Composition of Substancesy

and Solutions ist r

e m
• Atomic Mass and Formula Mass; h
• Mole & Molar Mass;
- C
• U
Percent Composition of Compounds;
• H I
Determination of Empirical & Molecular
Formulas; at
• Molarity
ng
hi
• Other Units for Solution Concentrations
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 Atomic Masses
rt y
• Absolute masses of atoms cannot be is obtained –
m
too small to measure the massedirectly;
• Atomic mass is expressedC ashrelative mass –
- standard or reference.
masses relative to a chosen
• Carbon-12 was chosen I U as reference, and assigned
an atomic masstofH12 amu exactly;
a
g
• Masses of other
natom;
atoms are relative to that of
carbon-12
hi
• Relative
a c atomic masses are determined using mass
t e
spectrophotometer;
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 A Schematic Diagram of Mass
y
t r
is
Spectrophotometer
e m
C h
-
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 Isotope Mass of CO2
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is
e m
C h
-
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t H
a
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 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept
y t r
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• Atomic mass:
e m
C h
– The average atomic mass of an element is the weighted
average atomic mass of all stable isotopes, taking into
-
consideration the abundance of those isotopes of that
element. I U
H
t
• Formula Mass:a
– The massnofga molecule or compound is the sum of atomic
i
masseshof all the atoms represented in the substance’s
a c
chemical formula.
t e
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 Mass Spectrum of Chlorine:
rt y
1) Indicate 2 isotopes of chlorine, with relative
masses of 35 amu and 37 amu; is
e m
2) Relative abundance: Cl-35 ~75%) & Cl-37 ~25%
C h
-
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t H
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 Mass Spectrum of Mercury
y t r
(Shows a total of 7 isotopes with relative masses
and abundances) is
e m
C h
-
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t H
a
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 Calculating Average Atomic Masses y from the
t r
s
Isotope Masses and Abundances
i
• Example-1: e m
h
Copper is composed of twoCnaturally occurring
- mass = 62.93 amu;
isotopes: copper-63 (with
abundance = 69.09%)I Uand copper-65 (with mass =
t H
64.93 amu; abundance = 30.91%;).
a
Averagegatomic mass of copper:
i n
c h
= (62.93 amu x 0.6909) + (64.93 amu x 0.3091)
a
te
= 63.55 amu

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 Calculating Average Atomic Masses y from the
t r
s
Isotope Masses and Abundances
i
Exercise-#1: e m
C h
Chlorine has two stable naturally occurring isotopes:
-
chlorine-35 (with mass = 34.9689 amu; abundance =
I U
75.76%) and chlorine-37 (with mass = 36.9659 amu;
H
abundance = 24.24%). Calculate the average atomic
t
a
mass of chlorine?

ng
i
Atomic mass of chlorine
h
a c
= (34.9689 amu x 0.7576) + (36.9659 amu x 0.2424)

te = 35.45 u (as given in the periodic table)

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 y
Calculating Average AtomictrMass
is
• Exercise-#2: e m
C h
• Magnesium has three stable isotopes with the following
masses and natural abundances: -
I U
Magnesium-24 (mass = 23.9850 amu; abundance = 79.00%;
H
Magnesium-25 (mass = 24.9858 amu; abundance = 10.00%, and
t
a
Magnesium-26 (mass = 25.9826 amu; abundance = 11.00%).
g
• Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium.
n
h i
(Answer:c24.31 amu)
•
e a
r t
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 rt y
Calculating Relative Abundance of Isotopes
is
• Exercise-#3: e m
• Boron has two stable isotopes: C h
-
a) boron-10 (mass = 10.013 amu) and
I U
b) boron-11 (mass = 11.009 amu).
t H
• If the average atomic mass of boron is 10.81 amu,
a
calculate the relative abundance of each isotope.
ng
hi
ac
• (Answer: boron-10 = 20.0%; boron-11 = 80.0%)
te
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 Calculating Number of Atoms from Mass
rt y
• Example-2: is
1. e m
The atomic mass of carbon is 12.01 amu. (a) How many carbon
h
atoms are present in a 5.00-g carbon? (b) How many carbon atoms
C
-
are present in a 12.01-g carbon? (1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g)

• Solution: I U
t H
First, we find what is 12.01 amu in gram: 12.01 amu x
1.6605 𝑥 10−24 𝑔

a 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢

n g = 1.994 x 10-23 g

h i
Then, divide the mass of sample by the mass of a C-atom in gram:
1 𝐶−𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚

a c
(a) Number of C-atoms = 5.00 g x
1.994 𝑥 10−23 𝑔
= 2.51 x 1023 atoms;

t(b)e# of C-atoms = 12.01 g x

1 𝐶−𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
= 6.023 x 1023 atoms
1.994 𝑥 10−23 𝑔

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 rt y Mass
Calculating Number of Atoms from
is
• Exercise-#4: e m
• The atomic mass of silicon is C
h
28.09 amu. (a) How many
silicon atoms are present in-a 5.00-g silicon? (b) How
many silicon atoms areIUpresent in 28.09 g of silicon?
• (1 amu = 1.66054 x H –24

a t 10 g)

ng
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a c
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 Atomic Mass & Molar Mass
y t r
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• Examples: e m
Element Atomic mass
C h Molar mass
Carbon 12.01 u - 12.01 g/mol
Oxygen I U
16.00 u 16.00 g/mol
Aluminum t H
26.98 u 26.98 g/mol
a
Silicon
ng 28.09 u 28.09 g/mol
Gold hi 197.0 u 197.0 g/mol
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 rt y
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e m
C h
-
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a
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 Molecular Mass, Formula Mass & Molar Mass
rt y
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• Molecular mass = mass of one molecule
e m (in u);

C h
• Molar mass = mass of one mole of element or
compound (in g/mol) = sum of atomic masses;
-
• Examples:
I U
t H
Molecular Mass Molar Mass (g/mol)
N a28.02 u 28.02
2
H O in
g 18.02 u 18.02
CcH
h
2
114.22 u 114.22
a
8 18
e H H 342.30 u
r tC
12 22 11 342.30

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 Formula Mass for Covalent Molecules
y t r
is
m
• For covalent molecules the molecular formula represents the
e
that substance. C h
number and types of atoms composing a single molecule of

-
I U
• The formula mass is also referred to as molecular mass.
tH
a caffeine: C H N O
• Consider the compound
• What is the
n g 8 10
molar mass of the compound?
4 2

i
• Whathis the percentage composition (by mass) of each
a c
element in caffeine?
t e
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 ry
Formula Mass for Ionic Compounds
t
is
m
• For ionic compounds, the chemical formula represents
e
C h
the types of cations and anions and the ratio in which
they combine to achieve electrically neutral matter.
-
I U
• The chemical formula does NOT represent the composition
t
of a discrete molecule.H
a
g
• Consider the compound, sodium chloride (NaCl)
n
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 The Mole
rt y
• Reporting the number of atoms, molecules,isor ions in a sample
e m
is not practical because atoms are so small.

C
• Instead chemists use the unit called
hthe mole to represent the
quantity of substances. -
I U
• The mole is defined asH
at
same number of discrete
the amount of a substance containing the
entities (such as atoms, molecules, or
g
ions) as the number
n 12 g.of atoms in a sample of pure carbon-12
hi
weighing exactly

a c
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 The Mole rt y
is
• A sample of carbon-12 isotope e mthat weighs exactly
h
12 g contains 6.022 x 10C atoms.
23

• Avogadro’s Number =- 6.022 x 10 23

I
• A mole is a quantity
U that contains the Avogadro’s
t H
a (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.);
Number of items

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 Avogadro’s Number and theyMole
t r
is
e m
• The term “mole” is analogous to the word dozen;
C
➢ Dozen – A collection of 12 items.h
-
➢ Mole – A collection of 6.022 x 1023 items.
I U
t H
• The relationship that 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 items is
a
an extremely important and useful conversion factor
ng
in chemistry.
hi
a c
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 23 items
y
1 Mole of anything is 6.022 x 10
t r
is
e m
• 1 mole of silicon = 6.022 x 1023 Si atoms
C h
• 1 mole of O2 molecules = 6.022 x 1023 O2 molecules
-
I U
• 1 mole of H2O = 6.022 x 1023 H2O molecules
tH
• 1 mole of Na+aions = 6.022 x 10 23 Na+ ions
n g
• 1 molehofi electrons = 6.022 x 10 electrons
23

a c
• 1te 23
mole of pennies = 6.022 x 10 pennies
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 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number allows us to
r y
t mass
count atoms and molecules by
is
e m
h
• The atomic mass of an element in the periodic table:
C
– is equivalent to the average mass of one atom of that
-
I U
element in atomic mass units (amu).
– but also equivalent to the mass of one mole of that element
in grams. t H
a
• In the lab we g rarely work in amu because we deal
with largeincollections of atoms and molecules.
h
c more practical to work in grams.
• It isamuch
t e
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• One mole of any element contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of that
element.
rt y
• The mass of one mole of different elements are not the same
is
because the masses of the individual atoms are different.

e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
h i
• Each of the
atoms)a
c above samples contains 1.00 mole of atoms (or 6.02 × 10 23

t e modification of work by Mark Ott)

of the element.

r
• (credit:
o
F
 Just how big is 6.022 x 10y23?
t r
is
e m
• In order to obtain a mole of sand grains (6.022 x 1023 grains of
C h
sand), it would be necessary to dig the entire surface of the
-
Sahara desert (which has an area slightly less than that of the
U
United States) to a depth of 6 feet.
I
t H
a
• If you had a mole of dollars (6.022 x 10 dollars), and if you
g 23

n at the rate of one billion (1 x 10 ) dollars per

i
spend this money
h
9

a
the money.
c
second, it would take you over 19 million years to spend all of

t e
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 rt y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
n g
h i
• The number c
a times greater than the number of people on earth.
of molecules in a single droplet of water is roughly
200ebillion
t
• r(credit: “tanakawho”/Wikimedia commons)

F o
 Molar Mass (MM)y
t r
MM =
grams is
mole e
m
C h
-
• The molar mass (MM), of an element or a compound
I U
is the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance.
• Examples: t H
aMolar Mass (g/mol)
ng
Al
hi 26.98
H Oc
a
CteH H
2 18.02
342.30
o r 12 22 11

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 Calculating Molar Mass
y t r
is
• Example-3:
e m
h
a) Consider the compound caffeine, C8H10N4O2. What is
C
the molar mass of the compound?
-
= (8 x 12.01) + (10 x 1.008) + (4 x 14.01) + (2 x 16.00)
= 194.2 g/mol; I U
t H
a) What is molar a mass of ammonium phosphate,
(NH )nPO g?
= (3 h
i
4 3 4
x 14.01) + (12 x 1.008) + (1 x 30.97) + (4 x 16.00)
a c
= 149.1 g/mol
t e
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 Measuring Amountsy
t r
• The simplest way to measure them
is
amount of an
e
element or a compound is by weight.
h
C
• In chemistry we typically-express the amount of a
substance in grams orIU
moles.
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
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 Calculation of Moles fromtryMass
is
e m
• The quantity in moles of a substance can be
calculated from the sample C h
mass in grams and the
- as follows:
molar mass of the substance
I U
t H
Mole =a
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠

ng 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

hi
a c
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 rt y Mass
Calculating Moles from Sample
is
• Example-4: e m
C h
➢ How many moles of caffeine, C8H10N4O2, are present
in 5.00 g of this compound? -
I U
• Solution:
t H
a
Molar mass of caffeine =

g
(8x12.01)+(10x1.008)+(4x14.01)+(2x16.00) = 194.2 g/mol;
n in a 5.00-g sample = 5.00 g x
h i
Mole of caffeine
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
194.2 𝑔
= 0.0257 mol;

a c
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 Calculating mole of Ammonium Phosphate
y
from sample massst r
i
• Example-5: e m
C h
➢ How many moles of ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4,
-
are present in 5.00 x 102 g of this compound?
I U
• Solution:
t H
a phosphate =
Molar mass of ammonium

n g
(3x14.01) + (12x1.008) + (1x30.97) + (4x16.00) = 149.1 g/mol;
i
Moles ofh(NH ) PO in a 5.00 x 10 -g sample
2

a c 4 3 4
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

e
2
= 5.00 x 10 g x = 3.35 moles

r t 149.1 𝑔

Fo
 Calculating Moles and Number of Atoms
rt y
• Exercise-#5: is
e m
C h
a) Calculate the molar mass of sucrose, C12H22O11.
b) How many moles of sucrose are present in 5.00 g of
sucrose? -
I U
c) How many sucrose molecules are present in 5.00 g of
sucrose?
t H
a
d) How many atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
n g
respectively, are present in a 5.00-g sample?
h i
a c
(Answer: 21
(a) 342.3 g/mol; (b) 0.0146 mol; (c) 8.80 x 10 molecules;

t e 1.06 x 10 C-atoms; 1.94 x 10 H-atoms; 9.68 x 10 O-atoms)

(d) 23 23 22

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 Calculating Moles and Number of Atoms
rt y
• Exercise-#6: is
e m
C h
a) Calculate the molar mass of aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3.
b) How many moles of Al2(SO4)3 are present in 25.0 g of
this compound? -
I U
c) How many Al2(SO4)3 units are present in 25.0 g of this
compound?
t H
a
d) How many aluminum, sulfur, and oxygen atoms,
n g
respectively, are present in a 25.0-g sample?
h i
a c
(Answer: 22
(a) 342.14 g/mol; (b) 0.0731 mol; (c) 4.40 x 10 units;

t e 8.80 x 10 Al-atoms; 1.32 x 10 S-atoms; 5.28 x 10 O-atoms)

(d) 22 23 23

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 Calculating numbers of atoms y or
t r
is
molecules from Mass
e m
• The number of atoms or molecules in a sample may be
C h
calculated from the sample mass in grams, the molar mass
-
of the substance, and the Avogadro’s number. This

I U
involves converting the mass into mole and then
multiplying the moles with Avogadro’s number.
t H
a
ng
• Number of atoms or molecules =

hi
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
x
6.022 𝑥 10^23

a c 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

t e
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 y
Calculating Number of Atoms ortrMolecules
is
• Example-5: e m
C h
• How many silicon atoms are present in a 5.00-g sample of
pure silicon? -
I U
• Molar mass of silicon
t H= 28.09 g/mol;
a in 5.00 g of silicon
• Number of Si-atoms
g
ng Si x
h i
= 5.00
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑖
x
6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

a c 28.09 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

t e = 1.07 x 10 Si atoms
23

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 y
Calculating Number of Atoms ortrMolecules
is
• Example-6: e m
C h
How many H2O molecules are present in a 1.00-g sample
(~1 mL) of water? -
I U
• Solution:
t H
a = 18.02 g/mol;
Molar mass of water
Number of H g
i n2O molecules in 1.00 g of water:

c h
= 1.00 gx
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
x
18.02 𝑔
6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 3.34 x 10 23 molecules

e a
r t
Fo
 rt y
Percent Composition of a Compound
is
e m
• What is the percent composition by mass of caffeine,
C8H10N4O2? (molar mass = 194.2 g/mol)
C h
-96.08 𝑔 𝐶

HIU
Mass percent of carbon =
194.2 𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑒
10.08 𝑔 𝐻
x 100% = 49.47%

a t
Mass percent of hydrogen = x 100% = 5.19%
194.2 𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑒

Mass percent g
56.04 𝑔 𝑁
of nitrogen = x 100% = 28.86%
i n 194.2 𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑒

c h
Mass percent of oxygen =
32.00 𝑔 𝑂
x 100% = 16.48%
194.2 𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑒

e a
r t Total percent (by mass) = 100%

Fo
 rt y
Calculation of Percent Composition
is
e m
• What is the percent composition by mass of caffeine,
C
C8H10N4O2? (molar mass = 194.2 g/mol)h
-
U
Mass percent of Carbon = (96.08 g/194.2 g) x 100% = 49.47%
I
t H
Mass percent of Hydrogen = (10.08 g/194.2 g) x 100% = 5.19%
a
g
Mass percent of Nitrogen = (56.04 g/194.2 g) x 100% = 28.86%
n of Oxygen = (32.00 g/194.2 g) x 100% = 16.48%
hi
Mass percent
a c Total percent (by mass) = 100%
t e
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 rt y
Percent Composition of a Compound
is
e m
• What is the percent composition by mass of ammonium
C h
phosphate, (NH4)3PO4? (molar mass = 149.1 g/mol)
- 42.03 𝑔 𝑁

H IU
Mass percent of nitrogen =
149.1 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
12.10 𝑔 𝐻
x 100% = 28.19%

a t
Mass percent of hydrogen =
149.1 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100% = 8.12%

Mass percent g
30.97 𝑔 𝑃
of phosphorus = x 100% = 20.77%
i n 149.1 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

c h
Mass percent of oxygen =
64.00 𝑔 𝑂
149.1 𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
x 100% = 42.92%

e a
r t Total percent (by mass) = 100%

Fo
 rt y
Calculation of Percent Composition
is
e m
• What is the percent composition by mass of ammonium
C h
phosphate, (NH4)3PO4 ? (molar mass = 149.1 g/mol)
-
U
Mass percent of N = (42.03 g/149.1 g) x 100% = 28.19%
I
Mass percent of H = H(12.10 g/149.1 g) x 100% = 8.12%
a t
g
Mass percent of P = (30.97 g/149.1 g) x 100% = 20.77%
n of O = (64.00 g/149.1 g) x 100% = 42.92%
hi
Mass percent
a c Total percent (by mass) = 100%
t e
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 Determination of Empiricaly and
t r
is
Molecular Formulas
• Empirical Formula e m
C h
A formula that shows the simples whole number
ratio of moles of atoms. -
I U
t H
Examples: MgO, Cu S, CH O, Al C O . etc.
2 2 2 3 9

a
• Molecular Formula
g
n that shows the actual number of
i
A formula
h
a c
atoms of each type of element in a molecule.
t e
Examples: C H , C H , C H O , N H , P O , etc.
4 10 6 6 6 12 6 2 4 4 10

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 ry
Determination of Empirical Formula
t
is
• Example-7:
e m
C h
A 5.00 sample of an oxide of phosphorus is found to
contain 2.18 g of phosphorus and 2.82 g of oxygen.
-
Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
I U
• Solution:
t H
Mol of P = 2.18 g xa 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
= 0.0704 mol;
g
n gx
30.97 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂

h i
Mol of O = 2.82
16.00 𝑔
= 0.176 mol;

a c
Mole ratio:
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
=
0.176 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
0.0714 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃
= 2.5/1 = 5/2

t e formula = P O
• Empirical

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 Determination of Empirical Formula
t r y
Example-8:
is
following composition (by mass percent): e m
• A compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen has the
68.1% C, 13.7% H,
and 18.2% O. Determine its empirical
C h formula.
• Solution:
-
Treat mass percent like mass and calculate mole of each element in
I U
100-g sample of the compound.
Mole of C = 68.1 g x (1H mol C/12.01 g) = 5.67 mol;
Mole of H = 13.7 g xt (1 mol H/1.008 g) = 13.6 mol;
a
g
Mole of O = 18.2 g x (1 mol O/16.00 g) = 1.14 mol;
n
h i
• Divide throughout
5.67 mol
by the mole of O (the smallest mole value):
C/1.14 = 4.97 ~ 5;
13.6cmol H/1.14 = 11.9 ~ 12;
a
e1.14 mol O/1.14 = 1;
t
• r Empirical formula = C H O
Fo 5 12
 Determination of Empirical Formula
rt y
Example-9: is
• A 2.32-g sample of a compound composed of m carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen is completely combusted to yield 5.28
h
water. (a) Calculate the composition of the
e g of CO gas and 2.16 g of
2
compound (in mass percent); (b)
Determine its empirical formula.
• Solution: - C
U
• Determine the mass of C, H, and O, respectively, in the sample:
➢ Mass of C = 5.28 g CO xI(12.01 g C/44.01 g CO ) = 1.44 g;
➢ Mass of H = 2.16 g H H
2 2

➢ Mass of O = 2.32a
t
2 O x (2 x 1.008 g/18.02 g H O) = 0.242 g;
2
g sample – 1.44 g C – 0.24 g H = 0.64 g;
• Calculate the massgpercent of each element:
➢ Mass % ofin C = (1.44 g C/2.32 g sample) x 100% = 62.1% ;
➢ Mass %h
➢ Mass c
of H = (0.242 g H/2.32 g sample) x 100% = 10.4% ;

e a % of O = 100 – 62.1% C – 10.4% H = 27.5%

r t
• Composition
• (continue
(by mass %): 62.1% C; 10.4% H, and 27.5% O;

F o next slide for empirical formula determination)

 Determination of Empirical Formula
rt y
Example-9 (continued): is
m
• Calculate mole of each element from massepercent:
C h
Mole of C = 62.1 g C x (1 mol/12.01 g) = 5.17 mol
- g) = 10.3 mol
Mole of H = 10.4 g H x (1 mol/1.008

I
Mole of O = 27.5 g O x (1 Umol/16.00 g) = 1.72 mol
• Dividing throughout by H smallest mole of O yield a simple ratio:
5.17 mol C/1.72 =t 3 mol C;
a
1.72 molin
g
10.3 mol H/1.72 = 6 mol H;
O/1.72 = 1 mol O;

c h
• Simple mole ratio of the elements: 3 mol C : 6 mol H : 1 mol O

e a
• Empirical formula: C H O

r t 3 6

Fo
 Molecular Formulatry
is
• Molecular formula of a compound e m is determined
from the empirical formulaC h
and the molar mass of
the compound; the latter- is determined
independently. I U
t H
a =CHO
• If empirical formula
• Molecular n g = (C H O )
x y z

h i formula x y z n

• Wherecn =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
; (n is an integer)
e a 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

r t
Fo
 y
Determination of MoleculartrFormula
is
• Example-10: e m
C h
A compound with empirical formula C3H6O has
-
molecular mass of 116 amu. What is the molecular
formula?
I U
t H
• Solution: a
ng
Empirical formula mass = (3 x 12.01) + (6 x 1.008) + 16.00 amu

hi = 58.1 amu

a c = 2;
116 𝑎𝑚𝑢
n = 58.1 Molecular formula = C6H12O2

te 𝑎𝑚𝑢

o r
F
 Determination of empirical and molecular
rt y
formula of phosphorus oxide
is
Exercise-#7:
e m
h
• A 2.50-gram sample of phosphorus is completely burned
C
-
in air, which yields 5.72 g of product composed of only
phosphorus and oxygen. In a separate analysis, the
I U
compound was found to have molar mass of 284 g/mol.
t H
(a) Determine the empirical formula and molecular
a
formula of the compound.
ng
i
(b) What is the name of the compound?
h
c
(c) Write an equation for the combustion of phosphorus.
a
te
Answer: (a) Empirical formula = P2O5; molecular formula = P4O10;

o r(b) Tetraphosphorus decoxide; (c) 4P(s) + 5 O2(g) → P4O10(s)

F
 Solution Concentrations
y t r
is
• The concentration of a solution may m be expressed in:
Molarity, mass percent, volumehpercent, e mass-volume
percent, ppm & ppb.
- C
Molarity ( M ) = I
mole ofUsolute
t H
Liter of solution
amass of solute
g =
n mass of solution
Mass Percent x 100%

h i
a c
Volume Percent =
volume of solute

t e Volume of solution
x 100%

o r
F
 rt y
Solution Concentrations
is
e m
• Mass-volume percent = C h
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
x 100%
-
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿

I U
H
• Parts per million (ppm) =
t
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
x 106
a 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

g
n (ppb) =
i
• Parts per billion
h
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
x 109
a c 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

t e
o r
F
 Molar Concentrationtry
is
• Example-11: e m
C h
• 9.00 g of sodium chloride, NaCl, is dissolved in enough
-
water to make 250.0 mL of salt solution. Calculate the
molarity of NaCl.
I U
t H
• Mole of NaCl =a
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
9.00 g NaCl x = 0.154 mol;
g 58.44 𝑔
inNaCl =
• Molarityhof
0.154 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
= 0.616 M
a c 0.2500 𝐿

t e
o r
F
 Calculation of Solute Mass intrySolution
is
• Example-12: e m
C h
How many grams of NaOH are required to prepare 750.0
mL of 2.0 M NaOH solution? -
I U
(Molar mass of NaOH = 40.0 g/mol) ?

t H
• Answer: a
g
n needed = 0.7500 L x
hi
Mole of NaOH
2.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1𝐿
= 1.5 mol;

a c
Mass of NaOH needed = 1 5 mol x
40.0 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 60. g

t e
o r
F
 r y
Preparing of Solutions from Pure Solids
t
1. From the volume (in liters) and the molarity is of solution,
calculate the mole and mass of solute e m needed;
2. Weigh the mass of pure solute accurately;
C h
3. Transfer solute into a volumetric - flask of appropriate size;
4. Add deionized water to I Uthe volumetric flask, well below the
narrow neck, and shake
t H well (or use a magnetic stirrer) to
dissolve the solute;
5. When solid g
a
is completely dissolved, add more deionized
i n the flask to the mark and mix the solution well.
• (Note: Ifc
h
water to fill
the solution is very warm due to exothermic reaction, let it cools
down a
t e to room temperature before adding more water to the “mark”.)

o r
F
 Preparing Solution from Solid
y t r
• Example-13: is
e m
Explain how you would prepare a 500.0 mL of 0.154 M
NaCl solution.
C h
-
• Calculate the mole and mass of NaCl needed:
I U
t H
Mole of NaCl = 0.5000 L x (0.154 mol/L) = 0.0770 mol
Mass of NaCl = 0.0770 mol x (58.44 g/mol) = 4.50 g
a
• Preparing the solution:
ng
h i
Weigh accurately
volumetric
4.50 g of NaCl and transfer solid into 500-mL
flask. Fill the flask half way with distilled water, shake
wellcuntil all solid has dissolved. Add deionized water to fill the
a
esolution well by inverting and shaking the flask several times.
flask to the 500-mL level, place a stopper on the flask and mix the

r t
Fo
 Calculating Molaritytry
is
• Exercise-#8: e m
C h
• 10.55 g of silver nitrate, AgNO3 (molar mass = 169.9
-
g/mol), is dissolved in enough water to make a 500.0-mL
I U
solution. What is the molar concentration of AgNO3?

t H
a
g
• (Answer: 0.1242 M)
n
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 rt y
Calculating Mass of Solute
is
• Exercise-#9: e m
C h
• How many grams of glucose, C6H12O6, are needed to
-
prepare 473.2 mL of 0.3065 M glucose solution?
I U
• Briefly explain the method you would use to prepare this
H
solution. (molar mass of glucose = 180.16 g/mol)
t
a
ng
hi
ac
• (Answer: 26.13 g)
te
o r
F
 ry
Preparing Solution from Stock
t
1. is using the
Calculate volume of stock solution needed
formula: M V = M V (i = initial;efm
i i f f = final)
2. Measure accurately the neededhvolume of stock solution
C
- flask of appropriate size;
and transfer to a volumetric
3.
I U
Dilute stock solution with
volume (or to the H
distilled water to the required
“mark” on volumetric flask)
4. a t
Mix solution well.
(Note: for g
diluting concentrated acid, place some
i nwater in the flask (to about a quarter full), add
c h
deionized
the required volume of concentrated acid, and then add
e a
more deionized water to the required volume.)
r t
Fo
 ry
Preparing Solution from Stock
t
• Example-14: is
• Explain how you would prepare 1.0 L of 3.0 M H2SO4 e m
solution from concentrated H2SO4, which is 18 M.
C h
-
• Calculate volume of concentrated H2SO4 needed:
I U
• Preparing the solution: t H
Vol. of conc. H2SO4 = (1.0 L x 3.0 M/18 M) = 0.17 L = 170 mL

a
1)
g
Place about 200 mL of deionized water in the 1-liter volumetric flask.

n
2)
i
Measure accurately 170 mL of concentrated H2SO4 and transfer carefully

h
to the volumetric flask containing some deionized water.
3) c
Allow solution to cool down to room temperature; then fill the flask to the
a
t
4) e1-liter mark with more distilled water;
Mix solution well by placing a stopper on the flask and inverting the flask

o r back and forth several times.

F
 ry
Calculating Volume of Stock tSolution
is
• Exercise-#10: e m
C h
• 35.0 mL of 6.0 M NaOH solution is added into a 500.0-mL
-
volumetric flask, and enough deionized water is then added
I U
to make the final solution to 500.0 mL. Calculate the molar
H
concentration of NaOH in the dilute solution.
t
a
g
n M)
• (Answer: hi0.42
a c
t e
o r
F
 ry
Calculating Volume of Stock tSolution
is
• Exercise-#11: e m
C h
a) How many milliliters (mL) of concentrated sulfuric acid,
-
H2SO4, are needed to prepare 5.0 x 102 mL of 3.0 M H2SO4
I U
solution? (Molarity of concentrated H2SO4 is 18 M)
H
b) Explain the safe method you would use to prepare this
t
solution. a
g
nmL)
h i
• (Answer: (a) 83

a c
t e
o r
F
 Other Units for Solution Concentration
rt y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 rt y
Calculating of Mass Percent
is
• Example-15: e m
C h
A sugar solution contains 25.0 g sugar dissolved in 100.0
-
g of water. What is the mass percent of sugar in the
solution?
I U
t H
• Answer: a
ng 25.0 𝑔

hi
Percent sugar =
100.0+25.0 𝑔
x 100% = 20.0% (by mass)

ac
te
o r
F
 Calculating of Mass Percent
rt y
• Example-16: is
e m
C h
Seawater contains 3.5% NaCl, by mass. How many grams
of salt are present in 5.00 gallons of seawater (sw)?
-
• Solution: I U
(1 gallon = 3785 mL; assume density = 1.00 g/mL)

t H
Mass of seawater = 5.00 gall x
3785 𝑚𝐿
x
1.00 𝑔
= 1.89 x 104 g
a 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝐿

ng 3.5 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙

hi
Mass of salt = 1.89 x 104 g sw x
100 𝑔 𝑠𝑤
= 660 g NaCl

a c
te
o r
F
 rt y
Calculation of Mass Percent
is
• Exercise-#12: e m
C h
• 20.00 g of sugar and 5.00 g of salt (NaCl) are dissolved in
-
100.0 g of water. Calculate the mass percent of sugar and
I U
salt, respectively, in the solution.

t H
a
g
• (Answer: 16.00% sugar; 4.00% salt)
n
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 rt y
Calculating Volume Percent
is
• Example-17: e m
C h
150 mL of methanol, 120 mL of acetone and 230 mL of water
-
are mixed to form a homogeneous 5.0 x 102 mL solution.

mixture. I U
Calculate the percentage (by volume) of each component in the

t H
• Solution: a
g
n =
h i
Percent methanol
150 𝑚𝐿
5.0 𝑥 102 𝑚𝐿
x 100 = 30.%

a c
Percent acetone =
120 𝑚𝐿
5.0 𝑥 102 𝑚𝐿
x 100 = 24%

t e water =
Percent
230 𝑚𝐿
x 100 = 46%

o r 5.0 𝑥 102 𝑚𝐿

F
 rt y
Calculation Mass Percent
is
• Exercise-#13: e m
C h
Gasohol is a mixture containing 10.% ethanol (C2H5OH) and 90.%
-
gasoline (by volume). The density of ethanol and gasoline are 0.79

gasohol by mass percent?I U

g/mL and 0.70 g/mL, respectively. What are the composition of

t H
a
ng
i
• (Answer: 11% ethanol; 89% gasoline)
h
a c
te
o r
F
 Calculation using Mass Percent
y t r
is
• Exercise-#14:
e m
C h
Gasohol contains 10.% ethanol, C2H5OH, and 90.%
gasoline (by volume). The density of ethanol is 0.79
g/mL. -
I U
a) How many grams of ethanol are present in 1.00 gallon
t H
of gasohol? (1 gallon = 3.785 L)
a
b) What is the molarity of ethanol in gasohol?
ng
hi
ac
(Answer: (a) 3.0 x 102 g; (b) 1.7 M)
te
o r
F
 rt y
Calculating Mass-Volume Percent
is
• Example-18: e m
1.
C h
9.0 g of NaCl is dissolved in 473 mL of solution. What is the
-
percent (w/v) of NaCl in the solution?
2.
U
28 g of glucose is dissolved in 475 mL of solution. What is the
I
percent (w/v) of glucose in the solution?

t H
a
Solutions:
g
nof NaCl =
h i
1. Percent
9.0 𝑔
473 𝑚𝐿
x 100 = 1.9% (w/v)

2. a
c
Percent of glucose =
28 𝑔
x 100 = 5.9% (w/v)
t e 475 𝑚𝐿

o r
F
 ppm and ppb
rt y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F