Changing numbers to operators.

Relativistic dispersion relation for a single particle:

E2 = p2 c 2 +m2 c 4 ⇒ E=±√ p 2 c 2 +m2 c 4

Sign ambiguity!! Is related to the fact that relativistic theories give rise to both particles and
antiparticles .
Great success of RQM is the prediction of antiparticles arising from this negative sign ambiguity.

Negative sign solution.

Also spin df

In massless photon its antiparticle is also a photon.


E  i , ℏ ⃗
t ⃗p= ∇
i
Sub into dispersion equation to get:

∂2 ψ
−ℏ 2 2
=−ℏ2 c 2 ∇ 2 ψ +m2 c 2 ψ
∂t : Free particles.
μ
Now ¿ ∂ μ ∂
 2 m 2c 4
2 2
c    2  0
t 2 
∂ ψ 2 2 m2 c 4
2
−c ∇ ψ + 2 ψ=0
∂t 2 ℏ
2
∂ ψ mc
[ −∇ 2 ψ ]+( )2 ψ =0
Or ∂(ct )
2 ℏ
2
∂0 ∂0 =∂ t ∂t = ∂ 2 =∂ 0 ∂
x0
x
But ∂t
2
−∇ 2 =∂i ∂i =∂i (−∂i )=− ∂ i 2 =∂xi (+∂ )=−∂ xi ∂ xi
xi

(∂x )
0
I= 1,2,3, x =ct
∂ μ ∂ μ =∂ 0 ∂ 0−∂i ∂ i=
 2 2 2 m2c 4
c    2   0
∂2 − ∂2 t 2 
 2= ∂(ct 2
2 )2 (∂m
i2 c2 4
2
 c    )2   0
x
t 

Last time??????????

  F    0 J  Check if (-)sign should be removed.

1
∂ α F αβ=μ 0× J β
c
1
∂α F αβ=μ 0× Jβ
√ μ0 ε 0
∂ α F αβ=
√ μ0
ε0
Jβ

Proof:

A suitable Lagrangian density for electromagnetic field is:

1 1
Ldensity =L D=− F λρ F λρ+ J λ A λ
4 μ0 c
To obtain the E-L eqns., we note that:

∂ LD 1 ∂ Aλ
=0+ J
∂ Aμ c λ ∂ Aμ
∂ LD 1
= J λ δ λμ
∂ Aμ c

∂ LD
1
= Jμ
∂A cμ

∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ ∂ F λρ
=− ( F λρ + F λρ )+ 0
∂(∂υ A μ ) 4 μ0 ∂ ( ∂υ A μ ) ∂ (∂υ A μ)

∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ ∂ F λρ
=− ( F λρ + F λρ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 4 μ0 ∂ ( ∂υ A μ ) ∂ ( ∂υ A μ )
 ∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ λρ
=− ×2 F
∂(∂ υ A μ ) 4 μ0 ∂ ( ∂υ A μ )

∂ LD 1 ∂ F λρ
=− × F λρ
∂(∂ υ A μ ) 2 μ0 ∂ ( ∂ υ A μ )

∂ LD 1
× ∂ ∂ A −∂ A F λρ
2 μ0 ∂ ( ∂ υ A μ ) ( λ ρ ρ λ )
=−
∂(∂ υ A μ )

∂ LD 1 υ μ υ μ λρ
∂(∂ υ A μ )
=− ( δ δ −δ δ ) F
2 μ0 λ ρ ρ λ

∂ LD 1
=− ( F υμ−F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ0

∂ LD 1
=− (−F μυ −F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ0

∂ LD 1
=− (−2 F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ0

∂ LD 1
=(+2 F μυ )
∂(∂υ A μ ) 2 μ 0

∂ LD 1
= F μυ
∂(∂υ A μ ) μ0

d ∂ LD ∂ LD
( )− =0
dx υ ∂(∂υ A μ ) ∂ A μ
d 1 μυ 1
( F )− j μ =0
dx υ μ
0 √ μ 0 ε0
d
dx υ
( F μυ
)=
μ0 μ
ε0
j
√
αβγδ
ε ∂ β F γδ =0

These equations possess symmetry: (Lorentz invariance)

 2
∂0 ∂0 =∂t ∂t = ∂ 2 =∂ 0 ∂
x0
x
∂t
Flat spacetime
2 2 2 2 2
ds =−dt +dx +dy +dz
Θ=t −x

k α=−∂α Θ

k α=(−1,1,0,0 )
α
k =(1,1,0,0)
0 1 2 3
gαβ ∂α ∂ β =∂ α ∂α =∂x0 ∂ x +∂ x1 ∂x +∂x 2 ∂ x +∂x 3 ∂x

hα =g α +u α u β
β β

hα =Transverse . Metric
β

gα =Spacetime . Metric
β

−uα u β =Longitudinal . Metric

gα =−uα u β +hα
β β

uα h α =0
β

uα g α =−uα u α u β +u α hα
β β

α
u β =−(−1 )u β +u h α
β

α
u β =u β +u h α
β

∴u α hα =0
β

hα =g α +u α u β
β β

μα μα μα
g hα =g g α β + g uα u β
β
μ
β
h = δ μβ + uμ u β
 α μ α α
μ
h h β =h μ
δ μβ +( h μ
uμ ) u β
α μ α
μ
h h β =h β +( 0) u β
α μ α
μ
h h β =h β

Introduce the null co-ordinates:

u=t −x

v =t + x

A useful choice of parameter when the geodesic is space-like is the Proper distance, s, such that:
2 α β
ds =g αβ dx dx
¿
ds = (−dt 2 +dx 2 )+dy 2+dz 2
2

A useful choice of parameter when the geodesic is time-like is the Proper time ,τ , such that:
2 α β
dτ =−gαβ dx dx
2 2
dτ =−ds

du=dt −dx
dv=dt+dx
2 2
dudv=dt −dtdx+dxdt−dx
2 2
∴ dudv=dt −dx
2 2
−dudv=−dt +dx
So, the line element:
¿
ds 2 = (−dt 2 +dx 2 )+dy 2 +dz 2
Becomes, in the new coordinates, the line element:
¿
ds =−dudv+dy 2 +dz 2
2

Impose:
α
k N α=−1
If:

k α=−∂α u ,

Then,

k α=−∂α (t−x) ,

k0   0 (t  x )

k t =−∂t (t−x)

k t =−(1−0)
k t =−1
k 1 =−∂ 1 (t−x )

k x =−∂x (t−x )

k x =−(0−1)
k 1 =k x =1
Similarly,

k 2 =k y =−∂ y (t−x )
k 2 =k y =−(∂ y t−∂ y x )=0
Similarly,

k 3 =k z =−∂z (t−x )
k 3 =k z =−(∂z t−∂z x)=0
Therefore,

k α=(−1,1,0,0 )
Therefore,
α
k =(1,1,0,0)
Also, let,

1
N α =− ∂α v
2
 1
N α =− ∂ α (t +x )
2
1
N 0 =− ∂ 0 (t +x )
2
1
N t =− ∂t (t+x )
2
1
N t =− (1+0 )
2
1
N 0 =N t =−
2
1
N 1 =− ∂1 (t+x )
2
1
N x=− ∂ x (t+x )
2
1
N x=− (0+1)
2
1
N 1 =N x =−
2

Similarly,

1
N 2 =N y =− ∂ y (t +x )
2
1
N 2 =N y =− (∂ y t +∂ y x )=0
2

Similarly,

1
N 3 =N z=− ∂z (t +x )
2
1
N 3 =N z=− (∂ z t +∂ z x )=0
2

Therefore,
 1 1
N α =(− ,− ,0,0 )
2 2

Therefore,

1 1
N α =( ,− ,0,0 )
2 2
Check that,

1 1 1 1
N α N α =(− ,− ,0,0 ).( ,− , 0,0)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
N α N α =(− )×( )+(− )×(− )+0+0
2 2 2 2
1 1
N α N α =(− )+( )
4 4
α
N α N =0
Similarly,
α
k α k =(−1,1,0,0).(1,1,0,0)
α
k α k =(−1)×(1)+(1)×(1)+0+0

k α k α =−1+1
α
k α k =0

However,

1 1
k α N α=(−1,1,0,0).( ,− ,0,0)
2 2
1 1
k α N α=(−1)×( )+(1 )×(− )+0+0
2 2
1 1
k α N α=(− )−( )
2 2
α
k α N =−1