See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282554357

Structural architecture and Discrete Fracture

Network modelling of layered fractured
carbonates (Altamura Fm., Italy)

ARTICLE in ITALIAN JOURNAL OF GEOSCIENCES · OCTOBER 2015

Impact Factor: 1.01 · DOI: 10.3301/IJG.2014.28

READS

67

9 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:

Elisa Panza Claudio Berto

Università degli Studi della Basilicata University of Ferrara
3 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS 11 PUBLICATIONS 17 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Fabrizio Agosta Giacomo Prosser

Università degli Studi della Basilicata Università degli Studi della Basilicata
80 PUBLICATIONS 510 CITATIONS 138 PUBLICATIONS 1,201 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, Available from: Fabrizio Agosta
letting you access and read them immediately. Retrieved on: 11 January 2016

301-R1 – PANZA
Ital. J. Geosci. (Boll. Soc. Geol. It.), Vol. 134, No. 1 (2015), pp. 00-00, 15 figs., 1 tab. (doi: 10.3301/IJG.2014.28)
© Società Geologica Italiana, Roma 2015
Structural architecture and Discrete Fracture Network modelling
of layered fractured carbonates (Altamura Fm., Italy)
ELISA PANZA (1), (3), FABRIZIO AGOSTA (1), (3), MILLER ZAMBRANO (2), (3), EMANUELE TONDI (2), (3),
GIACOMO PROSSER (1), MAURIZIO GIORGIONI (4) & JEAN MICHEL JANISECK (5)
ABSTRACT
This work focuses on the spacing and height distributions of
bed-perpendicular fracture sets present within a carbonate multi-
layer, and on their effect on the volumetric (P32 and fracture porosity)
and hydraulic (correspondent permeability) properties of the rock
mass computed after DFN modelling. Results of integrated field and
laboratory analyses are consistent with an uneven spacing distribution
of Strata-Bound (SB) fractures. The oldest SB fractures formed
within individual limestone beds bounded by bed interfaces, which
likely acted as mechanical interfaces. Differently, the youngest
SB fractures formed within smaller rock volumes bounded by the
pre-existing fractures. Non Strata-Bound (NSB) fractures consist on
sheared bed-perpendicular fractures, originally compartmentalized
within individual beds, which now form incipient strike-slip faults.
DFN modelling of representative rock volumes show that both
volumetric and hydraulic properties are strongly affected by the two
main sets of NSB fractures, which form a conjugate system of
faults producing the principal structural anisotropy in the fractured
carbonate multi-layer.
KEY WORDS: Fractured carbonates, fracture porosity, hydraulic
properties, background deformation, Altamura Formation.
INTRODUCTION
Fractured carbonate reservoirs are often a puzzling
problem to be solved. Compared to other types of reser-
voirs, in which porosity and permeability are mainly
dominated by matrix properties, their characterization is
often more complicated. In fact, according to the nature,
distribution, and diagenetic evolution of the constituting
elements (grains, pores, cements), at shallow crustal lev-
els carbonate rocks are characterized not only by a great
variety of porosity and permeability values (TIAB & DO-
NALDSON, 1996; LUCIA, 1999; NELSON, 2001) but also by
different types of structural elements (AYDIN, 2000; GRA-
HAM et alii, 2003; TONDI et alii, 2006; AGOSTA, 2008;
ANTONELLINI et alii, 2008; AGOSTA et alii, 2010; TONDI et
alii, 2012; LAVENU et alii, 2013).
In general, when a fracture network forms the princi-
pal reservoir permeability and porosity, fluid flow pat-
terns in the reservoir are largely controlled by fracture
orientation, connectivity and aperture (ODLING et alii,
1999). In carbonate rocks, it is known that secondary
(1) Department of Science, University of Basilicata, Italy.
(2) School of Science and Technology, University of Camerino,
Italy.
(3) Reservoir Characterization Project (www.rechproject.com).
(4) Shell Italia E&P, Rome, Italy.
(5) Total E&P Italia, Rome, Italy.
Queste bozze, corrette debbono essere
restituite immediatamente alla Segreteria
della Società Geologica Italiana
c/o Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra
Piazzale Aldo Moro, 5 – 00185 ROMA
porosity, due to fractures and faults, can also be strongly
modified after diagenetic processes and karst phenomena
(AGOSTA & AYDIN, 2006; AYDIN et alii, 2010; LAVENU et
alii, 2014). In the oil industry, fracture networks assessed
by 1D well-data are often not representative of the 3D
fracture distribution. In fact, data gathered from well-
bores (logs, cores, borehole images or dynamic data)
provide information on smaller scale fractures, but are
strictly valid in the direct vicinity of the wells (GAUTHIER
& LAKE, 1993). At larger scales, distribution parameters,
spacing, and throws of faults in the order of, at least, a
several tens of meters are generally available after seismic
data interpretation (NELSON, 2001). A significant scale
gap between these subsurface data sources limits there-
fore a reliable fracture characterization on the intermediate
scales, which are typically those at which important fluid
production parameters such as well connectivity and
early water breakthrough are controlled (BUSH, 2010;
QUESTIAUX et alii, 2010).
In order to fill the aforementioned dimensional gap,
in some cases, analogue outcrop studies can be used to
supply additional data required for inter-well fracture
property population (DE JEOSSINEAU & AYDIN, 2007;
AGOSTA et alii, 2009; AGOSTA et alii, 2010; RUSTICHELLI et
alii, 2012, 2013a). In fact, outcrops are extremely reliable
data sources, because they can provide continuous 2D to
3D data on the geometry and distribution of the fracture
network in relation to their controlling factors such layer
thickness, material properties, tectonic structures and
many others (CACAS et alii, 2001). Furthermore, the
results of these studies can be imported as input data for
a 3D representation of fractured rock volume. Numerical
models play a key role in predicting both distribution and
intensity of the fractured rock volumes in the subsurface,
but the accurate 3D geometry of the whole fracture net-
work (size, orientation and spacing), and in particular its
relation with bedding or other depositional features, can
only be effectively estimated after studying outcropping
analogues (CACAS et alii, 2001).
Natural fracture networks occur in a great variety of
structural styles. The vertical persistence and spacing of
the different fracture sets are controlled by the geometrical
and mechanical properties of the individual mechanical
units (GROSS et alii, 1995; COOKE et alii, 2006; GUDMUNDS-
SON et alii, 2010; RUSTICHELLI et alii, 2012). A network may
have a hierarchical structure, with fractures confined
within individual beds, fractures crosscutting several beds
and other vertically persistent fractures dominating within
given scale ranges (STRIJKER et alii, 2012, and references
therein). Pure shear structural elements form due to spe-
2 E. PANZA ET ALII
cific deformation mechanisms and can be present as joints,
veins (joints sealed by precipitated minerals), stylolites
(sensu FLETCHER & POLLARD, 1981) and compaction/dila-
tional bands (sensu AYDIN et alii, 2006). In particular,
joints are opening mode-fractures with a typical morpho-
logy (plumose structure), which form perpendicular to the
least principal stress axis (POLLARD & AYDIN, 1988). Com-
pared to the other mentioned structural elements, joints
are characterized by their own spacing distribution, con-
nectivity, aperture and hydraulic properties (AYDIN, 2000).
Moreover, these opening-mode elements often form sys-
tematic sets (joints sub-parallel to each other), which can
be either confined within individual beds (Strata-Bound,
SB) or crosscut several beds (Non Strata-Bound, NSB).
Focusing on bed-perpendicular SB joints, numerous
studies documented that their spacing is proportional to
the bed thickness (GROSS, 1993; BAI & POLLARD, 2000;
UNDERWOOD et alii, 2003, and references therein). Two
main parameters have been proposed to describe the varia-
tion of fracture spacing with respect to the bed thickness,
the Fracture Spacing Ratio (FSR, GROSS, 1993) and the
Fracture Spacing Index (FSI, NARR & SUPPE, 1991),
respectively. The FSR represents the ratio between bed
thickness and median fracture spacing, and therefore is
related to individual beds. The FSI represents the slope of
the best-fit line, in a diagram fracture spacing vs bed thick-
ness, of data points representing several beds of the same
lithology and, hence, refers to specific rock multi-layers.
Differently, other authors (BAI & POLLARD, 2000; BAI et
alii, 2002) investigated the variation of the mean fracture
spacing (S) with respect to the bed thickness (T) in order to
infer the amount of joint saturation on the basis of the
sequential infilling model proposed by GROSS et alii (1995).
This paper reports the results of a study focused on the
structural analysis of outcropping fractured Santonian
Fig. 1 - (A) Geological structural
synthetic map of Italy and location
of Apulian foreland; (B) Simplified
geologic map of Apulian foreland;
the rectangle marks the location
of the study area (after S PALLU -
TO, 2011)
micritic limestones of the Altamura Fm., Murge Area,
Italy (BORGOMANO, 2000), which can be considered as a
good surface analogue of the subsurface reservoirs pre-
sent in southern Italy. The limestone rocks are arranged
in 10’s of cm-thick, laterally continuous sub-horizontal
beds. Since the primary permeability and/or porosity of
the limestone matrix is negligible, a DFN numerical
approach has been considered to compute the volumetric
and hydraulic properties of the fractured carbonates
(CHESNAUX et alii, 2009). In particular, the focus is on the
relative role played by SB and NSB fractures on fracture
porosity and correspondent permeability.
GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA
The studied outcrops are located in the Murge Plateau
of southern Italy (fig. 1), which is characterized by the
Gargano, Murge and Salento structural highs (CIARANFI et
alii, 1983). The Murge Plateau, which is considered as part
of the foreland domain of the Southern Apennine fold-and-
thrust belt (SELLI, 1962; PIERI et alii, 1997), is made up of
Cretaceous carbonates pertaining to the Apulian Platform
(RICCHETTI et alii, 1988). The backbone of the Murge
Plateau consists of shallow-water marine limestones and
dolostones forming a shallowly dipping monocline, either to
the S or SE, slightly deformed by high-angle faults (FESTA,
2003; SPALLUTO, 2011). Specifically, the aforementioned
carbonates were deposited in a platform-interior environ-
ment, which lied in the inner sector of the Apulian Carbo-
nate Platform, isolated from terrigenous inputs (D’ARGENIO,
1974; CHANNEL et alii, 1979; ZAPPATERRA, 1990).
The outcropping carbonates of the Murge Plateau are
subdivided in two main lithostratigraphic units, respec-
tively named Calcare di Altamura and Calcare di Bari
 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELLING 3

Fig. 2 - (a) View of the Pontrelli Quarry due to south and location of studied vertical outcrops (site_1, site_2, and site_3, respectively); (b) Aerial
view of the Pontrelli Quarry. Location of the thee study sites is highlighted. Traces of the major strike-slip fault zones are also reported; (c) Close
up of the three study vertical outcrops.

formations, separated by a Turonian unconformity. The
Calcare di Altamura Formation is up to 1000 m-thick,
Late Turonian to Maastrichtian in age, and includes
micritic and stromatolitic limestones (mainly wacke-
stone), at the base, and rudist-bearing limestones and bio-
clastic grainstones, at the top (CHECCONI et alii, 2008). It
is separated from the underlying Calcari di Bari Forma-
tion by a 100-140 m-thick bauxite horizon (BORGOMANO,
2000). The study outcrops expose 10’s of cm thick, planar,
sub-horizontal beds of whitish wackestone to mudstones,
either structure-less or with subtle kryptalgal lamination,
crosscut by two main sets of strike-slip faults (KORNEVA
et alii, 2014) encompassing fractured volumes character-
ized by background deformation (fig. 2).
The investigated Upper Cretaceous shallow-water car-
bonates contain three main structural domains which may
play a key role for subsurface fluid flow (KORNEVA et alii,
2014): 1) background deformation, which consists of bed-
parallel stylolites and several sets of bed-perpendicular
joints and veins, sheared joints and veins. For background
deformation we define the association of structural ele-
ments exposed away from the strike-slip fault zones that
crosscut carbonate beds; 2) persistent fracture zones, which
are a few tens of m-high sub-vertical faults with negligible
throws (in the order of 10’s of cm to m’s) with thin and
discontinuous cataclastic fault rocks and asymmetric damage
zones; 3) large fault zones with 10’s of m-throws, above
seismic resolution, made up of continuous fault cores of
cataclastic breccia flanked by well-developed damage
zones. This paper focuses on the first structural domain.
METHODOLOGY
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The field data derive from both qualitative and quanti-
tative structural analyses conducted on the vertical walls
and pavements of the Pontrelli Quarry, Altamura (Bari).
4 E. PANZA ET ALII
Away from the major fault zones, sites exposing the least
deformed carbonates were selected for structural analysis
(sites 1, 2 and 3 in fig. 2). There, the background deforma-
tion was studied in terms of nature, geometry, distribution,
and relative age of formation of SB and NSB fractures. Car-
bonate beds of different thickness were investigated along
walls roughly perpendicular to each other to document the
3D structural architecture of the study carbonates. Specifi-
cally, sites 1 and 2 trend N50°E, whereas site 3 trends
N140°E (fig. 2). Along the surveyed walls and pavements,
the following parameters have been measured by scan line
and scan area analyses: type, attitude, distance from the
scan line origin, length (which actually, along vertical walls,
corresponds to the fracture height), abutting/crosscutting
relationships, infill if present, and aperture using either the
caliper or a comparator (ORTEGA et alii, 2006; GUERRIERO
et alii, 2013). The joint roughness profiles are also mea-
sured for each fracture investigated by using the profilome-
ter (BARTON & CHOUBEY, 1977). The spacing values have
been subsequently obtained for each fracture set by apply-
ing the Terzaghi correction (TERZAGHI, 1965).
Four different beds thickness comprised between 10 cm
and 60 cm were surveyed along the three selected vertical
walls. In particular, in correspondence of site 1 have been
recognized and investigated beds of 30 cm and 60 cm,
whereas in site 2, sub-parallel to the previous one, is
investigated a bed of 20 cm. Along the third site we beds
10, 20 and 60 cm-thick were studied. A total of six 10 meter-
long scan lines, oriented parallel to bedding, and two
1 m2-wide scan areas were performed along these
selected vertical walls (oriented N50°E and N140°E,
respectively) and a total of 718 fractures were measured.
The acquired data have been elaborated in order to com-
pute the FSR/FSI and S/T parameters of individual beds.
DFN MODELLING
Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) models were built by
employing the MOVETM software by Midland Valley.
DFN’s are stochastic models of fracture architecture, which
incorporate the statistical scaling rules derived from field
analysis. DFN’s of representative rock volumes have been
constructed by taking into account only fractures at high-
angle to bedding. In fact, the bed-parallel stylolites were
not considered in the computation because they are quite
rare, and laterally discontinuous, in the studied outcrops.
Different DFN, have been built to evaluate the P32,
porosity and correspondent permeability of each fracture
set. A 1.2 m×10 m×10 m geocellular volume, corresponding
to the sum of the four investigated beds of different thick-
ness (10 cm, 20 cm, 30 cm, 60cm), was constructed in
MOVETM. The volume of each cell size in the geocellular
volume has been fixed to 125 cm3. This paper reports the
results of three different types of models: (i) DFN of SB
fractures; (ii) DFN of only NSB fractures; (iii) DFN of
both SB and NSB fractures. As input data, DFN construc-
tion requires the intensity, height, attitude, aspect ratio,
and aperture of individual fracture sets. Intensity may be
provided either computing the number of fractures per
m3 (P30 or N) or the sum of fracture areas per m3 (P32).
In this work we used the N parameter because it is easier
to obtain from the collected field data. Actually, P32 is
one of the output parameters computed by the MOVE
software. The number of fractures in a volume of 1m3,
N, was obtained from the equivalent geomechanical para-
meter Jv (Volumetric Joint count, PALMSTRÖM, 2001), a
measure for the number of joints intersecting a volume of
rock mass. It is expressed as number of joints per m³ as:
n 3
( )
Jv = ––
L
(1)
where L is the scanline length and n the number of frac-
tures pertaining to a given set along the scanline (SALIU et
alii, 2012). The Jv parameter was obtained from scanlines
oriented orthogonal to each other. The power law height
distribution of SB and NSB fractures was assessed after
computation of the field data. As fracture orientation, a
constant attitude corresponding to the most representa-
tive fracture orientation was assigned to individual frac-
ture sets. This assumption is justified by the negligible
variation interval for attitudes pertaining to individual
fracture sets. As a consequence, the MOVETM software
generates parallel fractures for each specific set.
Both aspect ratio and aperture, revealed to be the most
critical parameters to deal with. Generally, the aspect ratio,
which corresponds to the ratio between the height and
length of individual fractures, is very difficult to assess in
the field for stratabound fractures. Differently, NSB frac-
tures were not difficult to measure along the large pave-
ments of the Pontrelli Quarry. For this reason, a value of
1:4 was assigned to SB fractures, a value of 1:2 to NSB
fractures. The former aspect ratio is typical of SB frac-
tures that propagate in a mechanically limited medium,
while 1:2 is consistent with the measured values and cor-
responds to fractures propagating in a medium free of
mechanical limitations (ODLING, 1997; OLSON, 2003).
Aperture is also a critical parameter, which is also
quite difficult to measure in the field. In this work, in
addition to both caliper and comparator, fracture aperture
was computed by taking into account the Joint Roughness
Coefficient (JRC), obtained by using the typical profiles
proposed by BARTON & CHOUBEY (1977). Doing so, the
hydraulic aperture (e) has been deduced from the mea-
sured aperture (E) and the JRC parameter on the basis of
the following equation (OLSSON & BARTON, 2001):
E2
e = ––––––– (2)
JRC2.5
In light of the great variability of aperture for individual
fracture sets, mainly due to weathering, literature aperture
values proportional to either fracture length (NSB fractures)
and root of fracture length (SB fractures) have been adopted
for alternative DFN models (OLSON, 2003). Results of the
aforementioned DFN models are reported in terms of both
volumetric and hydraulic properties for SB fractures, NSB
fractures, and both SB and NSB fractures, respectively.
RESULTS
QUALITATIVE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Along the studied outcrops, background deformation
consists of one set of bed-parallel stylolites and several sets
of bed-perpendicular joints and sheared joints and veins.
Stylolites have a typical tooth-like trace, are generally a few
cm-long and, like the carbonate beds, dip slightly to the
south/southeast with dip angles in the order of 5° to 10°.
Commonly, stylolites localize at the bed interfaces within
mm-thick, continuous, clay-rich marl levels. Less often,
they are present within individual carbonate beds.
 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELLING 5

Fig. 3 - (a) Vertical wall of the Pon-

trelli Quarry exposing a carbonate
multilayer crosscut by high-angle
joints and sheared joints; (b) Rose
diagram of the strike-direction of
the 718 measured fractures along
the investigated sites. The color
code refers to the following fracture
sets: yellow - fracture set_1, green -
fracture set_2, red - fracture set_3,
blue - fracture set_4.

Fig. 4 - (a to d) Diagram median

spacing versus bed-thickness for
the different fracture sets; each
point corresponds to the median
fracture spacing within a specific
bed thickness (FSR); the regression
line is computed only for set_1 and
set_3, the slope correspond to FSI;
(e and f) bed thickness versus mean
spacing for set_1 and set_3; each
point correspond to the mean
fracture spacing within a specific
bed thickness. 188 data have been
employed for set_1, 143 for set_2,
60 for set_3 and 75 for set_4.

Open fractures may display hackles and ribs elements
and, hence, are identified as joints. In some cases, a millimi-
ter to centimeter offset of depositional surfaces is recognized
across them. For this reason, we consider the aforemen-
tioned features as sheared joints, which are often character-
ized by thin veneers of fragmented carbonates flanking one,
or both, sides of the fractures. The sub-vertical joints and
veins and sheared joints and veins can be grouped into four
main sets (fig. 3). They may be confined within individual
carbonate beds (SB fractures) or, alternatively, crosscut sev-
eral beds (NSB fractures). Sometime, sub-vertical fractures
pertaining to different sets abut against each other, as shown
along the large pavements. More frequently, fractures abut
against the bed interfaces or the bed-parallel stylolites.
Regardless of the modalities of their formation, SB fractures
consisting of joints and sheared joints will be treated togheter
in this work as forming a significant part of the porosity
structure in the studied rocks. Conversely, fractures that
crosscut several beds, or NSB fractures, will be treated sepa-
rately. The latter fractures affect several beds for a thickness
of about 6 m, that is the height of the study outcrops.
QUANTITATIVE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The strike-direction of the 718 high-angle fractures
measured at the Pontrelli Quarry (both SB and NSB frac-
tures) is plotted in fig. 3b, which shows two main fracture
sets oriented N115°-130°E (set_1, in yellow) and N140°-
155°E (set_2, in green), respectively. Two minor fracture
sets oriented N25°-40°E (set_3, in red) and N50°-65°E
(set_4, in blue) are also shown, respectively. Figs. 4a to 4d
report the computed Fracture Spacing Ratio (FSR) and
6 E. PANZA ET ALII

Fig. 5 - Log-log graphs of cumulative frequency distribution for fracture heights: (a to d) Height distribution of SB fractures; the different
curves are related to fractures crosscutting the different beds; (e) Height distribution of NSB fractures; the different colors refer to individual
fracture sets.

Fracture Saturation Index (FSI) for each SB fracture set.
In order to compute the aforementioned graphs, the
median spacing value of each fracture set was employed.
This type of analysis was done only for three carbonate
beds because not enough fracture spacing data were gath-
ered from the fourth carbonate bed. SB fracture pertain-
ing to both set_1 and set_3 are characterized by a median
spacing that increases proportionally with the bed thick-
ness. Differently, a lack of correlation between the two
aforementioned variables is computed for SB fracture
set_2 and set_4.
Fracture saturation analysis was performed only for
fracture set_1 and set_3 (fig. 4 e-f), those showing a posi-
tive correlation between median fracture spacing and bed
thickness, by plotting the computed mean fracture Spac-
ing (S) against the bed Thickness (T). The resulting S/T
values are comprised between about 0.4 (fracture set_1)
and 1.4 (fracture sets_3).
The results of a multi-scale analysis of height distri-
bution for all four sets of background fractures are
shown in figs. 5a-5e. By taking into account all mea-
sured fracture heights, data have been plotted sepa-
rately for SB and NSB fractures. Height distribution of
SB fracture set_1 and set_2 was computed for the four
surveyed carbonate beds (figs. 5a and 5b), while that of
SB fracture set_3 and fracture set_4 from data obtained
 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELLING 7

from three carbonate beds (figs. 5c and 5d). All SB

fracture height distributions show a common trend; in
fact, in correspondence of fractures heights slightly
smaller than individual bed thicknesses, a marked
change in the cumulative distribution is observed. By
considering values smaller than the aforementioned
threshold, the height distributions of SB fractures are
fit by power law relationships. The absolute values of the
power law coefficient (D-value) varies between 0.45 and
0.69 for set_1, 0.67 and 0.99 for set_2, 0.87 and 1.31 for
set_3, and 0.73 and 0.94 for set_4, respectively. A simi-
lar correlation is found for the four sets of NSB frac-
tures (fig. 5e). A power law distribution also chara-
cterizes the latter fractures, with a D-value comprised Fig. 6 - Geocellular volume, with dimensions of 1.2 m×10 m×10 m,
between 1.16 and 1.91. used for DFN modelling. Elevation scale, in meters, is shown on the
right. The cell size is 5 cm×5 cm.

DFN MODELLING
In this section we report separately the results of
Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) modelling carried out
for SB fractures, NSB fractures and for both SB and
NSB fractures. DFN are generated stochastically based
on user-defined input parameters for each fracture set.
Fractures are generated in each cell on the basis of their
specific length distribution until the intensity values are
reached. Once the individual DFN are constructed using

permeability were computed. The porosity fraction, φ, is

the MOVETM, fracture porosity, P32, and correspondent

calculated as the ratio of total fracture volume in a cell,

per cell volume. P32 is obtained from the clipped frac-
ture polygons present in each cell. Calculation of the
permeability tensor is based on the Oda’s methodology
(ODA, 1985), which derives from both Darcy’s law and
laminar flow between parallel plates theory (LONG et
alii, 1996):
Fig. 7 - Fracture modelling results of strata-bound fractures obtained
for the geocellular volumes reported in fig. 6 (set_1: yellow; set_2:
green; set_3: red; set_4: blue).
respectively). This means that fractures within a 30 cm-
thick bed are generated only in a sub-volume of the same

A 12D ∂l μ
Q S3 ∂h ρg
–– = –––– –– –– (3)
where Q is the flow rate, A the cross section area of the
modelled volume, S the fracture aperture, D the fracture
spacing, h/l the pressure head, ρ the fluid density and
µ the fluid dynamic viscosity. The result is a “geometric
permeability” depending on the cumulative fracture area,
or “void” spaces, of each cell and on fracture aperture.
First, the fractures present in the DFN model are clipped
to calculate the fracture sectors belonging to each cell.
Then, the software sums all the contributions from the
920000 cells within the modelled volume. The resulting
values of permeability are very sensitive to particular
input parameters such as the clipped fracture polygon
area, fracture orientation, fracture aperture, and fracture
connectivity because the laminar flow in parallel plates
includes the cube of fracture aperture (LONG et alii,
1996). Since the permeability tensor is a 3×3 symmetric
matrix, the outputs are the six values defining this tensor
(Kxx, Kyy, Kzz, Kxy, Kxz, Kyz).
SB FRACTURES
In order to model SB fractures, the geocellular vol-
ume of 1.2 m×10 m×10 m (fig. 6) was subdivided into
four distinct sub-volumes whose thicknesses correspond
to those of the surveyed beds (10, 20, 30, and 60 cm,
thickness. The results of fracture modelling are reported
in fig. 7. The total number of generated fractures is 6167.
The fracture set_1 is the dominant fracture set, in agree-
ment with the rose diagram of fig. 3b. The distribution of
fracture intensity (P32) and porosity computed for SB
fractures by using the theoretical fracture apertures are
reported in figs. 8a and 8b, respectively. The average
value of P32 is 0.49 m2/m3, while the computed average
porosity is about 0.09%. Differently, fig. 8c shows the val-
ues of correspondent permeability computed along the xx
direction. We note that by assigning as input data the
measured values of fracture aperture, both fracture
porosity (fig. 9a) and hydraulic properties (fig. 9b) appear
to be much smaller, while P32 values are unchanged. The
average porosity, in this case, is 0.8 * 10-3%, while the
maximum correspondent permeability (Kzz) is 3.04 * 10-5
Darcy (tab. 1).
NSB FRACTURES
935 NSB fractures were modeled to compute the vol-
umetric properties (P32 and porosity) as well as the cor-
respondent permeability (figs. 10 and 11, respectively).
Average computed P32 is 5.29 m2/m3, while the average
computed fracture porosity is 2.59% by inputting theoret-
ical values of fracture aperture. The correspondent per-
meability computed along the xx direction is reported in
fig. 11c. The average porosity obtained for NSB fractures
8 E. PANZA ET ALII
Fig. 8 - Results of DFN modelling of SB fractures with theoretical
aperture values: (a) Computed P32, the scale shown on the right is
m2/m3; (b) Computed porosity, the scale shown on the right is in
percent; (c) Computed correspondent permeability (Kxx), the scale
shown on the right is mD.
(figs. 12a and b) by inputting the measured aperture val-
ues is 0.02%, while maximum correspondent permeability
(Kzz) 2.94 * 10-4 Darcy (tab. 1). As expected, the maximum
permeability value is shown along the zz direction (tab. 1).
SB AND NSB FRACTURES
The result of DFN modelling of both SB and NSB frac-
tures (N=6976) is shown in fig. 13. Figs. 14a to 14c report
the computed volumetric (P32 and fracture porosity) and
relative permeability (Kxx) values for the 1.2 m×10 m×10 m
volume. Average P32 values is 5.79 m2/m3, while average
computed porosity is 2.68% by using theoretical values
of fracture aperture. Fig. 12c shows the distribution of
the computed relative permeability (Kxx direction). By
inputting measured values of fracture aperture, the average
porosity is 0.02%, while the maximum correspondent per-
meability (Kzz) is 3.02 * 10-4 Darcy (figs. 15a and b). We
note how the highest computed values localize in corre-
spondence of the principal NSB fractures.
DISCUSSION
In this section, the results of field measurements and
their subsequent elaboration will be discussed in terms of
Fig. 9 - Results of DFN modelling of SB fractures with measured
aperture values: (a) Computed P32, the scale shown on the right is
m2/m3; (b) Computed porosity, the scale shown on the right is in
percent; (c) Computed correspondent permeability (Kxx), the scale
shown on the right is Darcy.
fracture stratigraphy, which means the distribution of SB
fractures within the carbonate multilayer. Subsequently,
the volumetric and hydraulic properties of the fractured
carbonate multi-layer will be assessed by considering the
results of DFN modelling.
FRACTURE STRATIGRAPHY
Fracture stratigraphy subdivides rocks into intervals
according to the vertical extent, density, or some other
observed attributes of fractures crosscutting a layered
rock mass (LAUBACH et alii, 2009, and references therein).
In the present study, the sub-horizontal platform car-
bonates exposed at the Pontrelli Quarry are crosscut by
four sets of sub-vertical fractures, which, together with a
bed-parallel set of stylolites, form the background defor-
mation away from the two main high-angle faults (KOR-
NEVA et alii, 2014). The results of qualitative analysis are
consistent with a background deformation being primarily
composed of joints and sheared joints, which are either
compartmentalized within individual carbonate beds
(SB fractures) or crosscut multiple beds (NSB fractures).
Quantitative analysis of SB fracture distribution within
four carbonate beds with different thickness values, all
exposed along the vertical walls of the quarry, allowed the
computation of both FSR/FSI and S/T indexes. Fracture
stratigraphy of the study carbonate rocks will be assessed
therefore in terms of median and mean fracture spacing
vs. bed thickness. Considering the first two indexes, a
positive linear correlation between the median fracture
spacing and bed thickness is found only for set_1 and
set_3. This type of correlation, in agreement with recent
findings of KORNEVA et alii (2014), shows that median
 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELLING 9

TABLE 1
Results obtained after DFN modelling of SB fractures, NSB fractures and both SB and NSB fractures by using either
theoretical or measured fracture aperture values.

fracture spacing increases proportionally with bed thick-

ness (GROSS, 1993). Differently, both set_2 and set_4 frac-
tures do not show this type of correlation, likely due to a
lack of control played by the carbonate beds on their for-
mation. In fact, SB fracture set_2 and set_4 are associated
to strike-slip faulting (KORNEVA et alii, 2014).
Focusing on SB fracture set_1 and set_3, the oldest
fracture sets, due to their mutual abutting relationships,
which are nicely displayed on the pavements of the
quarry, they may have formed nearly at the same time
due to the stress state transition mechanism (BAI & POL-
LARD, 2000). This mechanism implies that fractures Fig. 10 - Fracture modelling results of NSB fractures obtained for

magnitude of the sub-horizontal σ2 and σ3 (BAI et alii,

developed in a stress state characterized by a similar
2002), similar to what it has been previously invoked for
the Miocene carbonate grainstones of the Granada Basin,
Spain (AGOSTA et alii, 2012; RUSTICHELLI et alii, 2013a,b),
as well as for the orthogonal sets of pressure solution
seams associated the bed-parallel shortening of Lazio-
Abruzzi and Apulian carbonates of central Italy (AGOSTA
& AYDIN, 2006; ANTONELLINI et alii, 2008; AGOSTA et alii,
2009; AYDIN et alii, 2010).
The S/T indexes computed for the set_1 and set_3
fractures can be discussed in light of the “sequential infilling”
process proposed by HOBBS (1967) for joint development
in layered rocks. This author claimed that, as the remote
tensile stress increases, the joint spacing decreases within
a given sedimentary bed (mechanical unit) due to forma-
tion of new joints in between the preexisting ones. When
joints reach a spacing value similar to the bed thickness,
no other fractures may form; in this case, the existing
joints continue to open to accommodate the applied
stress (BAI & POLLARD, 2000). The value at which no
other fractures may form is called “Fracture saturation”
the geocellular volumes reported in fig. 6 (set_1: yellow, set_2: green,
set_3: red, set_4: blue).
(WU & POLLARD, 1995). In sedimentary rocks, this value
corresponds approximately to the thickness of individual
beds. The computed S/T values of the two fracture sets
are consistent with set_1 fractures over-saturating the
carbonate beds (S/T of about 0.4). This value might be
due to high pore fluid pressure during joint formation, as
suggested by WU & POLLARD (1995), which can easily
occur in carbonates during burial diagenesis (RUSTI-
CHELLI et alii, 2012, and references therein). Alternatively,
the S/T of about 0.4 value can be due to the extensional
tectonics stage connected with flexure of the Apulian
foreland (BILLI & SALVINI, 2003; BILLI, 2005), which
might have determined formation of new fractures sub-
parallel to the pre-existing ones. These new opening-
mode fractures (joints) might have formed within an
already fractured medium under a different stress state
conditions relative to those active during burial diagene-
sis (BAI & POLLARD, 2000), and/or due to sealing by
10 E. PANZA ET ALII
Fig. 11 - Results of DFN modelling of NSB fractures with theoretical
aperture values: (a) Computed P32, the scale shown on the right is
m2/m3; (b) Computed porosity, the scale shown on the right is in
percent; (c) Computed correspondent permeability (Kxx), the scale
shown on the right is mD.
Fig. 13 - Fracture modelling results of SB & NSB fractures obtained
for the geocellular volumes reported in fig. 6 (set_1: yellow, set_2:
green, set_3: red, set_4: blue).
mineral precipitation (veining) of the pre-existing frac-
tures. Based upon the existing data, we cannot distin-
guish between the aforementioned possible causes.
Regarding the fracture height distribution, SB frac-
tures show height values up to the bed thickness values.
The fracture length distribution of NSB fractures is nicely
fit by power laws, similar to the results of AGOSTA et alii
(2010) for Miocene carbonates of the Majella Mt., central
Italy, suggesting that the fracture length values are not
randomly distributed, but rather controlled by local stress
conditions (GILLESPIE et alii, 1993).
Fig. 12 - Results of DFN modelling of NSB fractures with measured
aperture values: (a) Computed P32, the scale shown on the right is
m2/m3; (b) Computed porosity, the scale shown on the right is in
percent; (c) Computed correspondent permeability (Kxx), the scale
shown on the right is Darcy.
VOLUMETRIC AND HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES
DFN modelling was aimed at deciphering the role
exerted by SB and NSB on the volumetric and hydraulic
properties of the study rocks. In order to compute P32,
porosity and correspondent permeability of representa-
tive geocellular volumes, multiple DFN modelling were
performed. Results of such computations are reported in
tab. 1. As expected, in all models, the greatest correspon-
dent permeability values are attained along the vertical
direction (Kzz). For this reason, the correspondent perme-
ability computed along one of the horizontal directions,
Kxx, is shown in the article.
DFN modelling of SB fractures shows that volu-
metric properties are controlled by the oldest fracture
and φ values localize in correspondence of the largest
sets (set_1 and set_3). In particular, the highest P32
set_1 fractures (figs. 8a, 8b, 9a). Similarly, SB fracture
set_1 and set_3 are the main controls on the computed
correspondent permeability values (Kxx). Between these
two fracture sets, set_1 likely act as main fluid conduit
due to its relative abundance. Comparing results
obtained by inputting theoretical and measured aper-
ture values, it is observed that in the first case the com-
puted properties are too large to be considered represen-
tative, whereas the latter data input provided more
realistic porosity and correspondent permeability com-
putations (NELSON, 2001).
DFN modelling of NSB fractures shows that both vol-
umetric and hydraulic properties are mainly controlled
by fracture set_1 and set_2. Despite the greater number of
SB fractures (N=6167) relative to NSB fractures (N=935),
 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELLING
Fig. 14 - Results of DFN modelling of SB & NSB fractures with
theoretical aperture values: (a) Computed P32, the scale shown on
the right is m2/m3; (b) Computed porosity, the scale shown on the
right is in percent; (c) Computed correspondent permeability (Kxx),
the scale shown on the right is mD.
the computed porosity and correspondent permeability
are much higher than those obtained for SB fractures (cf.
tab. 1) because of the greater dimensional parameters of
NSB fractures, specifically height and aperture values.
Height is controlled by bed thicknesses, that formed the
main mechanical control on the development of SB frac-
tures. Meanwhile, the NSB fractures crosscut multiple
carbonate beds due to shearing of pre-existing SB frac-
tures and linkage processes related to faulting (KORNEVA
et alii, 2014). Focusing on the permeability values (Kxx),
the highest values are obtained in correspondence of the
largest set_1 and set_2 fractures. However, the correspon-
dent permeability locally increases in correspondence of
clusters of set_3 fractures, which may play a role in the
overall connectivity of the fracture network. Also in this
case the volumetric and hydraulic properties resulting, by
inserting the measured apertures of NSB fractures as
input parameter, show that the resulting numerical values
of both porosity and permeability are more representa-
tives (tab. 1).
DFN modelling of both SB and NSB fractures gene-
rated a number of fractures, N=6976, which does not
corresponds to the sum of those generated after the two
aforementioned models (N=6167 and N=935, respec-
tively). This results can be explained by considering the
11
Fig. 15 - Results of DFN modelling of SB & NSB fractures with
measured aperture values: (a) Computed P32, the scale shown on the
right is m2/m3; (b) Computed porosity, the scale shown on the right
is in percent; (c) Computed correspondent permeability (Kxx), the
scale shown on the right is Darcy.
modalities taken by MOVETM to generate individual
fracture sets. The software places a generated fracture
set in a specific position within the geocellular volume
following a random distribution. When it populates the
volume with a second fracture set, the new fractures are
placed near the preexisting ones around the node in the
middle cell. Following this procedure, some SB frac-
tures can “covered” by larger NSB fractures. Neverthe-
metric properties (P32 and φ) are mainly influenced by
less, the results of such a modelling shows that the volu-
set_3 SB fractures. The computed φ value obtained
set_1 and set_2 NSB fractures and, then, by set_1 and
the sum of the φ values obtained from the two previous
using theoretical aperture values (2.7%) corresponds to
computed φ values for SB fractures is in line with the
models (0.1% and 2.6%, respectively). Although the
numbers provided by NELSON (2001), the values associ-
ated to NSB fractures largely exceed the aforementioned
window. A possible explanation for this discrepancy is
the choice adopted to constrain the aspect ratios and
aperture values of NSB fractures. As expected, the corre-
spondent permeability computed along the three princi-
pal directions (Kxx, Kyy, Kzz) is similar to that obtained
for NSB fractures. Along the xx direction, the correspon-
dent permeability is mainly affected by set_1 and set_2
NSB fractures, similar to what KORNEVA et alii (2014)
documented for the two main sets of high-angle faults.
Results obtained by inputting theoretical and measured
aperture values show that, likely in the aforementioned
cases, the first ones, greatly overestimate both volumet-
ric and hydraulic properties and therefore result to be
unrealistic.
12 E. PANZA ET ALII
CONCLUSIONS
This work investigated the spacing and height distri-
butions of Strata-Bound (SB) and Non Strata-Bound
(NSB) fractures crosscutting a carbonate multi-layer per-
taining to the Altamura Formation. The goal was to deci-
pher the structural architecture of the fracture network
by means of scan line and scan area field measurements
and, subsequently, build up Discrete Fracture Network
(DFN) modelling of representative rock volumes. Field
data have been discussed in terms of fracture stratigra-
phy of the carbonate multi-layer, those obtained after
DFN modelling to decipher the relative role of SB and
NSB fractures on the volumetric and hydraulic proper-
ties of such a multi-layer.
Among the four documented SB fracture sets, the
two oldest fracture sets show a spacing distribution pro-
portional to the bed thickness. The most common SB frac-
ture set shows oversaturation conditions within the
individual beds, likely due to high pore fluid pressure at
times of formation or, alternatively, later extensional
tectonics related to foreland bulging of the Apulian
domain. Further work is required in order to assess the
cause of such fracture oversaturation conditions. The two
youngest SB fracture sets do not show any correlation
between their computed median spacing values and bed
thickness.
DFN modelling was performed by using the MOVETM
software. Representative geocellular volumes were built
in order to simulate the investigated carbonate multi-
layer. Considering the individual SB and NSB fracture
sets, the orientation, size distribution, and N values
(number of fractures per sample volume) were used as
data input. The aspect ratio of individual SB and NSB
fracture sets was assumed based upon existing literature
data. Either theoretical or measured aperture values were
inputted for individual SB and NSB fracture sets. The
results of DFN modelling were discussed in terms of volu-
metric (P32 and fracture porosity) and hydraulic proper-
ties (correspondent permeability).
Results of DFN modelling show that theoretical aper-
ture values produce an overestimation of both fracture
porosity and correspondent permeability. Measured aper-
ture values form therefore a more reliable dataset for
numerical modelling. Nevertheless, in both DFN models
(built inputting theoretical and measured aperture values,
respectively), NSB fractures seem to act as a major con-
trol on these properties. Specifically, the two main NSB
fractures sets striking N120°E and N160°E, are those that
mostly affect the horizontal correspondent permeability
values. The two NSB fracture sets form a conjugate system
of incipient strike-slip faults. These structural elements
form a pronounced anisotropy within the fractured rock
the local σhmax, are likely to constitute efficient conduits
volumes and, being oriented al low angle with respect to
for fluid flow.
We note that the computed volumetric and hydraulic
properties might be useful for characterizing the study
carbonate multi-layer in terms of storage and correspon-
dent permeability. Despite the fact the permeability val-
ues at the reservoir condition cannot been predicted due
to a lack of information regarding the stress state, and
resulting fracture aperture at reservoir conditions, we
highlight the results of the present study of a surface ana-
logue may therefore help to better assess subsurface con-
ditions. In fact, we provide useful information in terms of
fracture distributions, intensity, and relative influence (and
role) of the different fracture systems on fluid storage and
migration paths.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the revisions provided by two anonymous
referees, and comments and suggestions of the associate editor. We
also thank Canio Manniello for his help during fieldwork, and
Antonino Cilona for the support with DFN modelling. This work was
supported by the Reservoir Characterization Project (www.rechproject.
com). The views and conclusions contained in this article are solely
those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily
representing the views or the official policies, either expressed or
implied, of the TOTAL E &P GROUP.
REFERENCES
AGOSTA F. & AYDIN A. (2006) - Architecture and deformation mechanism
of a basin-bounding normal fault in Mesozoic platform carbonates,
central Italy. Journal of Structural Geology, 28, 1445-1467.
AGOSTA A. (2008) - Fluid flow properties of large, basin-bounding normal
fault zones in massive carbonates. In: Wibberley C., Kurz W.,
Imber J., Holdsworth R. & Collettini C., “The Internal Structure
of Fault Zones: Implications for Mechanical and Fluid-Flow
Properties”. Geological Society of London Special Publication, 299,
277-291.
AGOSTA F., ALESSANDRONI M., TONDI E. & AYDIN A. (2009) - Oblique
normal faulting along the northern edge of the Majella Anticline,
central Italy: Inferences on hydrocarbon migration and accumulation.
Journal of Structural Geology, 31, 674-690.
AGOSTA F., ALESSANDRONI M., ANTONELLINI M., TONDI E. & GIOR-
GIONI M. (2010) - From fractures to flow: a field-based quantitative
analysis of an outcropping carbonate reservoir. Tectonophysics, 490,
197-213.
AGOSTA F., RUANO P., RUSTICHELLI A., TONDI E., GALINDO-ZALDIVAR J.
& SANZ DE GALDEANO C. (2012) - Inner structure and deformation
mechanisms of normal faults in conglomerates and carbonate
grainstones (Granada Basin, Betic Cordillera, Spain): Inferences
on fault permeability. Journal of Structural Geology, 45, 4-20.
ANTONELLINI A., TONDI E., AGOSTA F., AYDIN A. & CELLO G. (2008) -
Failure modes in basin carbonates and their impact on fault deve-
lopment, Majella Mountain, central Italy. Marine and Petroleum
Geology, 25, 1074-1096.
AYDIN A. (2000) - Fractures, faults, and hydrocarbon entrapment,
migration and flow. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 17, 797-814.
AYDIN A., BORJA R.I. & EICHHUBL P. (2006) - Geological and mathe-
matical framework for failure modes in granular rock. Journal of
Structural Geology, 28, 83-98.
AYDIN A., ANTONELLINI M., TONDI E. & AGOSTA F. (2010) - Deformation
along the leading edge of the Maiella thrust sheet in central Italy.
Journal of Structural Geology, 32 (9), 1291-1304. doi.org/10.1016/
j.jsg.2008.10.005.
BAI T. & POLLARD D. (2000) - Fracture spacing in layered rocks: a new
explanation based on the stress transition. Journal of Structural
Geology, 22, 43-57.
BAI T., MAERTEN L., GROSS M.R. & AYDIN A. (2002) - Orthogonal
cross joints: do they imply a regional stress rotation? Journal of
Structural Geology, 24, 77-88.
BARTON N. & CHOUBEY V. (1977) - The shear strength of rock joints
in theory and practice. Rock Mechanics, 10 (1/2), 1-54.
BILLI A. & SALVINI F. (2003) - Development of systematic joints in
response to flexure related fibre stress in flexed foreland plates: the
Apulian forebulge case history, Italy. Journal of Geodynamics, 36,
523-536.
BILLI A. (2005) - Attributes and influence on fluid flow of fractures in
foreland carbonates of southern Italy. Journal of Structural Geo-
logy, 27, 1630-1643.
BORGOMANO J.R.F. (2000) - The Upper Cretaceous carbonates of the
Gargano-Murge region, southern Italy: a model of platform-to-
 STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE AND DISCRETE FRACTURE NETWORK MODELLING
basin transition. American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Bulletin, 84, 1561-1588.
BUSH I. (2010) - An integrated approach to fracture characterization.
Oil Review Middle East, 13 (2), 88-91.
CACAS M.C., DANIEL J.M. & LETOUZEY J. (2001) - Nested geological
modelling of naturally fractured reservoirs. Petroleum Geo-
science, 7 (S), 43-52.
CHANNEL J.E.T., D’ARGENIO B. & NORVATH F. (1979) - Adria, the
African Promontory in Mesozoic Mediterranean paleogeography.
Earth Science, 15, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam.
CHECCONI A., RETTORI R. & SPALLUTO L. (2008) - Biostratigrafia a
foraminiferi del Cretaceo Superiore della successione di Parco
Priore (Calcare di Altamura, Piattaforma Apula, Italia Meridionale).
Annali dell’Università di Ferrara, Museo di Scienze Naturali, 4,
1824-2707.
CHESNAUX R., ALLEN D.M. & JENNI S. (2009) - Regional fracture
network permeability using outcrop scale measurements. Engi-
neering Geology, 108, 259-271.
CIARANFI N., CUSCITO M., GUIDA M., IACCARINO G., IANNACCONE G.,
PANZA G.F., PESCATORE T., PIERI P., RAPISARDI L., RICHETTI G.,
SCANDONE P., SCARPA R., SGROSSO I., TORRE M., TORTORICI L.
& TURCO E. (1983) - Elementi sismotettonici dell’Appennino
meridionale. Boll. Soc. Geol. It., 102.
COOKE M.L., SIMO J.A., UNDERWOOD C.A. & RIJKEN P. (2006) -
Mechanical stratigraphic controls on fracture patterns within
carbonates and implications for groundwater flow. Sedimentary
Geology, 184, 225-239.
D’ARGENIO B. (1974) - Le piattaforme cabonatiche periadriatiche. Una
rassegna di problemi nel quadro geodinamico mesozoico dell’area
mediterranea. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., suppl. 2.
DE JOUSSINEAU G. & AYDIN A. (2007) - The evolution of the damage
zone with fault growth in sandstone and its multiscale characteristics.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, B12401. doi: 10.1029/
2006JB004711.
FESTA V. (2003) - Cretaceous structural features of the Murge area
(Apulian Foreland, Southern Italy). Eclogae geologica Helvetia,
96, 11-22.
FLETCHER R.C. & POLLARD D.D. (1981) - Anticrack model for pressure
solution surfaces. Geology, 9, 419-424.
GAUTHIER B.D.M. & LAKE S. (1993) - Probabilistic modeling of faults
below the limit of seismic resolution in Pelican Field, North Sea,
offshore United Kingdom. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 77 (5), 761-777.
GILLESPIE P.A., HOWARD C.B., WALSH J.J. & WATTERSON J. (1993) -
Measurement and characterization of spatial distribution of frac-
tures. Tectonophysics, 226, 113-141.
GRAHAM B., ANTONELLINI M. & AYDIN A. (2003) - Formation and
growth of normal faults in carbonates within a compressive envi-
ronment. Geology, 31, 11-14.
GROSS M. (1993) - The origin and spacing of cross joints: examples from
the Monterey Formation, Santa Barbara coastline, California.
Journal of Structural Geology, 15 (6), 737-751.
GROSS M.R., FISCHER M.P., ENGELDER T. & GREENFIELD R.J. (1995) -
Factors controlling joint spacing in interbedded sedimentary
rocks: interpreting numerical models with field observations from
the Monterey Formation, USA. In: Ameen M.S. (ed.), Fracto-
graphy: Fracture Topography as a Tool in Fracture Mechanics
and Stress Analysis: Geological Society of America Special
Publication, 92, 215-233.
GUDMUNDSSON A., SIMMENES T.H., LARSEN B. & PHILIPP S.L.
(2010) - Effects of internal structure and local stresses on fracture
propagation, deflection, and arrest in fault zones. Journal of Struc-
tural Geology, 32, 1643-1655.
GUERRIERO V., MAZZOLI S., IANNACE A., VITALE S., CARRAVETTA A.
& STRAUSS C. (2013) - A permeability model for naturally fractured
carbonate reservoirs. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 40, 115-134.
HOBBS D.W. (1967) - The formation of tension joint in sedimentary
rocks: an explanation. Geological Magazine, 126, 355-362.
KORNEVA I., TONDI E., AGOSTA F., RUSTICHELLI A., SPINA V., BITONTE R. &
DI CUIA R. (2014) - Structural properties of fractured and faulted
Cretaceous platform carbonates, Murge Plateau (southern Italy).
Marine and Petroleum Geology, 57, 312-326.
13
LAUBACH S.E., OLSON J.E. & GROSS M.R. (2009) - Mechanical and
fracture stratigraphy. American Association of Petroleum Geolo-
gists Bulletin, 93, 1413-1426.
LAVENU A.P.C., LAMARCHE J., GALLOIS A. & GAUTHIER B.D.M. (2013) -
Tectonic versus diagenetic origin of fractures in a naturally fractured
carbonate reservoir analog (Nerthe anticline, southeastern France).
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 97,
2207-2232.
LAVENU A.P.C., LAMARCHE J., SALARDON R., GALLOIS A., MARIÉ L. &
GAUTHIER B.D.M. (2014) - Relating background fractures to dia-
genesis and rock physical properties in a platformeslope transect.
Example of the Maiella Mountain (central Italy). Marine and
Petroleum Geology, 51, 2-19.
LONG J.C.S., AYDIN A., BROWN S., EINSTEIN H., HESTIR K., HSIEH P.,
MYER L., NOLTE K., NORTON D., OLSSON O., PAILLET F., SMITH J.
& THOMSEN L. (1996) - Rock fractures and fluid flow. National
Academy Press, Washington D.C., 551.
LUCIA F.J. (1999) - Carbonate Reservoir Characterization. Springer-
Verlag, New York, USA.
NARR W.& SUPPE J. (1991) - Joint spacing in sedimentary rocks. Journal
of Structural Geology, 13, 1037-1048.
NELSON R.A. (2001) - Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured Reser-
voirs. 2nd Edition Gulf Professional Publishing, Woburn.
ODA M. (1985) - Permeability Tensor for Discontinuous Rock Mass.
Géotechnique, 35 (4), 483-495.
ODLING N.E. (1997) - Scaling and connectivity of joint systems in sandsto-
nes from western Norway. Journal of Structural Geology, 19 (10),
1257-1271.
ODLING N.E., GILLESPIE P.A., BOURGINE B., CASTAING C., CHILÈS J.P.,
CHRISTENSEN N.P., FILLION E., GENTER A., OLSEN C., THRANE L.,
TRICE R., AARSETH E.S., WALSH J.J. & WATTERSON J. (1999) -
Variations in fracture system geometry and their implications for
fluid flow in fractured hydrocarbon reservoirs. Petroleum Geo-
science, 5, 373-384.
OLSON J.E. (2003) - Sublinear scaling of fracture aperture versus length:
An exception or the rule? Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid
Earth, 108 (B9), ETG3-1, 2413.
OLSSON R. & BARTON N. (2001) - An improved model for hydrome-
chanical coupling during shearing of rock joints. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 38, 317-329.
ORTEGA O.J., MARRETT R.A. & LAUBACH S.E. (2006) - A scale-indepen-
dent approach to fracture intensity and average spacing measurement.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 90 (2),
193-208.
PALMSTRÖM A. (2001) - Measurement and characterization of rock
mass jointing. In In-situ characterization of rocks. Sharma V.M.
& Saxena K.R. (eds.), A.A. Balkema publishers, 49-97.
PIERI P., FESTA V., MORETTI M. & TROPEANO M. (1997) - Quaternary
tectonic activity of the Murge area (Apulian foreland - Southern
Italy). Annali di Geofisica XL.
POLLARD D.D. & AYDIN A. (1988) - Progress in understanding jointing
over the past century. Geological Society of America Bulletin,
100, 1181-1204.
QUESTIAUX J.M., COUPLES G.D. & RUBY N. (2010) - Fractured reservoirs
with fracture corridors. Geophysical Prospecting, 58, 279-295.
RICCHETTI G., CIARANFI N., SINNI E.L., MONGELLI F. & PIERI P.
(1988) - Geodinamica ed evoluzione sedimentaria e tettonica del-
l’avampaese Apulo. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 41, 57-82.
RUSTICHELLI A., TONDI E., AGOSTA F., CILONA A. & GIORGIONI M.
(2012) - Development and distribution of bed-parallel compaction
bands and pressure solution seams in carbonates (Bolognano
Formation, Majella Mountain, Italy). Journal of Structural Geo-
logy, 37, 181-199.
RUSTICHELLI A., AGOSTA F., TONDI E. & SPINA V. (2013a) - Spacing
and distribution of bed-perpendicular joints throughout layered,
shallow-marine carbonates (Granada Basin, southern Spain).
Tectonophysics, 582, 188-204.
RUSTICHELLI A., TONDI E., AGOSTA F., DI CELMA C. & GIORGIONI M.
(2013b) - Sedimentologic and diagenetic controls on pore-network
characteristics of Oligocene-Miocene ramp carbonates (Majella
Mountain, central Italy). American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 97, 487-524.
14 E. PANZA ET ALII
SALIU M.A., OLALEYE B.M. & HALEEM J.O. (2012) - Modified Volu-
metric Joint Count to check for suitability of granite outcrops for
dimension stone production. Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, 7 (5), 646-660.
SELLI R. (1962) - Il Paleogene nel quadro della geologia dell’Italia meri-
dionale. Mem. Soc. Geol. It., 3, 737-789.
SPALLUTO L. (2011) - Facies evolution and sequence chronostrati-
graphy of a “mid”-Cretaceous shallow-water carbonate succession
of the Apulia Carbonate Platform from the northern Murge area
(Apulia, southern Italy). Facies. doi: 10.1007/s10347-011-0266-0.
STRIJKER G., BERTOTTI G. & LUTHI S.M. (2012) - Multiscale fracture
network analysis from an outcrop analogue: A case study from the
Cambro-Ordovician clastic succession in Petra, Jordan. Marine
and Petroleum Geology, 38, 104-116.
TERZAGHI R.D. (1965) - “Sources of errors in joint surveys”. Geotech-
nique, 15, 287-304.
TIAB D. & DONALDSON E.C. (1996) - Petrophysics: theory and practice
of measuring reservoir rock and fluid transport properties. Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, Texas.
Manuscript received 21 March 2014; accepted 11 July 2014; editorial responsability and handling by L. Crispini.
TONDI E., ANTONELLINI M., AYDIN A., MARCHEGIANI L. & CELLO G.
(2006) - The role of deformation bands, stylolites and sheared
stylolites in fault development in carbonate grainstones of
Majella Mountain, Italy. Journal of Structural Geology, 28,
376-391.
TONDI E., CILONA A., AGOSTA F., AYDIN A., RUSTICHELLI A., RENDA P.
& GIUNTA G. (2012) - Growth processes, dimensional parameters
and scaling relationships of two conjugate sets of compactive
shear bands in porous carbonate grainstones, Favignana Island,
Italy. Journal of Structural Geology, 37, 53-64.
UNDERWOOD C.A., COOKE M.L., SIMO J.A. & MULDOON M.A. (2003) -
Stratigraphic controls on vertical fracture patterns in Silurian dolo-
mite, northeastern Wisconsin. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 87, 121-142.
WU H.Q. & POLLARD D.D. (1995) - An experimental study of the rela-
tionship between joint spacing and layer thickness. Journal of
Structural Geology, 17, 887-905.
ZAPPATERRA E. (1990) - Carbonate paleogeographic sequence of the
Periadriatic region. Boll. Soc. Geol. It., 109, 5-20.