AR 442 – PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE 3 the parties and of whether or not those obligations were
performed adequately.
MODULE 1
OVERVIEW OF THE GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE
CONTRACT: The general conditions are an integral part of
the contract for construction for a large project and they are
incorporated by reference into the owner/contractor
agreement. They set forth the rights, responsibilities, and
relationships of the owner, contractor, and architect. Though
not a party to the contract for construction between owner
and contractor, the architect participates in the preparation of
the contract documents and performs construction phase
duties and responsibilities described in detail in the general
conditions.
Warranties
Contract Price
Terms of Payment
Duration (completion period)
Construction Schedule
Plans, Specs, and Drawings
Changes
Manuals and Instructions
Inspection and Testing
Quality Control
Safety and Sanitation
Security and Property Protection
Liens and Claims
Bonds and Insurance
Subcontracting
Cancellation or Suspension of Contract
The Contractor and Construction Manager
Work of Other Contractors
Completion of Work by Owner
Acceptance of Work
General Provisions
UAP DOCUMENT 301: General Conditions
MODULE 2
PROJECT SERVICES: To help set up a project for success,
it is important that the client and architect establish a mutual
understanding and agreement on its intent as well as on the
expectations of performance of all parties involved. The
architect must enter into a professional services agreement
to define the project service expectations. Whenever there is
a problem concerning architectural and engineering services
serious enough to include attorneys and a dispute resolution
process, the contract for services will be the initial document
referenced by both sides. Moreover, throughout the dispute
resolution process the professional services agreement will
be the most important document in consideration of the
architect’s responsibilities. All discovery and argument will
strive to determine an understanding of the services
performed in the context of what was defined in the
professional services agreement. Ultimate resolution will
evolve from a determination of the contracted obligations of
Building projects are complicated, and most architects would
prefer to resolve differences amicably to maintain healthy
continuing relationships with clients. Accordingly, a good first
step is to establish open communications and to be crystal
clear as to the obligations of the parties prior to beginning
work on a project. Because there are many types of services
that architects and engineers can provide, a client may have
a different understanding of what those services mean. A
clear description up front of services to be provided will help
clarify the client’s expectations.
Beyond clarifying expectations, a clear description of
services can also serve as a basis to adequately respond to
the owner’s programmatic requirements, allow the
development of an effective work plan, allow for the
negotiation of fair contract terms, see that adequate
compensation is agreed to, and provide a benchmark for
determining when requested services are additional to those
in the contract.
TYPES AND CATEGORIES OF SERVICES (as per SPP)
Pre-design Services
Basic Design Services (A & E)
Specialized Architectural Services
Full Time Supervision Services
Construction Management Services
Post-Construction Services
Comprehensive Architectural Services
Design-Build Services
Architectural Design Competition
Architectural Consulting Services
DEFINING SERVICES
Determine What Kinds of Services Are Needed
Prepare a Proposal for the Services to Be Provided
Negotiate the Final Scope of Services
Prepare the Professional Services Agreement
Monitor and Manage Changes in Scope
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SCOPE OF SERVICES
The unique nature of most projects requires an
understanding of the factors that can have an effect on
professional services with respect to their type, quality, and
depth, etc. Possible factors that can affect the level of
professional services include the following:
Programmatic requirements
Project budget
Project schedule
Engineering consultants included in basic services
Specialty consultants required under your
agreement (those outside your core expertise or
those usually used with basic services)
Services (consultants or contractors) to be provided
by others
 Your firm’s own internal capabilities
Regulatory requirements and public approval
process
The client’s goals, expectations, and values (if you
don’t know, find out)
The client’s level of knowledge and experience
regarding facility development and building
construction
Whether or not BIM technology must be or will be
used
The method of construction procurement (e.g.,
services for a design-build project will be vastly
different from services for a traditional design-bid-
build project)
The form and terms and conditions of the
professional services agreement
The level of risks associated with the project
services
CONTRACT: A contract is an agreement made between
two or more persons who is binding in law, and is
capable of being enforced by those persons in court or
other tribunal like arbitral tribunal. In Philippine law, in the
Book IV of RA 386 (Civil Code of the Philippines) article
1305 contract is defined as a meeting of minds between
two persons whereby one binds himself, with respect to
the other, to give something or to render some service.
The people who made the contract are described as being
party or ‘ privy’ to it and they are said to enjoy ‘privity of
contract’. This expression means that the parties are drawn
into a close legal relationship with each other which is
governed by the agreement that they have made. That legal
relationship creates rights and obligations between the
parties and binds only between those who are privy to the
contract, and not other people who are not parties (often
described in law books as ‘ strangers ’ or by the misnomer
‘third parties’) even though those people may be affected by
the contract directly or indirectly. The contracting parties may
establish such stipulations, clauses, terms and conditions as
they may deem convenient, provided they are not contrary to
law, morals, good customs, public order, or public policy.
Usually the agreement will contain a promise or set of
promises that each party has made to the other: this is
known as a bilateral contract because each party promises
to do something. For example, Blengblong promises to build
a house for Mommy S. and Mommy S. promises to pay
Blengblong for doing so. Sometimes only one party will make
a promise to do something if the other party actually does
something stipulated by the former. For example, Blengblong
promises to pay P 203B if Bir completes and returns a
marketing questionnaire to Blengblong. Such a contract is
known as an unilateral contract because the promise is
one-sided. Although Blengblong has promised to pay in the
stipulated circumstances, Bir is under no obligation to
complete and return the marketing questionnaire but if he
does the court or arbitral tribunal will recognise a binding
agreement that Blengblong will pay him P 203B.
Under the Civil Code, a contract is valid and binding if all its
elements are present, i.e., the elements of consent, object,
and cause. Thus, even if the contract is not notarized, it is
valid provided these elements are present.
ELEMENTS OF A CONTRACT
Intention to Create Legal Relation - Such a casual
exchange has all the appearances of a contract, but if
someone tried to claim his dues through a court he would
probably be disappointed, for the law will not enforce a
promise if the parties did not intend their promises to be
legally binding.
Consideration - Something of value was promised in
exchange for the specified action or nonaction. This can take
the form of a significant expenditure of money or effort, a
promise to perform some service, an agreement not to do
something, or reliance on the promise. Consideration is the
value that induces the parties to enter into the contract.
Agreement (Mutuality) - The existence of agreement
between the parties to a contract is in practice the most
troublesome of the three essential ingredients. The law of
contract does not peer into the minds of contracting parties
to see what they really intended to contract to do; it contents
itself with taking an objective view and, on the basis of what
the parties have said and done, and the surrounding context
in which they did so, the courts decide what the parties
should be taken to have intended
Offer - a promise, made by the offeror, to be bound
by a contract if the offeree accepts the terms of the
offer. The offer matures into a contract when it is
accepted by the other party.
Acceptance - The acceptance of the offer can be by
word – written or oral – or by conduct and the
acceptance must be communicated or made known
to the offeror. Silence is not sufficient to accept an
offer because neither assent nor dissent has been
communicated by the offeree. The court is thus not
able objectively to see whether there was an
‘agreement ’ : it will not peer into the offeree’s mind.
In Philippine Law under the Civil Code of the Philippines
Book IV, Title II, Chapter 2, Article 1318 says that there is no
contract unless the following requisites concur:
Consent of the contracting parties manifested by
the meeting of the offer and the acceptance upon
the thing and the cause which are to constitute the
contract. The offer must be certain and the
acceptance absolute. A qualified acceptance
constitutes a counter-offer. Acceptance made by
letter or telegram does not bind the offerer except
from the time it came to his knowledge. The
contract, in such a case, is presumed to have been
entered into in the place where the offer was made.
Object certain which is the subject matter of the
contract - All things which are not outside the
commerce of men, including future things, may be
the object of a contract. All rights which are not in
transmissible may also be the object of contracts.
No contract may be entered into upon future
 inheritance except in cases expressly authorized by
law. All services which are not contrary to law,
morals, good customs, public order or public policy
may likewise be the object of a contract.
Cause of Contracts / the obligation which is
established the prestation or promise of a thing or
service by the other; in remuneratory ones, the
service or benefit which is remunerated; and in LEED AP Operations + Maintenance (LEED AP O+M) -
contracts of pure beneficence, the mere liberality of Distinguishes professionals implementing sustainable
the benefactor. practices, improving performance, heightening efficiency and
reducing environmental impact in existing buildings through
ARCHITECT’S METHODS OF COMPENSATION: enhanced operations and maintenance.
Architect’s Guidelines 2016

MODULE 3

GLOBAL ACCREDITATIONS AND CERTIFICATIONS FOR

PRACTICING ARCHITECTS

LEED AP
LEED AP Homes - Suited for those involved in the design
A LEED AP credential distinguishes those with advanced
and construction of healthy, durable homes that use fewer
knowledge in green building, plus expertise in a particular
resources and produce less waste.
LEED rating system. Previous experience working on a
LEED-registered project is strongly recommended.

The LEED AP exams measure knowledge about green

building, a specific LEED rating system and the certification
process. The exam is ideal for individuals who are actively
working on green building and LEED projects.

Certifying organization: GBCI (Green Business Certification

Inc.) LEED AP Interior Design + Construction (LEED AP ID+C)
- Serves participants in the design, construction and
Certification Details: improvement of commercial interiors and tenant spaces that
offer a healthy, sustainable and productive work
More than two years of education or training after environment.
high school required? YES
More than two years of work experience required?
YES
The combined exam includes the LEED Green
Associate and LEED AP with specialty exams.
Current LEED Green Associates can take the
specialty-only portion. You have the option to take
the exam at a Prometric Testing Center or from LEED AP Neighborhood Development (LEED AP ND) -
home as a remote proctored online exam. Applies to individuals participating in the planning, design
Renewal Required every 2 years. Must earn 30 and development of walkable, neighborhoods and
CPD hours. communities.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONAL (PMP)

Certifying organization: Project Management Institute (PMI)

Certification Details:

More than two years of education or training after

high school required? NO
LEED AP Building Design + Construction (LEED AP
More than two years of work experience required?
BD+C) - Suits professionals with expertise in the design and
YES
construction phases of green buildings, serving the
commercial, residential, education and healthcare sectors. Oral or Written Exam Required? YES
Renewal Required? EVERY 3 YEAR(S)

The PMP designation following your name
tells current and potential employers that you have
demonstrated a solid foundation of knowledge from which
you can competently practice project management. To be
eligible for a PMP Credential, you must first meet specific
educational and project management experience
requirements and agree to adhere to a code of professional
conduct. The final step to becoming a PMP is passing a
rigorous multiple-choice examination designed to objectively
assess and measure your ability to apply project
management knowledge in the following six domains:
initiating the project, planning the project, executing the
project, monitoring and controlling the project, closing the
project, and professional and social responsibility. This
computer-based examination is administered globally with
translation aids in 10 languages.
Other certifications offered by PMI applicable for architects
practicing project management:
Certified Associate in Project Management
(CAPM)® - certification demonstrates your
understanding of the fundamental knowledge,
terminology, and processes of effective project
management.
PMI Professional in Business Analysis (PMI-
PBA)® - certification highlights your expertise in
business analysis. It spotlights your ability to work
effectively with stakeholders to define their business
requirements, shape the output of projects, and
drive successful business outcomes.
Program Management Professional (PgMP)® -
certification is designed for those who manage
multiple, complex projects to achieve strategic and
organizational results.
Portfolio Management Professional (PfMP)® -
PfMP® certification recognizes the advanced
experience and skill of portfolio managers. The
PfMP demonstrates your proven ability in the
coordinated management of one or more portfolios
to achieve organizational objectives.
PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP)®
- certification demonstrates knowledge and
expertise in the specialized area of assessing and
identifying project risks along with plans to mitigate
threats and capitalize on opportunities.
PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP)® -
certification recognizes demonstrated knowledge
and advanced experience in the specialized area of
developing and maintaining project schedules.
PMI Project Management Ready™ - introduces
high school and post-secondary students to the
concepts and skillsets of project management.
Disciplined Agile Scrum Master (DASM)
Certification - Understand the fundamentals of
agile and lean approaches like Scrum, Kanban,
SAFe® and more, along with how to implement the
Disciplined Agile tool kit to choose your way of
working (WoW™) based on the situation you face.
PMI Agile Certified Practitioner (PMI-ACP)®
Certification - Recognize your skill, experience and
versatility applying agile principles and practices as
part of an agile team. Exam available in seven
languages.
Disciplined Agile Senior Scrum Master (DASSM)
Certification - Accelerate your ability to take on
more complex initiatives and lead your agile team
using Disciplined Agile. Choose, scale and tailor
your way of working (WoW) to achieve agile
success in any situation.
Disciplined Agile Value Stream Consultant
(DAVSC) Certification - Master Disciplined Agile
and use value stream management in a way that
allows you to lead entire organizations in
implementing it enterprise-wide for their unique
needs. Become a driver of transformation,
accelerating value delivery and guiding
organizations to true business agility.
Disciplined Agile Coach (DAC) Certification -
Take your Disciplined Agile knowledge and
experience to the next level – show teams (in your
organization or elsewhere) how to apply and
optimize Disciplined Agile within and between
teams. Help them choose their way of working
(WoW) and realize true business agility.
AUTODESK CERTIFIED PROFESSIONAL IN REVIT FOR
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Certification Details:
120 minute exam time
$200 standard retail price
45-60 questions
Exam and proctor available in English
Certification valid for three years. Retesting is
required to renew the certificate
Developed for candidates who have advanced
skills and can solve complex challenges in workflow and
design. The certification highlights a comprehensive skill set
and helps candidates stand out in a competitive job market.
WELL AP
The WELL Accredited Professional is a health and well-
being credential that denotes expertise in the WELL Building
standard.
Certification Details:
Exam length: 3 hours
150multiple choice questions
$299 exam price
What will you gain:
Ability to place the human experience at the center
of building design, operations and management
strategies and decisions.
Expertise on a range of topics centered around
human health and well-being.
Connection to an empowering network of health
and wellness leaders.
Overseen by The International Well Building
Institute, the program is a vehicle for buildings and
organizations to deliver more thoughtful and intentional
spaces that enhances human health and well-being. WELL
goes beyond building – sustainability; it emphasizes human
sustainability. The majority of an individual’s time will be
spent in buildings, so WELL creates a holistic and practical
approach to foster a culture of health and wellness in the
spaces we inhabit.
The WELL exam must be written and passed to achieve
accreditation. This accreditation is more relevant than ever
with the ongoing pandemic.
LEED GREEN ASSOCIATE
The LEED Green Associate credential affirms a
professional’s thorough comprehension of green building
principles and practices. The exam is ideal for those newer
to sustainability and LEED.
Certifying organization: GBCI (Green Business Certification
Inc.)
Certification Details:
More than two years of education or training after
high school required? YES
More than two years of work experience required?
YES
Two hours long exam, 100 items multiple choice
questions
Renewal Required every 2 years. Must earn 15
CPD hours.
The LEED Green Associate exam measures
general knowledge of green building practices and how to
support others working on LEED projects.
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND
SITES (ICOMOS)
ICOMOS works for the conservation and
protection of cultural heritage places. It is the only global
non-government organization of this kind, which is dedicated
to promoting the application of theory, methodology, and
scientific techniques to the conservation of the architectural
and archaeological heritage.
ICOMOS is a network of experts that benefits from the
interdisciplinary exchange of its members, among which are
architects, historians, archaeologists, art historians,
geographers, anthropologists, engineers and town planners.
The members of ICOMOS contribute to improving the
preservation of heritage, the standards and the techniques
for each type of cultural heritage property: buildings, historic
cities, cultural landscapes and archaeological sites.
Membership categories
The primary aim of ICOMOS is furthering the conservation of
cultural heritage in its tangible and intangible aspects. It has
four categories of members:
Individual members, people with expertise in one
or more areas related to the aims of ICOMOS and
to students who have chosen a discipline in one of
these areas
Institutional members, organizations of any kind
with expertise in one or more areas related to the
aims of ICOMOS and those that own or look after
cultural heritage places
Affiliate members, individuals, institutions and
organizations who are interested in cultural heritage
conservation and wish to support the aims and
activities of ICOMOS
Honorary members elected by the General
Assembly, individuals who have given distinguished
services at the international level to the
conservation of cultural heritage
COUNCIL ON TALL BUILDINGS AND URBAN HABITAT
(CTBUH)
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitat (CTBUH) is the world’s leading nonprofit organization
for all those interested in the future of cities. It explores how
increased urban density and vertical growth can support
more sustainable and healthy cities, especially in the face of
mass urbanization and the increasing effects of climate
change worldwide. The relationship between policy,
buildings, people, urban density, urban space, interior space,
and infrastructure is key.
The Council is perhaps best-known to the public as the
arbiter of tall building height and the global authority that
bestows titles such as “The World’s Tallest Building”. By
extension, its “Buildings of Distinction” program recognizes
the achievements of important projects through the
installation of public signboards and plaques. Operating on a
global scale, the CTBUH serves as a platform for both
cutting-edge information-share and business networking for
all companies and professionals focused on the inception,
design, construction, and operation of cities, and the
buildings they comprise.
MODULE 4
MUTUAL RECOGNITION AGREEMENTS (MRA)
An important element of the liberalization of architectural
services is the ability of qualified architects from one
jurisdiction to practice in another jurisdiction. The ability to
practice in different jurisdictions may be achieved through
several means. These may include the unilateral recognition
of qualifications and experience, the harmonization of
qualifications and the mutual recognition of qualifications and
experience.
Mutual recognition agreements are contractual
arrangements subject to which countries, standards
agencies or professional organizations agree to
recognize the equivalence of another country’s technical
regulations, sanitary or phytosanitary measures or, in
the case of natural persons, their academic or
professional qualifications such as the ASEAN Mutual
Recognition Agreements on Engineering, Architecture
or Accountancy services. Thus MRAs are trade-facilitative
instruments negotiated and concluded - often in support of
market access commitments - that reduce the costs and time
that would otherwise be required to obtain product approvals
or certification of professional qualifications.
MRAs establish the conditions subject to which a body of
foreign rules and requirements and the procedures for
verifying compliance with them will be recognized as
equivalent by the parties to the agreement, for the purpose
of assuring market regulators and consumers in the
importing (host) country that imported products or service
suppliers from another MRA signatory are safe or meet
accepted minimum expectations in terms of integrity and
quality.
TRADE BARRIERS AFFECTING THE MOVEMENT OF
NATURAL PERSONS
MRAs represent a means to reduce the cost of entry into
foreign services markets by releasing foreign service
suppliers from the - often onerous - burden of re-qualifying in
the target market (by meeting additional educational or
training requirements) as well as facilitating the means by
which they can produce evidence confirming that they fulfill
licensing and qualification requirements in the host country
market. MRAs are thus a way to reduce transaction costs
and represent a flanking measure necessary to
operationalize market access commitments usually made in
the context of a broader economic integration initiative or
drive towards greater trade and investment liberalization.
Access to many services markets, particularly for foreign
service suppliers, is conditioned by policy interventions that
are often taken by domestic regulators having little regard for
- or even awareness of - the market access implications of
their actions, particularly since such regulators will typically
be motivated by a wholly different set of policy objectives
than those pertaining to trade liberalization.
In terms of measures impeding the ability of natural persons
to provide their services abroad, some of the most common
barriers are constituted by immigration or labour market
restrictions or a failure by domestic regulatory bodies to
recognize, in part or in full, the academic qualifications or
professional accreditation of the foreign service supplier in
question. Nationality or residency requirements may equally
inhibit cross-border trade in professional services, as do
measures that restrict the eligibility of service suppliers to
contest public tenders (government procurement contracts)6.
Many of these restrictions stem from concerns by market
regulators to protect consumers or achieve other societal or
ethical objectives, and will often be rooted in prevailing
information asymmetries between suppliers and consumers.
REGULATED PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONAL
LICENSING
The concept of licensing is the core concept underlying
MRAs governing the movement of natural persons and their
economic freedom to practice their professions (provide
services) in a country other than the one in which they
obtained their qualifications.
Regulated professions are generally distinguished from other
forms of professional activity in that they tend to be
predicated on a very specific body of intellectual knowledge,
usually obtained by means of completing a tertiary academic
(or vocational) degree, which is then reinforced with one or
more years of practical experience - often as a trainee and
under the supervision of a more senior qualified professional
- before one is finally certified to practice the profession
independently and under one’s own liability.
Regulated professions have an established path to
accreditation that must complete be completed, with
admission to the profession (and accreditation) administered
by a licensing body or professional association to whom
powers to regulate the profession have been delegated by
the State in pursuit of a generally perceived public interest,
or in order to maintain a given set of professional and ethical
standards.
TRADE RULES AND MRA’S
GATS Art. VII (Recognition) - addressed the rules
governing MRAs which sets out a number of substantive
rights and obligations that WTO Members must follow when
conferring recognition, whether such recognition is granted
autonomously or arises in the context of reciprocal MRAs.
GATS Article VII:4 - sets out a number of procedural
obligations requiring WTO Members to notify the Council for
Trade in Services of existing recognition measures, of when
they intend to initiate negotiations towards an MRA, or when
they adopt new recognition measures or amend existing
ones.
MUTUAL RECOGNITION MODELS
European Union (EU) Model - Under the EU
model, the MRA normally provides a broad
coverage through general recognition and the
special recognition systems together with a strong
enforcement system for non-compliance by the
member states.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Model - Under the NAFTA Model, which is
implemented in NAFTA countries and countries
having PTAs with NAFTA countries, recognition is
not included in the main agreement or framework
but delegated to the various organizations or
professional bodies.
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
Model - Under the GATS Model the recognition
mechanism is delegated to the relevant
professional bodies and the countries to adopt. As
discussed above, GATS addresses MRA in Article
VII, which provides for the right to recognize the
education or experience obtained, requirements
met, or licenses or certifications granted in WTO
members. Recognition can be accorded
autonomously or can be based upon an agreement
or arrangements between members.
Trans-Tasmanian Mutual Recognition
Agreement (TTMRA) Model - The Trans-
Tasmanian Mutual Recognition Agreement or
TTMRA was signed between Australia and New
Zealand in 1992 and came into effect in 1997.
TTMRA requires professionals to pass an
‘equivalence test’, without the need to spell out
common standards and requirements for training.
International MRA for Architecture
1. International Union of Architects (UIA) -
produces the Accord on Recommended
International Standards of Professionalism in
Architectural Practice which was unanimously
approved in 1999. This accord serves as a
non-binding framework for mutual recognition
agreements between associations of
architects. It provides for guidance on the
recognition of an academic diploma, waiving
examinations, adaptation periods or tests, the
issue and registration of a practicing certificate
for cross-border work and on establishment
practice, and also on membership of the local
order and use of titles.
2. Commonwealth Association of Architects
(CAA) - established many recognition
arrangements between institutes in the
Commonwealth countries, based on the
inscription and accreditation of the architectural
training provided in specific educational
institutions. The CAA has periodically
published a List of Schools of Architecture
whose qualifications it considered, after
inspection, to be a sufficient standard to
recommend to national authorities that they be
accepted for recognition as meeting the
academic requirements appropriate for
registration, accreditation, or acceptance as an
architect.
3. Inter-recognition Agreement between the
Committee of Canadian Architectural
Councils (CCAC) and the National Council
of Architectural Registration Boards
(NCARB) - permits Canadian and US
architects whose provinces/states are signatory
to the Agreement to be eligible to be licensed
in another jurisdiction that is also a signatory.
4. The APEC Architect project is an initiative of
the APEC Human Resources Development
Working Group (HRDWG), one of a number
of sectorial groups established to implement
APEC programs. The project will allow senior
architects from participating economies to
access cross border registration procedure.
The APEC Architect project is an initiative of
the APEC Human Resources Development.
APEC architects framework is more concerned with the
setting of commercial presence (mode 3) and the temporary
movement of natural persons (mode 4).
APEC Architect framework aims to establish a mechanism to
facilitate the mobility of architects for the provision of
architectural services throughout the APEC region by
reducing current barriers to the export of professional
services. The central function is to maintain a Register of
APEC Architects who have fulfilled common elements of the
education and training requirements for professional
recognition in participating economies and are currently
registered / licensed as architects, and who have a proven
record of professional experience as registered practitioners.
MRA IN ASEAN
ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (AFAS)
an Agreement signed at Bangkok, Thailand on 15
December 1995 by The Governments of Brunei
Darussalam, the Republic of Indonesia, Malaysia,
the Republic of the Philippines, the Republic of
Singapore, the Kingdom of Thailand, and the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam, joined later by the
Union of Myanmar (formerly Burma), Lao People’s
Democratic Republic (Laos) and the Kingdom of
Cambodia i.e. the Member States of the
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).
Objectives:
to enhance cooperation in services amongst
Member States in order to improve the efficiency
and competitiveness, diversify production capacity
and supply and distribution of services of their
service suppliers within and outside ASEAN;
to eliminate substantially restrictions to trade in
services amongst Member States; and
to liberalize trade in services by expanding the
depth and scope of liberalization beyond those
undertaken by Member States under the GATS with
the aim to realizing a free trade area in services.
ASEAN MRA on Architectural Services
The ASEAN Mutual Recognition Arrangement
(MRA) on Architectural Services was signed on 19
November 2007 by official representatives of the
ASEAN Member States, with the Department of
Trade and Industry (DTI) Secretary Peter B. Favila,
signing on behalf of the Philippine (PH)
Government.
What is AMCASP?
The ASEAN Monitoring Committee on Architectural Services
of the Philippines (AMCASP) was created in 2013 to develop
process and maintain an ASEAN Architect Register (AAR) in
the Philippines.
Composed of:
One (1) Professional Regulation Commission
(PRC) Chairperson or authorized representative
Two (2) members of the Professional Regulatory
Board of Architecture
One (1) Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
and
National President of United Architects of the
Philippines (UAP)
Who is an ASEAN Architect?
Under the ASEAN MRA on Architectural Services, an
ASEAN Architect (AA) is one who is able to demonstrate to
the Monitoring Committee that he is compliant with all the set
requirements in the Assessment Statement, the
Implementing Rules and Regulations, has paid the assessed
fee, and whose name is emplaced on the ASEAN Architect
Register (AAR).
An ASEAN Architect will be able to practice architecture in
the specific projects in which he/she has been adjudged to
be competent under the ASEAN MRA on Architectural
Services.
Requirements to be an ASEAN Architect
Completed a five (5) year architectural program or
its equivalent in a university or school authorized by
CHED
With PRC Certificate of Registration and a
Professional Id
Acquired practical and diversified architectural
experience of not less than ten (10) continuous
years after graduation
Spent at least two (2) years in responsible charge
of significant architectural works within the five (5)
years of professional architectural practice
Has complied with the CPD program/policy of the
Philippines
Has no record of serious violation on technical,
professional or ethical standards, local or
international, for the practice of architecture
Benefits of being an ASEAN Architect
Opportunity to have their professional standing
recognized within the ASEAN region
Add value to their professional career when working
and practicing their architectural expertise in the
ASEAN Member States
Mutual recognition of assessment for the purpose of
practicing the architectural profession in any
Member State as a Registered Foreign Architect
Opportunity to become a business partner of an
ASEAN Architect from other ASEAN Member
States
ASEAN FRAMEWORK AGREEMENT ON SERVICES
(AFAS)
MODULE 5
GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TRADE IN SERVICES
(GATS)
The first set of multilateral rules covering
international trade in services.
A treaty of the World Trade Organization (WTO)
that entered into force in January 1995 as a result
of the Uruguay Round negotiations.
Came into effect in 1995, based in Switzerland
Establishes the trade rules governing cross-border
trade in services
A multilaterally agreed framework agreement for the
trade in services which applies to all 148 WTO
Members
All WTO members are at the same time members
of the GATS and, to varying degrees, have
assumed commitments in individual service sectors
BASIC PURPOSE
Intended to contribute to trade expansion "under
conditions of transparency and progressive
liberalization and as a means of promoting the
economic growth of all trading partners and the
development of developing countries"
MAIN OBJECTIVES
To progressively liberalize trade in services through
successive rounds of negotiations which should aim
at promoting the interests of all members of the
WTO and achieving an overall balance of rights and
obligations.
To encourage economic growth and development
thought liberalization of trade in services, as the
GATT does through the liberalization of trade in
goods;
To increase the participations of developing
countries in world trade in services and expand
their services exports by developing their export
capacity and securing export opportunities in
sectors of export interest to them.
GATS SERVICE SECTORS
Business Services and Professional Services
Communication Services
Construction and Related Services
Distribution Services
Education Services
Energy Services
Environmental Services
Financial Services
Health and Social Services
Tourism Services
Transport Services
Movement of Natural Persons
FOUR MODES OF SUPPLY
Cross Border Supply
Criteria - Service delivered within the territory of the
Member, from the territory of another Member
Supplier Presence - Service supplier not present
within the territory of the member
Consumption Abroad
Criteria - Service delivered outside the territory of
the Member, in the territory of another Member, to a
service consumer of the Member
Supplier Presence - Service supplier not present
within the territory of the member
Commercial Presence
Criteria - Service delivered within the territory of the
Member, through the commercial presence of the
supplier
Supplier Presence - Service supplier present
within the territory of the Member
Presence of Natural Persons
Criteria - Service delivered within the territory of the
Member, with supplier present as a natural person.
Supplier Presence - Service supplier present
within the territory of the Member
UNION OF INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECT (UIA) ACCORD
Recommended International Standards of
Professionalism in Architectural Practice
PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONALISM
Expertise: Architects possess a systematic body of
knowledge, skills, and theory developed through
education, graduate and post-graduate training, and
experience. The process of architectural education,
training, and examination is structured to assure the
public that when an architect is engaged to perform
professional services, that architect has met
acceptable standards enabling proper performance
of those services. Furthermore, members of most
professional societies of architects and indeed, the
UIA, are charged to maintain and advance their
knowledge of the art and science of architecture, to
respect the body of architectural accomplishment,
and to contribute to its growth.
Autonomy: Architects provide objective expert
advice to the client and/or the users. Architects are
charged to uphold the ideal that learned and
uncompromised professional judgment should take
precedence over any other motive in the pursuit of
the art and science of architecture. Architects are
also charged to embrace the spirit and letter of the
laws governing their professional affairs and to
thoughtfully consider the social and environmental
impact of their professional activities.
Commitment: Architects bring a high level of
selfless dedication to the work done on behalf of
their clients and society. Members of the profession
are charged to serve their clients in a competent
and professional manner and to exercise
unprejudiced and unbiased judgment on their
behalf.
Accountability: Architects are aware of their
responsibility for the independent and, if necessary,
critical advice provided to their clients and for the
effects of their work on society and the
environment. Architects undertake to perform
professional services only when they, together with
those whom they may engage as consultants, are
qualified by education, training, and/or experience
in the specific technical areas involved.
POLICY ISSUES
Practice of Architecture
Definition : The practice of architecture consists of
the provision of professional services in connection
with town planning and the design, construction,
enlargement, conservation, restoration, or alteration
of a building or group of buildings. These
 professional services include, but are not limited to,
planning and land-use planning, urban design,
provision of preliminary studies, designs, models,
drawings, specifications and technical
documentation, coordination of technical
documentation prepared by others (consulting
engineers, urban planners, landscape architects
and other specialist consultants) as appropriate and
without limitation, construction economics, contract
administration, monitoring of construction (referred
to as “supervision” in some countries), and project
management.
Background : Architects have been practicing their
art and science since antiquity. The profession as
we know it today has undergone extensive growth
and change. The profile of architects’ work has
become more demanding, clients’ requirements and
technological advances have become more
complex, and social and ecological imperatives
have grown more pressing. These changes have
spawned changes in services and collaboration
among the many parties involved in the design and
construction process.
Policy : That the practice of architecture as defined
above be adopted for use in the development of
UIA International Standards.
Architect
The designation “architect” is generally reserved by
law or custom to a person who is professionally and
academically qualified and generally
registered/licensed/certified to practice architecture
in the jurisdiction in which he or she practices and is
responsible for advocating the fair and sustainable
development, welfare, and the cultural expression
of society’s habitat in terms of space, forms, and
historical context.
Architects are part of the public and private sectors
involved in a larger property development, building,
and construction economic sector peopled by those
commissioning, conserving, designing, building,
furnishing, financing, regulating, and operating our
built environment to meet the needs of society.
Architects work in a variety of situations and
organizational structures. For example, they may
work on their own or as members of private or
public offices.
That the UIA adopt the definition of an “architect” as
stated above for use in developing UIA International
Standards.
Fundamental Requirements of an Architect
The fundamental requirements for registration/
licensing/ certification as an architect as defined
above, are the knowledge, skills, and abilities listed
below that must be mastered through recognized
education and training, and demonstrable
knowledge, capability, and experience in order to
be considered professionally qualified to practice
architecture.
In August 1985, for the first time, a group of
countries came together to set down the
fundamental knowledge and abilities of an architect.
That the UIA adopt a statement of fundamental
requirements as set out above as the minimum
basis for development of UIA International
Standards and seek to ensure that these particular
requirements are given adequate emphasis in the
architectural curriculum. The UIA will also seek to
ensure that the fundamental requirements will be
constantly kept under review so that they remain
relevant as the architectural profession and society
evolve.
Education
Architectural education should ensure that all
graduates have knowledge and ability in
architectural design, including technical systems
and requirements as well as consideration of
health, safety, and ecological balance; that they
understand the cultural, intellectual, historical,
social, economic, and environmental context for
architecture; and that they comprehend thoroughly
the architects’ roles and responsibilities in society,
which depend on a cultivated, analytical and
creative mind.
In most countries, architectural education is
conventionally delivered by 4-6 years full-time
academic education at a university (followed, in
some countries, by a period of practical
experience/training/internship), though historically
there have been important variations (part-time
routes, work experience etc.).
In accordance with the UIA/UNESCO Charter for
Architectural Education, the UIA advocate that
education for architects (apart from practical
experience/training/internship) be of no less than 5
years duration, delivered on a fulltime basis in an
accredited/ validated/ recognized architectural
program in an accredited/ validated/ recognized
university or an equivalent institution, while allowing
variety in their pedagogic approach and in their
responses to local contexts, and flexibility for
equivalency.
Accreditation/ Validation/ Recognition
This is the process that establishes that an
educational program meets an established standard
of achievement. Its purpose is to assure the
maintenance and enhancement of an appropriate
educational foundation.
Validated criteria and procedures for
accreditation/validation/recognition by an
independent organization help to develop well
integrated and coordinated programs of
architectural education. Experience shows that
standards may be harmonized and promoted by
 regular, external monitoring, in some countries, in
addition to internal quality assurance audits.
That courses must be
accredited/validated/recognized by an independent
relevant authority, external to the university at
reasonable time intervals (usually no more than 5-
years), and that the UIA, in association with the
relevant national organizations of higher education,
develop standards for the content of an architect's
professional education that are academically
structured, intellectually coherent, performance-
based and outcome-oriented, with procedures that
are guided by good practice.
Practical Experience/ Training/ Internship
Practical experience/ training/ internship is a
directed and structured activity in the practice of
architecture during architectural education and/or
following receipt of a professional degree but prior
to registration/ licensing/ certification.
To complement academic preparation in order to
protect the public, applicants for
registration/licensing/certification must integrate
their formal education through practical training.
That graduates of architecture will be required to
have completed at least 2 years of acceptable
experience/training/internship prior to
registration/licensing/certification to practice as an
architect (but with the objective of working towards
3 years) while allowing flexibility for equivalency.
Demonstration of Professional Knowledge and Ability
Every applicant for registration/ licensing/
certification as an architect is required to
demonstrate an acceptable level of professional
knowledge and ability to the relevant national
authority.
The public is assured of an architect’s knowledge
and ability only after he or she has acquired the
requisite education and practical experience/
training/ internship, and demonstrated minimum
knowledge and ability in the comprehensive
practice of architecture. These qualifications have
to be demonstrated by examination and/or other
evidence.
That the acquired knowledge and ability of an
architect have to be proven by providing adequate
evidence. This evidence must include the
successful completion of at least one examination
at the end of the practical
experience/training/internship. Necessary
components of professional practice knowledge and
ability that are not subject to an examination have
to be proven by other adequate evidence. These
include such subjects as business administration
and relevant legal requirements.
Registration/ Licensing/ Certification
Registration/licensing/certification is the official legal
recognition of an individual’s qualification allowing
her or him to practice as an architect, associated
with regulations preventing unqualified persons
from performing certain functions.
Given the public interest in a quality, sustainable
built environment and the dangers and
consequences associated with the development of
that environment, it is important that architectural
services are provided by properly qualified
professionals for the adequate protection of the
public.
That the UIA promote the
registration/licensing/certification of the function of
architects in all countries. In the public interest,
provision for such registration/licensing/certification
should be by statute.
Procurement
The process by which architectural services are
commissioned.
Architects (through their codes of conduct) uphold
the interests of their clients and society at large
before their own interests. In order to ensure they
have adequate resources to perform their functions
to the standards required in the public interest, they
are traditionally remunerated in accordance with
either mandatory or recommended professional fee-
scales.
There are international rules, such as the General
Procurement Agreement (WTO) and the EU
Services Directive, that aim to guarantee the
objective and fair selection of architects. However,
there has been an increasing tendency recently to
select architects, for both public and private work,
on the basis of price alone. Price-based selection
forces architects to reduce the services provided to
clients, which in turn compromises design quality
and therefore the quality, amenity and
social/economic value of the built environment.
To ensure the ecologically sustainable development
of the built environment and to protect the social,
cultural, and economic value of society,
governments should apply procurement procedures
for the appointment of architects that are directed to
the selection of the most suitable architect for
projects. Conditional upon adequate resources
being agreed among the parties, this is best
achieved by one of the following methods:
1. Architectural design competitions conducted in
accordance with the principles defined by the
UNESCO-UIA international competitions
guidelines and approved by national authorities
and/or architectural professional associations
2. A quality based selection (QBS) procedure as
set out in the UIA guidelines;
3. Direct negotiation based on a complete brief
defining the scope and quality of architectural
services;
Ethics and Conduct
A code of ethics and conduct establishes a
professional standard of behavior that guides
architects in the conduct of their practices.
Architects should observe and follow the code of
ethics and conduct for each jurisdiction in which
they practice.
Rules of ethics and conduct have as their primary
object the protection of the public, caring for the
less powerful and the general social welfare, as well
as the advancement of the interests of the
profession of architecture.
The existing UIA International Code of Ethics on
Consulting Services remains in force. Member
Sections of the UIA are encouraged to introduce
into their own codes of ethics and conduct the
recommended Accord Guidelines and a
requirement that their members abide by the codes
of ethics and conduct in force in the countries and
jurisdictions in which they provide professional
services, so long as they are not prohibited by
international law or the laws of the architect’s own
country.
Continuing Professional Development
Continuing Professional Development is a lifelong
learning process that maintains, enhances, or
increases the knowledge and continuing ability of
architects.
More and more professional bodies and regulatory
authorities require their members to devote time
(typically at least 35 hours per year) to maintaining
existing skills, broadening knowledge, and exploring
new areas. This is increasingly important to keep
abreast with new technologies, methods of practice,
and changing social and ecological conditions.
Continuing professional development may be
required by professional organizations for renewal
and continuation of membership.
That UIA urge its member sections to establish
regimes of continuing professional development as
a duty of membership, in the public interest.
Architects must be sure they are capable of
providing the services they offer, and codes of
conduct must oblige architects to maintain a known
standard in a variety of areas described under
the “Fundamental Requirements of an Architect”
and in future variations thereof. In the meantime,
the UIA must monitor the developments in
continuing professional development for registration
renewal, recommend guidelines among all nations
to facilitate reciprocity and continue to develop
policy on this subject.
Scope of Practice
This is the provision of design and management
services in connection with land-use planning,
urban design, and building projects.
As society has evolved, the creation of the urban
and built environment has become more complex.
Architects have to deal with an increasingly wide
range of urban, aesthetic, technical, and legal
considerations. A coordinated approach to building
design has proved to be necessary to ensure that
legal, technical, and practical requirements are met
and that society’s needs and demands are satisfied.
That the UIA encourage and promote the continuing
extension of the boundaries of architectural
practice, limited only by the provisions of codes of
ethics and conduct, and strive to ensure the
corresponding extension of the knowledge and
skills necessary to deal with any extension of
boundaries.
Form of Practice
The legal entity through which the architect
provides architectural services.
Traditionally, architects have practiced as
individuals, or in partnerships or in employment
within public or private institutions. More recently,
the demands of practice have led to various forms
of association, for example: limited and unlimited
liability companies, cooperative practices,
university-based project offices, community
architecture, although not all are allowed in all
countries. These forms of association may also
include members of other disciplines.
That architects should be allowed to practice in any
form legally acceptable in the country in which the
service is offered, but always subject to prevailing
ethical and conduct requirements. The UIA, as it
deems necessary, will develop and modify its
policies and standards to take account of alternative
forms of practice and varied local conditions where
these alternatives are thought to extend the positive
and creative role of the architectural profession in
the interests of society.
Practice in a Host Nation
Practice in a host nation occurs when an individual
architect or corporate entity of architects either
seeks a commission or has been commissioned to
design a project or offer a service in a country other
than his/her/its own.
There is an interest in increasing the responsible
mobility of architects and their ability to provide
services in foreign jurisdictions. There is also a
need to promote the awareness of local
environmental, social, and cultural factors and
ethical and legal standards.
Architects providing architectural services on a
project in a country in which they are not registered
shall collaborate with a local architect to ensure that
proper and effective understanding is given to legal,
environmental, social, cultural, and heritage factors.
 The conditions of the association should be
determined by the parties alone in accordance with
UIA ethical standards and local statutes and laws.
Intellectual Property and Copyright
Intellectual property encompasses the three legal
areas of patent, copyright, and trademark. It refers
to the right (sometimes guaranteed under the law of
some nation states) of designers, inventors,
authors, and producers, to their ideas, designs,
inventions, works of authorship, and the
identification of sources of products and services.
While many countries have some legal protection
covering the architect’s design, that protection is
often inadequate. It is not unusual for the architect
to discuss ideas and concepts with a prospective
client, subsequently not be hired, and later find that
the client has used the architect’s ideas with no
recompense. The intellectual property of architects
is, to some extent, protected by international
regulations. In the context of the GATS, this is the
agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual
property rights, including trade in counterfeit goods
(TRIPS). The World Copyright Convention of
September 16, 1955 is also of international
significance. In Europe, the Revised Berne
Agreement of 1886 is binding in most states.
That the national law of a UIA member section
should entitle an architect to practice his/her
profession without detriment to his/her authority and
responsibility, and to retain ownership of the
intellectual property and copyright of his/her work.
Governance of the Profession
Professions are generally controlled by a governing
body that sets standards (e.g. of education, ethical
rules, and professional standards to be observed).
The rules and standards are designed for the
benefit of the public and not the private advantage
of the members. In some countries, certain types of
work are reserved to the profession by statute, not
in order to favor members but because such work
should be carried out only by persons with requisite
education, training, standards and discipline, for the
protection of the public. Institutes have been
established for the advancement of architecture,
promotion of knowledge and by ensuring that their
members perform to a known standard--protection
of the public interest.
Depending on whether a country has protection of
title or function, (or both, or neither), the role and
responsibilities of professional institutes varies
considerably. In some countries, the statutory
bodies also represent the profession; in others,
these functions are separate.
It is customary for members of professional
institutes to be expected to maintain a known
standard. This is achieved by adhering to codes of
conduct promulgated by the professional institutes,
and fulfilling other requirements of membership,
e.g. continuing professional development.
In countries where professional bodies do not exist,
the UIA should encourage members of the
architectural profession to form or lobby for the
creation of such bodies in the public interest.
Whether the desired purpose is to regulate title,
regulate function or simply to promote the interests
of architects, professional bodies should seek to
ensure that their members adhere to the UIA
international standards, the requirements of the
UNESCO-UIA Charter for Architectural Education
and the UIA International Code of Ethics and
Conduct; keep up to date their knowledge and skills
as required by the list of “Fundamental
Requirements” (both current and as they evolve in
the future); and generally contribute to the
development of architectural culture and knowledge
as well as the society they serve.
Building Project Delivery Systems
Building project delivery systems are defined as the
contractual relationships between the project client
and the other parties involved in the design,
documentation and construction of buildings.
Traditionally building project delivery systems have
involved architects in the role of the project client’s
agent, with responsibility for the design,
documentation and administration of the building
contract.
Under many current and emerging building delivery
systems the architect no longer acts as the agent of
the project client. Therefore it is important that the
roles, responsibilities and constraints placed on
architects in providing their services under different
building project delivery systems are clearly
understood.
Architects should maintain high standards of
professionalism and service under all forms of
building project delivery systems. The skills of the
architect are unique in guiding project clients to
achieve the most effective balance between risk,
cost, time and design quality.
Development of Architect’s Compensation
Appropriateness of architects compensation is not
only measured by the architect’s obligations arising
from the specific contract but also with regard to the
architect’s general obligations towards the client,
the profession and to society as laid down in the
UIA Accord on Recommended International
Standards of Professionalism in Architectural
Practice
In view of the worldwide differences in cost levels
and in the range of architects professional work
patterns and responsibilities and considering the
legal constraints, any attempt to develop something
like a international cost information system for
architects services would be a vain undertaking.
 Therefore the UIA can only provide generally valid
principles and methodologies for the development
of architect’s compensation systems under different
economical, business- management and
professional conditions. The understanding of
methods to develop the appropriate compensation
is vital for every architect in any part of the world.
The architect’s compensation must be calculated to
recover all the architect’s costs in connection with
the fulfillment of the contract, with an allowance for
risk and for building up an investment reserve and
to allow for a fair profit. Appropriateness of the
compensation is not only measured by the
architect’s obligations arising from the specific
contract but also with regard to the architect’s
general obligations towards the client, the
profession and to society as laid down in the UIA
Accord on Recommended International Standards
of Professionalism in Architectural Practice.
Professional organizations should – for the benefit
of the members of the profession as well as of the
consumers as the potential clients – actively involve
themselves in setting up and maintaining
information systems, based on historical data,
about the appropriate range of compensation for
the architectural services, differentiated by type,
size, complexity and construction quality standard
of projects.
Architects shall not propose a fixed compensation
to undertake work where there is insufficient
information on the nature and scope of the project.
Deliberately undertaking work for a compensation
insufficient to cover the architects net expenses for
providing an appropriate level of professional
service is unethical and considered unfair
competition.
MODULE 6
ARCHITECTURAL FRIM
INTRODUCTION
Architects (master builders) have existed since
early in the recorded history.
The earliest recorded architect is Imhotep (c. 2600
BCE) and Senemut (c. 1470 BCE). Both of them
are noble but there are no writings exist to describe
how these architects performed their work.
The oldest surviving book on architecture, De
Architectura by Vitruvius describes the design and
construction of towns, buildings, clocks, and
machines but provides no information about the
organization of architect’s assistants and the
professional practice.
It is generally accepted that ancient architects,
throughout human history, most of them were
wealthy individuals.
19th Century – architecture began to be practiced
as a full- time profession.
The oldest active architecture firms on record are
the Luckett & Farley in Louisville, KY and the
SmithGroup in Detroit, MI, both been founded in
1853.
In UK, Brierly Groom is the oldest continuing
practice founded in 1750 at York, England.
ARCHITECTURAL FIRM
A company which employs one or more licensed
architects and practices the profession of
architecture.
A company which specializes in providing
architectural services to clients. Such firms typically
hire architects along with support staff who help the
architects do their jobs, and may be part of larger
company which handles many aspects of design
and construction process, from contracting to
interior decorating.
In RA 9266, Architectural Firm means a sole
proprietorship; a partnership or a corporation
registered with the proper government agencies.
Architectural Firm – Genesis
Start-Up & Small Firms
The ability of start-up and small firms to succeed in
the new economy has increased owing to a number of
factors that enable expanded capacity and reach.
Infrastructure
Collaboration
Global Practice
INRASTRUCTURE
Technology is enabling architects to start their own
firms to expand their capacity and the possible types of
engagements. The chance to leave a larger firm and go out
on one’s own does not necessarily mean giving up large
projects or participation team that executes them. Working
with larger project firms does not necessarily require a big
operating budget.
The evolution of file sharing technologies, building
information modeling (BIM), multiplatform collaboration, and
online project communications and management tools have
enabled small and start-up practices to quickly develop
offices that are cost-effective, flexible, and scalable.
COLLABORATION
 New firms can serve as expert consultants, contract
production staff, or valued collaborators. Founders of start-
up firms have the opportunity to thoughtfully assess their
skills, strengths, and areas of interest to determine project
opportunities that are good fit. Depending on the nature of
the project team arrangement, firms can take on discrete
tasks or serve in support role, demonstrating value and
expertise.
New firms have the option of expanding their services to
include the construction phase through ongoing collaboration
with contractors. Architect-Led Design-Build offers possibility
of influence and revenue (commensurate with the additional
risk) beyond the design phase of project.
GLOBAL PRACTICE
Advances in production technologies and
telecommunications have greatly improved access to the
global design market for firms of all scales. It is possible for a
variety of practices to work and compete successfully in the
global marketplace. Smaller firms, or those in a start-up
mode, with an appetite for international work may want to
consider entering the international marketplace as a
designer (perhaps in collaboration with a local associate
firm), or in a consulting or support role.
DESIGN FIRM BUSINESS MODELS
START-UP & SMALL FIRMS
When starting a firm, being intentional and strategic
about a business model may be challenging. Understanding
the options and proceeding with self- awareness is essential.
A business model is a plan that articulates what business is
being conducted and how the business will generate income.
David Maister, author of many books on management of
professional service firms, has identified 3-business models
that are common in organizations.
Efficiency-Based
Experience-Based
Expertise-Based
Efficiency-Based Firms
Efficiency-based firms are focused on fast and less-
expensive project delivery.
Often specialize in one project type or a narrow
range of services and tend to serve clients that are
looking for standard solutions and quick turnaround.
Founders may hire more less experienced person
for production assistance because efficiency-based
firms do projects with a significant amount of routine
work.
Efficiency-based firms rely on repeatable
processes.
Hiring more less experienced person will help to
keep production cost down, while freeing the
founder to acquire more work.
With repeatable elements and standard processes,
project delivery can be streamlined.
Profitability is dependent on volume and
productivity and relatively easy to obtain once
systems are in place.
Sustainable success in these firms requires
continuous improvement of work process and
staying current with technology and trends.
Experienced-based firms are proficient at solving
non-routine and complex design problems.
Requires founder to have knowledge and
experience in solving complex design problems and
serving on teams that regularly execute significant
projects
The initial management challenge is to match the
project task to the “paygrade”.
Experience-based Firms rely on applying accrued
knowledge
Hiring a skilled and experienced architect to assist
the founder once the workload of the firm grows, as
opposed to intern, may be the best practice.
Virtual collaboration with other experienced
collaborators is also an excellent strategy for project
delivery.
Sustainability is enhanced when they are adept at
creating and acquiring new knowledge from doing
projects that can be applied to future commissions.
Expertise-based firms have service offerings that
rest upon deep knowledge and/or exceptional
talent.
These firms include those headed by “starchitects”,
with their unique style and abilities, or, more
commonly, specialists in a narrow band of
professional knowledge.
Expertise-based Firms rely on deep knowledge or
unique talent.
For founders who have deep knowledge or unique
talent, an expertise-based firm may allow a
financially successful one-person firm to be
established and sustained.
Administrative help is advisable to free the principal
to complete billable work.
 Few, if any, mid-level and junior staff are needed to
complete the work.
More commonly, expert practitioners will partner
with experts in their related field to offer a broader
range of services.
Many also connect with academic institutions that
allow expert practitioners the opportunity to teach
and facilitate research activities.
One- or two-person firms can be very successful
using this model since profitability often depends on
high hourly rates for services.

Any projects that comes through the door (Opportunistic &

Strategic)

Most design firms will start in an opportunistic

manner.
Having a project to do is a prerequisite to starting a
firm.
All opportunities need to be explored, but not all
opportunities must be accepted.
Accepting any project that comes along can lead to
a strong generalist practice and can be a strategic
choice in itself. The core competencies, personal connections, and
Generalist practices may be particularly successful interests of firm leaders will attract certain clients and project
for firms established in smaller communities. even if there is no intentionality. At some point in the firm’s
The downside of this strategy is for many life, especially if firm growth is a goal, a more intentional
practitioners and start-ups is that it may limit the approach to the firm’s business model will be required. Once
depth of professional knowledge acquired over a firm’s business mode is understood, firm growth or
time, leading to fewer opportunities for complex sustainable stability as a solo practitioner or small firm
projects. becomes more possible.

Business models of the design firms relate to the level of

project complexity and specialized knowledge.