Holy Trinity College of Technology Inc.

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Module in Practical Research 1

4th quarter, week 1
Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Lesson 1: Qualitative Research Designs

Introduction

Choosing carefully an appropriate qualitative research design aligned with the problem inquiry or research questions can never be overemphasized.
Braun and Clarke (2013) suggest the following questions as useful guides, as you think suitable research design.

1. What do I want to know?

2. Why do I want to know it?
3. What assumption am I making about research and knowledge (what are theoretical and methodological positions)?
4. What types of data would best answer these questions?
5. What type of data will I use to tell me what I want to know? (The answer to this and to the previous question is not always the same.)
6. How much data will I need?
7. How will I collect my data?
8. If my research involves participants:
a. Who will I need to collect data from?
b. How will I access and recruit these participants?
9. How will I analyse my data in order to answer my questions?
10. What particular ethical issues do I need to consider?
11. Are there any practical factors that I need to take into account?

The section on Research Design, thus, presents a plan for the conduct of the study, demonstrates the research’s capability of conducting the research
and preserves the design flexibility.

How Flexibility Is Built into the Research Design

In answer to the question of Lincoln & Guba, 1985, as cited in Marshall and Rossman, 1995), to wit: “How do researchers maintain the needed
flexibility of research design, so that the research can “unfold, cascade, roll, and emerge” and yet present a plan that is logical, concise, thorough, and
meets the criterion of do-ability?” Marshall and Rossman say that the researcher builds flexible into the design by:
1. Demonstrating the appropriateness and the logic of qualitative methods or the particular research question and
2. Devising a research plan that includes many of the elements of traditional plans but reserves the right to modify and change the initial plan
during data collection.

Qualitative Research Designs

Several research designs have been advanced in conducting qualitative research by experts for different goals or purposes.
Leedy and Omrod (2001) recommend the following: Case studies, grounded theory, ethnography, content analysis and phenomenological studies.
Cresswell (2003) shows how these methods meet different needs. Case studies and grounded theory, for example, explore processes, activities and
events while ethnographic research analyses broad culture-sharing behaviors of individuals or groups. Case studies, as well as phenomenology, can
be used to study individuals.

1. Case study
The case study studies a person, program or event in a defined time frame (Leedy and Omrod, 2001). Cresswell (1998) says the structure of
case study should be the problem, the context, the issues and the lessons learned. He adds that sources of data collection are direct or
participant observation, interviews, archival records or documents, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials. The researcher spends time
in the natural setting of the people studied. The report includes lessons learned or patterns found that connect with theories.

2. Ethnography
Macmillan (1993) defines this type of research as interactive and which requires relatively extensive time in a site to systematically
observe, interview and record processes as they occur naturally at the selected location. Leedy and Omrod (2001) say that “ethnographies
study an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily, observational data.
3. Content Analysis
This research design calls for “a detailed and systematic examination of the content of a particular body of materials for the purpose of
identifying patterns, themes or biases (Leedy and Omrod 2001). This method identifies specific characteristics of the content of human
communication.

Data collection follows two step: First, the researcher analyses the materials and puts them in a frequency table as each characteristic or
quality is mentioned. Second, the researcher conducts a statistical analysis so that the results are reported in quantitative format. The
research report has 5 sections:
 The description of the materials studied
 The characteristics and qualities studied
 A description of the methodology
 The statistical analysis showing the frequency table
 The conclusions drawn about the pattern, themes, or biases found in the human communications and data collection.
4. Phenomenological Study
Cresswell (1998) points out that the essence of this study is the research for “the central underlying meaning of the research participant’s
experience”. Leedy and Omrod (2001) stress that the purpose of the study is “to understand an experience from the research participant’s
point of view.

Cresswell (1998) suggests the following procedural research format:

 Writing the research questions that explore the meaning of the experience
  Conducting the interviews
 Analysing the data to find the clusters of meanings
 Writing a report that makes the readers understand more clearly the essential structure of the experience
Data collected lead to identifying common themes in people’s perceptions of their experiences.

5. Grounded Theory
In this kind of approach, the theory or general pattern of understanding will emerge as it begins with initial codes, develops into broad
themes or domains and redounds into grounded theory or broad interpretation.
Grounded theory is an attempt to extract a general abstract theory of a process, or interaction grounded in views of research participants.

Lesson 2: Sampling Procedures

Introduction:
In qualitative research, a sample is a smaller set of cases a researcher selects from a large group and generalizes to the population.
Three things must be clear to the researcher:
 How much data s/he needs
 How s/he will select the sample
 how s/he will get participants are needed
Experts say that the researcher needs a sample that is appropriate to the research question and the theoretical aims of the study, and that provides an
adequate amount of data to fully analyse the topic and answer the research questions.

Qualitative Sampling
The primary goal of sampling is to get a representative sample, or a small collection of units or cases from a much larger collection or population,
such that the researcher can study the smaller group and produce accurate generalizations about the larger groups. (Neuman, 2007)
Qualitative researchers focus on how the sample or small collection of cases, units, or activities illuminates key features of social life. The purpose of
sampling is to collect cases, events, or actions that clarify and deepen understanding.
Wise decisions on sampling procedures contribute to the research study’s soundness. Such decisions develop alongside decisions about specific data
collection methods to be used.
Sampling methodologies or procedures can be classified under two general categories: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.
(www.fairfoxcountry.gov/demograph/pdf/samplingprocedurespdf)]

Non-probability Sampling
The three common types of non-probability samples are convenience sampling, quota sampling and judgemental sampling. These are mostly used in
qualitative research.

A. Convenience Sampling
As the name implies, convenience sampling involves choosing respondents at the convenience of the researcher. Examples of convenience
samples include people-in-the-street interviews-the sampling of people to which the researcher has easy access/such as a class of students
and studies that use people who have volunteered to be questioned as a result of an advertisement or another type of promotion.

B. Quota Sampling
This type samples a population that has been subdivided into classes or categories. It differs from stratified and cluster sampling in that
classes in both are mutually exclusive and are isolated prior to sampling. Thus, the probability of being selected is known, and members of
the population selected to be sampled are not arbitrarily disqualified from being included in the results.

C. Judgement Sampling
In this kind of sampling, the researcher uses his/her own “expert” judgement.
An example of this type of sample would be a study of potential users of a new recreational facility that is limited to those persons who live
within the vicinity.

Probability Sampling
The four basic types of probability samples, are mostly used quantitative research:
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Stratified Sampling
c. Cluster Sampling
d. Systematic Sampling

Sample Random sampling

To conduct this king of sampling procedure, he researcher must have a list of all members of the population of interest. from this list, the sample is
drawn so that each person has an equal chance of being drawn.
To avoid researcher bias, computerized sampling program or random number tables may be used. Reducing bias enables the researcher to estimate
sampling errors derived through statistical calculations.

Stratified Random Sampling

This involves categorizing the member of the population mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. An example would be determining
the average income earned by vendors in a city. To obtain more precise estimates, the researcher may stratify the samples by barangays.

Cluster Sampling
The groups are defined in order to maintain the heterogeneity of the population. Clusters are representative samples of the population. Clusters are
representative samples of the population as a whole. After the clusters are established, a simple random sample of the clusters is drawn and the
members of the chosen clusters are sampled. A cluster sample might be used by researcher attempting to measure the age distribution of persons
residing in a given locality.

Systematic Sampling
The researcher selects every nth member after randomly selecting the first, through nth element as starting point. For example, if the researcher
decides to sample every 20 th member of the population, a 5 percent sample, the starting point for the sample is randomly selected from the first 20
members of the sampling frame. This kind of sampling may spread the members selected from the measurement more evenly across the entire
population. For example, a survey of tourists entering a top tourist destination in a country could be conducted by sampling every 10 th visitor.

Other Specific Kinds of Samples

1. Criterion sampling – selection is based on specific characteristics. For example, students who have dyslexia or those who are left-handed.
2. Homogeneous Sampling – selection of participants who have similar experiences, attitudes or outlook, for example, working students,
children of OCW’s, commercial models, student leaders, scholars or grantees, pokemon enthusiasts, and others
 3. Maximum Variation Sampling – the objective for the selection is to attain more in-depth views from a nog number of participants. In this
type of sampling, common themes or patterns are more palpable.
4. Intensity Sampling – objective of the selection is to sample the same characteristics repetitively. This is particularly useful in the
phenomenological research design.
5. Deviant Case Sampling – A researcher uses deviant case sampling (also called extreme case sampling) when he or she seeks cases that
differ from the dominant pattern or from the predominant characteristics of other cases.

Purposive Sampling
The primary factor in qualitative research data collection is purposive sampling which can be done while in the process of collecting data or while
doing the interpretation or data analysis.
Depending upon the research design used, samples can be big or small. The Grounded Theory design, for example, may require a big sample while
the narrative research design can call for only small samples.
Aside from the size of the sample, it is important that the researcher has set criteria of how research participants are chosen – age, sex, socio-
economic status, specific attributes or experiences, etc.

Lesson 3: Data Collection and Analysis procedure

Introduction
Qualitative researchers have several techniques for data collection at their disposal: the interview-structured, semi-structured or unstructured, focus
group techniques, observations, reflexive field notes, pictures, public and official documents, personal documents, historical items, in addition to
images in the media and literature fields, data from observations, particularly participant observation where researcher become members of a culture,
group, or setting, and adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the researchers gain insight into the deeper culture practices, motivations and
emotions, of research participants.

Primary Data Collection Techniques

 Interview
 Participant Observation
 Focused Group Interview
 Observational Evaluation
 Biography/Autobiography
 Questionnaire

Interview
In the method, research participants are prodded to talk about their experiences, feeling, beliefs, outlook, etc.
The interview can take the form of informal conversations, open-minded, interviews or in-depth discussions.
Interviews can be one-time interviews, multiple interviews with the same participants, multiple interviews with various participants, or group
interviews.
They can also be structured, unstructured and semi-structured, in accordance to the research design used.
Structured interviews use a set of questions prepared by the researcher. During the course of the interview, the researcher or interviewer codes the
responses.
Unstructured Interviews use open-ended questions which the interviewee or research participant answers freely.

Semi-structured Interviews-use both closed and open-ended questions.

When interviewing face to face, the researcher and participant engage in a conversation, which is usually audio-recorded and the recording is
transformed into a written text, ready for analysis, through a process of transcription.

The same basic procedure applies for telephone interviews; virtual interviews via skype have also been explored, or via instant messaging or chat.
Interviews are ideally suited for experience type of research questions. (Braun and Clarke, 2013). Examples would be experiences of OCW’s, miners,
college drop-outs, inventors, entrepreneurs, and the like.
 Participant Observation – in this method, the researcher immerses himself/herself in the natural setting of the research participant.
 Focus Group Interview – 6 to 8 persons participate in the interview. The advantage of this is that is that critical issues or sensitive ones can
be more freely discussed with a group.
 Observational Evaluation – here, the researcher may or may not participate in activities of the group being observed.
 Biography / Autobiography – Personal biographies offer a rich source of data or evidence that can shed light or provide tentative answers to
research questions.

Basic Types of Data Collection

Cresswell (2003) cites four basic types of data collection procedures in qualitative research:
 Observations: the researcher takes field notes on the behaviour and activities of research participants at the research site or in their natural
setting.
 Interviews: Here, the researcher may:
a. Conduct face-to-face interviews with participants;
b. Do telephone interviews of participants or
c. Engage in focus group interviews, with 6 or 8 interviewees.
The above interviews involve unstructured and generally open-ended questions that are few in number and are intended to elicit views and opinions
from the participants.
 Documents: These take the form of public documents (newspapers, minutes of meetings, official reports) or private documents (personal
journals, diaries, letters, emails) which are all collected during the research process.
 Audio and Visual Materials: May take the form of photographs, art objects, video tapes, or any forms of sound.

The interview protocol may include the following components:

 Heading
 Instruction to the interviewer, such as opening statements
 The key research questions
 Probes to follow key interviewer
 Space for recording the interviewee’s comments, and space in which the researcher records reflective notes.

Data Analysis Procedures

There are a number of procedures in data analysis:
 Coding
In this procedure, the research analyst reads the data, and marks segments within the data; this may be donr at different times throughout
the process.
 Recursive Abstraction
 Some qualitative data sets are analysed without coding; instead, recursive abstractions are used.
 Content or Discourse Analysis
In this kind of data analysis, the most basic technique is counting of words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data.
 Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software
This has replaced the detailed hand coding and labelling of the past decades. These programs enhance the analyst’s efficiency at data
storage/retrieval and at applying the codes of data.

Generic Steps in Data Analysis

Cresswell (1998) also suggests generic steps to follow in data analysis.

The generic steps summarized by cresswell (1998) involve the following:

 Organize and prepare the data for analysis. This involves transcribing interviews, optically scanning material, typing up field notes, or
sorting and arranging the data into different types, depending on the sources of information.
 Read through all the data. Obtain a general sense of the information and reflect on its over-all meaning.
 Begin detailed analysis with coding process. Rossman and Rollis (1998) define coding as the process of organizing material into “chunks”
before bringing meaning to those “chunks”.
 Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis. Description involves a
detailed rendering of information about people, places or events in a setting.
 Decide how the description and themes will be represented. One approach is to use a narrative passage to convey the findings of the
analysis and detailed discussion of themes and sub-themes or interconnecting themes.
 A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation of data, that is, what Lincoln and Guba (1985) call “lessons learned”.

The lessons could be:

 The researcher’s personal interpretations, expressed in the individual understanding that the researcher bring to the study from his/her
own culture, history and experiences.
 A meaning derived from a comparison of the findings with information gleaned from the literature or extant theories.
 Suggestions for new questions that need to be asked- questions the researcher had not foreseen earlier in the study.
Thus, interpretation in qualitative research can take many forms, be adapted for different types of designs, and be flexible to convey
personal, research-based and action meanings.

Data Analysis According to Research Design

Cresswell (1998) says that analysis/interpretation must be closely linked to the research design chosen.

Ground Theory for example, has systematic steps to follow according to Strauss and Corbin (1990,1998):
 Generating categories of information (open coding)
 Selecting one of the categories and positioning it within a theoretical model (axel coding)
 Explicating a story from the interconnection of these categories (selective coding)
 In ideal cases, initial codes and broad themes coalesce into a grounded theory

Case Study and Ethnographic Research involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or
issues (Stake, 1995)

Phenomenological Research uses the analysis of

 Significant statements
 The generalization of meaning units and
 Development of an “essence” description (Moustakas, 1994)

Narrative Research employs restorying the participants’ stories, using structural elements such as plot, setting, activities, climax and denouement
(Clandinin and Connelly, 2000).

Exercises

Exercises A
Directions: Answer each item in a complete sentence.
1. If you were to do an ethnographic study, which groups of people in the Philippines or in any particular country would you like to do a
research on?
2. State your reasons why you want to do an ethnographic study of this/these particular group/s of people.
3. What kinds of data collection will you utilize as you do your investigation of this group of people? Explain your choices in complete
sentences.
4. Explain in 3-5 sentences why total immersion the research participants’ natural setting is an excellent way of data gathering.

Exercise C
Directions:
 Explain in a complete sentence how purposive sampling differs from random sampling.
 Express in your own words the meaning of purposive random in a complete sentence.
 Distinguish maximum variation from intensity sampling in a complete sentence.