m3 , occurred at mining locations in horizon XI”, [10]. Also, the authors concluded ”The radon
concentration measured in the Trepca mine in 2015 varies from 54 Bq/m3 to 691 Bq/m3 . The average and median
indoor radon concentrations were 286 Bq/m3 and 279 Bq/m3 , respectively. Radon concentrations at all horizon sites
were below the actionable level ranges for workplaces recommended by ICRP.”
In another work, [11], Radon concentrations in four other mines: Stanterg, Artana, Hajvali and Badovc, which
are owned by Trepa Enterprise, were measured. The measurements were performed using CRM 510 active system
for four consecutive days. Also, during these measurements the atmospheric humidity, temperature and pressure were
measured. For these four mines, the results obtained by [11], are: Stanterg (302 21) Bq/m3 , Artana (191 6) Bq/m3 ,
Hajvali (463 19) Bq/m3 and Badovc (527 35) Bq/m3 . The authors concluded that ”the average values for radon
concentration and radon decay products to mines under the study are lower than action level of 1000 Bq m−3 given
by IAEA”, [11]. One can observes that the values obtained in this study are within the data reported in previous work
about Trepca mine, [10].

050004-2
 Radon in underground mines in Poland
In the last decades, the concentration of Radon in underground mines from Poland was investigated by many re-
searchers. In this work only two works about Radon measurements performed in Poland are considered.
In Poland the concentration in underground has been investigated in many places, [5, 12]. The measurements
were undertaken in Bear Cave in Kletno, the Gold Mine complex in ZÅoty Stok and the Underground Educational
Tourist Route in the Old Uranium Mine in Kletno, [5], and in two adits of the abandoned uranium mine ’Podgorze’ in
Kowary [12]. For measurements, the author has used an active, semi-conductor detectors SRDNe3 system produced
in Poland. This system measures the Radon concentration hourly and the data are stored until they are transferred into
a computer.
Radon concentrations were measured in several places in Kletno Cave, [5], along the tourist route and, also
outside this route. On the tourist route, the Radon concentration values ranges from detection limit to 11581 Bq/m3
during July 2010 January 2011, see Tab. 1 and Fig. 1 and from detection limit to 14112 Bq/m3 from July 2011
to January 2012, see Tab. 2 and Fig. 2. Outside the tourist route the Radon concentration has been measured by

TABLE 1. Measuring points on the tourist route in Bear Cave in Kletno, July 2010 January
2011.

FIGURE 1. Radon on the tourist route in Bear Cave in Kletno, July 2010 January 2011.

Lidia FijaÅkowska Lichwa, [5], in two points Black Adit and Gertruda Adit between July 2010 and June 2011. In

050004-3
Black Adit the Radon concentration takes values from the detection limit up to 14518 Bq/m3 . In Gertruda Adit, the
Radon concentration is much higher, the minimum value is 8605 Bq/m3 and the maximum value is 83009 Bq/m3 , see
Tab. 3 and Fig. 3. The author concluded that ”Therefore, it would be improper to adopt the results of radon activity
concentration measurements performed at a measurement point located outside the tourist route as representative of
the ’tourist’ part of the adit and suitable for determining the level of radiation exposure of guides and visitors to
Gertruda Adit”.
TABLE 2. Measuring points on the tourist route in Bear Cave in Kletno, July 2011 January
2012.

In an abandoned Uranium mine Podgorze in Kowary, the concentration of Radon was measured in two points,
[12]. The measurements were performed with two SRDN-3 active systems from April to September 2011 in two
galleries one operating as tourist route and the second one planned to be opened for touristic visits.
The concentration of Radon in the visiting gallery ranges from 3 kBq/m3 and 1015 kBq/m3 . In the other gallery
the radon concentration varies from 6.7 kBq/m3 to 1072 kBq/m3 . With the help of a ventilation system, the Radon
concentration was lowered to 5 kBq/m3 in adit 19 and 20 kBq/m3 in adit 19a, [12]. The author concluded that ”the
maximum values of Radon activity concentration in both adits of the disused uranium mine ’Podgorze’ in Kowary
ranged from 800 kBq/m3 to a million Bq/m3 . Such a range was observed every hour between April and late June
2011”.

Radon in underground caves in Romania

The Radon concentration was investigated by N. Bican-Brisan et al. in two caves [13], by Alexandra Cucos Dinu et
al. in seven Romanian caves [14], and Burghele et al. in four caves [14].
The concentration of Radon was measured with CR-39 passive detectors in Polovraci and Muierilor limestone
caves in several places, [13], in two measurement campaigns, first in 2012-2013 and the second one in 2014-2015. In
the first campaign, Nov. 2012 March 2013, winter season, in Polovraci cave, the Radon concentration ranges from
400 Bq/m3 to 2178 Bq/m3 with a mean value of 1166 Bq/m3 . In the same period, the concentration of Radon in
Muierilor cave varies from 485 Bq/m3 to 1846 Bq/m3 with a mean value of 1527 Bq/m3 . In the second campaign,
March 2013 June 2013, spring season, in Polovraci cave, the Radon concentration is comprised between a minimum

050004-4
 FIGURE 2. Radon on the tourist route in Bear Cave in Kletno, July 2011 January 2012.

FIGURE 3. Radon in two measuring points (Black Adit and Gertruda Adit) outside the tourist route in the Gold Mine between
July 2010 and June 2011.

of 1187 Bq/m3 and a maximum of 3331 Bq/m3 and a mean value of 2591 Bq/m3 . In Muierilor cave, in the same
period, the authors measured a minimum value of 180 Bq/m3 , a maximum value of 2597 Bq/m3 , with a mean value
of 1366 Bq/m3 . In the second campaign, Nov. 2014 March 2015, in Polovraci cave, the minimum value measured
was 41 Bq/m3 , the maximum value was 1367 Bq/m3 and the mean value was 729 Bq/m3 . In Muierilor cave, in the
same campaign the authors found a minimum concentration of Radon of 41 Bq/m3 , a maximum concentration of 2946
Bq/m3 with a mean value of 1414 Bq/m3 . In the spring season, March 2015 June 2015, in the same caves, the authors
found in Polovraci a minimum of 524 Bq/m3 , a maximum of 2088 Bq/m3 with a mean value of 1636 Bq/m3 and in
Muierilor cave the results are for the minimum Radon concentration 443 Bq/m3 , maximum 1015 Bq/m3 and the mean
value 754 Bq/m3 , [13]. The authors concluded ”radon concentration dependency to air-flow low air-flow in Polovragi

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 TABLE 3. Radon in two measuring points (Black Adit and Gertruda Adit) outside the tourist
route in the Gold Mine between July 2010 and June 2011.

cave leads to an increased concentration towards the center of the cave and a generally higher concentration compared
to Muierii cave where there is a higher air-flow”.
In another study, Alexandra Cucos Dinu et al. measured the Radon concentration in seven caves, three show
caves: Vadu Crisului, Ursilor and Muierii and four non-touristic caves: Vantului, Despicatura, Scarisoara and Tausoare
[14]. The Radon concentration was measured using CR-39 passive detectors. The results obtained by the authors for
this seven caves are presented in Tab. 6 and Figs. 4.
In the show caves, the maximum concentration of Radon of 1857 Bq/m3 occurs in cold period, in Muierii cave
and in non-touristic cave the maximum value of 2063 Bq/m3 of Radon occurs during warm period in Vantului cave.

Radon in Postojna cave Slovenia

The Radon concertation in Postojna cave, in Slovenia was measured by many different research groups. The Postojna
Cave with 20 km of galleries is the longest known cave system in Slovenia, [Stanka Sebela et al, 2010]. The authors
used two methods for Radon measurement, namely Barasol probes MC-450, ALGADE, produced in France during
the first two years, and then replaced by Radim 5 WP monitors SMM Company, produced in Czech Republic. The
concentration in Postojna cave determined by authors in the winter gave an arithmetic mean of 1492 1334 Bq/m3 ,
calculated from the beginning of December 2006 to the end of February 2007, and the summer mean 4857 1681 Bq/m3
from the beginning of July to the end of August 2007. In another study, [A. Gregoric et al, 2011], the dependence of
radon levels in Postojna Cave versus outside air temperature was studied. The measurements were performed using
the same systems as [Stanka Sebela et al, 2010]. The radon concentration was measured continuously in the Great

050004-6
 TABLE 4. Radon in inside adit No. 19a, operating as an underground tourist
route in 2011.

TABLE 5. Radon in inside adit No. 19 in 2011.

TABLE 6. Radon in Romania in seven caves.

FIGURE 4. (left) Radon in show caves. (right) Radon in non-touristic caves.

Mountain hall from July 2005 to October 2009 and the values varies from 200 Bq/m3 in winter to about 3000 Bq/m3
in summer. The authors concluded ”Two major ventilation regimes have been identified in the Postojna Cave that
have a direct influence on radon concentration in the cave. In cold periods the cave behaves as a large chimney and
the warmer, radon-rich cave air is released to the colder outside atmosphere, driving an inflow of fresh air with low

050004-7
radon levels. Radon levels in the cave are highest when the outside temperature is similar to or lower than the cave
temperature 100C and, hence, air movement is very low.”

Radon in Spain caves

In Spain, several caves were investigated. The seasonal variation of Radon Nerja cave was investigated by C. Dueas
et al., [15]. The Radon measurements were performed using an Alpha-Guard, Genitron instrument equipment in three
places in this cave in the Vestibule hall, the Ballet hall and the Mirador hall. The Radon measured values are shown
in Tab. 7 and Fig. 5.

TABLE 7. Radon in Nerja cave.

FIGURE 5. Seasonal variation of Radon in Nerja cave, (Bq/m3 ).

From the data reported by [15], one can observes that the highest Radon concentrations were measured during the
summer and the lowest concentrations were measured during winter time. In the summer, the Radon concentrations
are higher than 400 Bq/m3 and during the winter its concentration are lower than 78 Bq/m3 . The authors concluded
that ”Our long-time study reveals that variations of meteorological factors affect radon concentrations on a seasonal
time-scale. The factor that most affects the radon concentration in cave air is the outdoor temperature air”.
The Radon concentration in the Castanar cave was investigated by Miriam Alvarez-Gallego et al., [16]. For
measurements, the authors used two Radim 5WP monitors produced by SMM Company, Prague, Czech Republic.

050004-8
The concentration of Radon was measured every half hour in 2011 2012 in two places, Nevada chamber and Gallery
entrance (see Tab. 8 and Fig. 6).

TABLE 8. Concentration of Radon in Castanar cave.

FIGURE 6. Radon concentration in Castanar cave.

From these data, one can observe that the maximum Radon concentration was measured during winter time with
values higher than 37000 Bq/m3 and the lowest values measured during summer season with values less than 29500
Bq/m3 . The authors concluded ”Cold and wet seasons favours the accumulation inside the underground environment
resulting November to be the month with the highest average concentration (37.4 kBq m−3 ), whereas hot and dry
seasons allows the cave air ventilation reducing its concentration to the minimum, representing August as the month
with the lowest average concentration (20.3 kBq m−3 )”.

050004-9
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research Project No. PN 18 09 02 02.

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