Chapter-03 (Presentation of Statistical Data) - Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar

Business Statistics - I
Prepared By:
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar
Lecturer
Department of Business Administration
Khwaja Yunus Ali University 2021
Presentation of Statistical Data
Outlines:
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Presentation of Statistical Data
• 3. Classification of Data
• 4. Types of Classification
• 5. Methods of Classification
• 6. Classification according to Class-Intervals:
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

• 7. Formation of a Frequency Distribution
• 8. Tabulation of Data
• 9. Charting Data
• 10. Diagrams
• 11. Graphs
• 12. Guide to Charts for Written Reports

Introduction
(Presentation of Statistical Data)
• When data are presented in easy to read form, it can help the reader to
acquire knowledge in much shorter period of time and also facilitate
statistical analysis. Presentation can take two basic forms:
• (i) Statistical Table
• (ii) Statistical Chart

Statistical table is presentation of numbers in a logical arrangement, with some brief
explanation to show what they are. However, before, tabulating data it is often
necessary to first classify them. A statistical chart or graph is a pictorial device for
presenting data.
That is why, we have to categorize this session under three main parts regarding:
(A) Classification of Data
(B) Tabulation of Data
(C) Charting Data

• After Collection & editing of data an important step towards processing the
data is classification. Classification is the grouping of related facts into
different classes.
• Classification of data is a function very similar to that sorting letters in a post
office. It is well known that the letters collected in a post office are sorted
into different lots on a geographical basis; in accordance with their
destinations as Rajshahi, Dhaka, Rangpur, Khulna etc.

• Types of Classification:
Broadly, the data can be classified on the following basis:
• Geographical
• Chronological
• Qualitative
• Quantitative

Types of Classification:
• (i) Geographical classification (based on area) :
In geographical classification data are classified on the basis of geographical or
locational differences between the various items. For example, when we present
the production of sugar cane, wheat, rice, etc., for various districts.

• (ii) Chronological classification (Based on time):
When data are observed over a period of time, is called chronological classification. Example:
Year Sales Year Sales

2011 18000 2016 45660
2012 23500 2017 47800
2013 31000 2018 50400
2014 39550 2019 56000
2015 40000 2020 60660
Time series are usually listed in chronological order normally started with the earliest time period.
• (iii) Qualitative classification:
Under this classification, data are classified on the basis of some attribute or
quality such as sex, color of hair, literacy, religion, color of skin, etc. The point
to note in this type of classification is that the attribute under study cannot be
measured. One can only find out whether it is present or absent in the units of
the population under study.

Population
Males Females
Literates Illiterates Literates Illiterates
Emp. Unemp. Emp. Unemp. Emp. Unemp.
• Example: We may classify population on the basis of sex which has further
classified as males & females or literacy as literates & illiterates, and so on.
The type of manifold classification described here is shown below:
• (iv) Quantitative classification:
Quantitative classification refers to the classification of data according to
some characteristics that can be measured, such as height, weight, income,
sales, age, salary, etc.
Example: The workers of a factory may be classified according to wages as
follows:
Monthly Wages No. of workers Monthly Wages No. of workers
2000-3000 50 5000-6000 360
3000-4000 200 6000-7000 90
4000-5000 260 7000-8000 40
Total=1000
Methods of Classification:
• Methods of Classification:
There are two methods of classifying the data according to class intervals, namely
(a) Exclusive Method and
(b) Inclusive Method.

• (a) Exclusive method: When the class intervals are so fixed that the upper limit
of one class is the lower limit of the next class; it is known as the exclusive
method of classification. The following data are classified on this basis:
Income (Tk.) No. of the employees
5000-6000 50
6000-7000 100
7000-8000 200
8000-9000 80
Total=430
It is always presumed that upper limit is exclusive i.e., an observation exactly equal to the upper limit is not
included in that class.
• (b) Inclusive method: Under the inclusive method of classification the
upper limit of one class is included in that class itself.
Income (Tk.) No. of the employees
5000-5999 50
6000-6999 100
7000-7999 200
8000-8999 80
Total=430
In this type of classification, there are two elements which are given below:
a) Variable &
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131b) Frequency Distribution 2021
• (a) Variable:
The term, ‘variable’ refers to the characteristic that varies in amount or
magnitude in a frequency distribution.
Example1: Age, height, wage, salary, sales, etc. are called variable. A variable is
a symbol, such as x, y, w, z, X, Y, etc.
A variable can be classified either (i) continuous or (i) discrete (discontinuous).

• (i) Continuous variable: A variable which can assume for its value any real
quantity within the range of possibilities, such as height or weight of persons
or the weight of a product.
Example2: The height of a student, from 90 cm to 150 cm, his height passes
through all values between these lines.

• (ii) Discrete or Discontinuous variable:
On the other hand, the variable which can take only finite value or avoid any
fractional value is called discrete variable.
Example3: The no. of rooms in a house can only take certain values as 1, 2, 3,
etc.
The following are two examples of discrete & continuous freq. distribution:

The following are two examples of discrete & continuous freq. distribution:
Discrete freq. distribution Continuous freq. distribution
No. of Child No. of Families Age No. of employees
1 50 0-10 10
2 50 10-20 22
3 60 20-30 30
4 70 30-40 33
5 30 40-50 37
6 90 50-60 48
7 150 60-70 50
Total=500 Total=230
• (b) Frequency:
We have just to count the no. of times a particular value is repeated which
is called the frequency.
From ex. 1 & ex. 3, no. of workers, no. of families & no. of employees in each
class are called frequency

Classification according to Class-Intervals:
• The following technical terms are important when data are

classified according to class intervals:
i) Raw data
ii) Range
iii) Class limits
iv) Class-intervals
v) Class frequency
vi) Class mid-point
• i) Raw data:
Statistical data may authentically appear in a form where the collected data are
not arranged numerically.
Example 5:
37 38 40 36 38 37 36 40 50 47 41 46 38 31 33 48 37
52 32 50 40 50 47 41 50 43 26 45 52 45 41 44 39 16
21 30 38 32 48 47 41 45 41 51 37 26 40 38 46 32

• Arranged these raw data in order of ascending magnitudes:

16 32 37 38 40 41 46 48 52
21 32 37 38 40 43 46 50 52
26 32 37 38 41 44 47 50
26 33 37 39 41 45 47 50
30 36 38 40 41 45 47 50
31 36 38 40 41 45 48 51

• ii) Range:
The difference between largest value and smallest value is called Range.
Calculated by:
R = 𝐋𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 − 𝐒𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
From the above table, here L.V. =52 & S.V. =16
∴R=52−16 =36

• iii) Class limits:

The class limits are the lowest and highest values that can be included in the
class. For example, take the class 20-40. The lowest value of this class is 20 &
the highest 40. The two boundaries of a class are known as the lower limit &
upper limit of the class.

• iv) Class-intervals:
The span of a class, that is, the difference between the upper limit & lower
limit, is known as class-interval. Mathematically it can be written as:
C.I. =Upper limit − Lower limit.
• Example 6: Marks of 50 students in Statistics
Class-interval No. of students
16-20 10
21-25 10
• Here, total classes are 5 in number. 26-30

31-35
10
10
36-40 10
Total=50
• A few points to be remember before the construction of Classes:

• 1. The classes should be exhausted.
• 2. The classes should be mutually exclusive and non-overlapping.
• 3. The classes should preferably of equal size or width.
• 4. The no. of classes should not be too large not too small.
Normally, 5 < Classes > 20

• v) Class frequency:
The no. of observations corresponding to the particular class is known as the
frequency of that class. From above example, the 2nd column shows the
frequency of various classes.
• vi) Class mid-point: Mid-point of a class is obtained as follows:
Upper limit of the class +lower limit of the class
Mid-point=
2

Formation of a Frequency Distribution:
• The process of preparing this type of distribution is very simple. We have

just to count the no. of times a particular value is repeated which is
called the frequency of that class. In order to facilitate counting, prepare a
column of ‘tally’. In another column, place all possible values of the variable
from the lowest to the highest.

• Example 7: The following data represent the weekly wages of workers in
different small-scale industries in the country.
16 25 28 32 26 25 25 20 20 22 24 26 28 30 35 32
17 20 22 22 24 25 26 28 20 18 26 28 30 30 32 34
31 36 30 35 28 27 21 24 20 18 15 15 15 18 20 22
36 26 21 23 24 26 28 30 32 34 28 27 15 20 19 26
16 24 20 18 20 20 24 27 25 25 25 26 20 21 20 28
17 30 32 33 30 28 26 24 26 24 20 18 19 18 15 16
23 18 15 17 18 20 20 18 18 19 20 21 27 25 26 19
29 20 24 26 27 29
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 30 32 34 28 30 27 26 28 28
2021 33
Construct a frequency distribution using suitable class interval.

Solution: We have, n = 128, L.V. = 36 and S.V. = 15

 R = 𝐋𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 − 𝐒𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 = 36 – 15 = 21
No. of Classes (k) = 1 + 3.33 log (n) = 1 + 3.33 log (128) = 8.017  8
R 21
Class interval, h = = = 2.63  3
k 8
Frequency distribution of weekly wages

Cumulative frequency (C.F)

Class interval Mid – Value (xi) Tally Marks Frequency (fi)
From top From bottom
15 – 17 16 |||| |||| || 12 12 128
18 – 20 19 |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| | 31 43 116

21 – 23 22 |||| |||| 10 53 85
24 – 26 25 |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| 30 83 75
27 – 29 28 |||| |||| |||| |||| 20 103 45
30 – 32 31 |||| |||| |||| | 16 119 25
33 – 35 34 |||| || 07 126 09
36 – Above 37 || 02 128 02
Systematic procedure for construction of a frequency distribution from raw
data:
1. Obtain the largest and smallest numbers in the raw data and thus find the Range.
2. Divide the Range into a convenient number of class intervals.
3. Determine the no. of observations falling into each class intervals or find the class
frequencies by means of a Tally Sheet.
4. The frequency table is now constructed showing the class intervals & their
frequencies.

Exercise:
E.1:
The profits of 30 companies for the year 2019-2020 are given below:
20, 22, 35, 42, 37, 42, 48, 53, 49, 65, 39, 48, 67, 18, 16, 23, 37, 35, 49, 63, 65, 55, 45, 58, 57, 69, 25, 29, 58, 65.
Construct a frequency table with appropriate calculation.
E.2:
Monthly wages received by 30 workers in a certain factory are as follows:
310, 320, 325, 354, 370, 335, 300, 397, 331, 375, 315, 390, 386, 359, 360, 380, 323, 342, 327, 305, 318, 337, 367, 392, 340,
363, 363, 385, 367, 393.
Draw a frequency distribution table, with class interval of 10. Also calculate the percentage frequency in each class interval.
E.3:
Age at the death of 50 persons of a town are given below:
36, 37, 38, 51, 53, 48, 32, 39, 36, 46, 50, 40, 37, 41, 60, 45, 39, 40, 55, 59, 49, 41, 32, 58, 41, 31, 47, 52, 31, 53, 50, 45, 56,
42, 58, 48, 39, 31, 53, 36, 43, 43, 54, 32, 38, 42, 47, 36, 44, 60.
i) Arrange the data in a frequency distribution in 10 class intervals,
ii) Obtain the percentage frequency in each class interval.
Flashback

(B) Tabulation of Data
• One of the simplest and most revealing devices for summarizing data and
presenting them in meaningful fashion is the statistical table. A table is a
systematic arranged of statistical data in columns & rows. Rows are
horizontal arrangement whereas columns are vertical ones. The purpose of a
table is to simplify the presentation & to facilitate comparisons.

Tabulation of Data
• A good table must contain at least the following parts: 1. Table number
2. Title
3. Caption
4. Stub
5. Body
6. Headnote
7. Footnote

Sample of the Table
Table: 01
Expenses for the House hold Consumption for a month
’00 or “in hundred”
Expenses Unit Amount
**Vegetable 5 kg. 5
Onion 10 kg. 20
Potato 20 kg. 3
Total : 35 kg. 28
**only for the month of December, 2020

Parts of a Table
A good table must contain at least the following parts:
• Table number: Each table should be numbered either in the centre at the top above the
title or in the side of the table at the top or at the bottom of the table on the left hand side.
• Title: Every table must have a suitable title. A complete title has to answer the question
what, where & when in that sequence.
• Caption: Caption refers to the column headings. If the different columns are expressed in
different units, the units should be specified along with the captions.
• Stub: As distinguish from the caption, stubs are the designation of the rows or row heading.

Tabulation of Data
• Body: The whole portion of a table excepting its Title, Stub and Caption, and
consisting usually of the figures of the table is called the body of the table.
• Headnote: It is a brief explanatory statement applying to a major part of the
material in the table, and is placed below the title entered and enclosed in brackets.
For example: the unit of measurement is frequently written as the headnote, such as
“in thousands” or “in million tonns”, etc.
• Footnote: anything on a table which the reader may find difficult to understand
from the title, captions and stabs should be explained in footnotes. They are placed
directly below the body of the table.

Flashback

(C) Charting Data
One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which data may be
presented is through charts. Evidence of this can be found in the financial
newspapers, journals, advertisements etc.
• A chart can take the shape of either a diagram or a graph. For the clarity we
will discuss them under two separate heads:
(1) Diagrams
(2) Graphs

(C) Charting Data:(1) Diagrams
• For presenting data diagrams are more commonly used than graphs. There
are three types of diagrams are found to simplify the diagram.
i. One-dimensional, e.g., Bar Diagrams
ii. Two-dimensional, e.g., Rectangles, Square and circles
iii. Pictograms and cartograms

i. One-dimensional, e.g., Bar Diagrams
Types of Bar Diagrams:
(a) Simple Bar Diagrams
(b) Subdivided bar diagrams
(c) Multiple bar diagram
(d) Percentage bar diagrams
(e) Deviation bars
(f) Broken bars

• ii. Two-dimensional, e.g., Rectangles, Square and circles
(a) Rectangles
(b) Squares
(c) Circles

• iii. Pictograms and cartograms
(a) Pictograms
(b) Cartograms

Business Statistics-l
Diagram ChartChapter-Three: Presentation of Statistical Data
i. One-dimensional, e.g., Bar Diagrams i. Graphs of time series or line graphs (a) Range chart
Types of Bar Diagrams: (b) Band Graphs
ii. Graphs of frequency distributions (a) Histogram
(c) Multiple bar diagram
(d) Percentage bar diagrams (b) Frequency polygon
(e) Deviation bars (c) Smoothed frequency carve
(f) Broken bars (d) Cumulative frequency carves or ‘Ogives’
ii. Two-dimensional, e.g., Rectangles, Square and circles
(a) Rectangles
(b) Squares
(c) Circles
(a) Pictograms
(b) Cartograms

(C) Charting Data: (2) Graphs
• A large verity of graphs are in practical use. However, we shall discuss only
some important ones which are more popularly used in practice. Broadly, the
various graphs can be divided under the following two heads:
i. Graphs of time series or line graphs
ii. Graphs of frequency distributions

• i. Graphs of time series or line graphs:
When we observe the values of a variable at different points
of time the series so formed is known as time series. The technique of graphic
presentation is extremely helpful in analyzing changes at different points of time. On
the X-axis we generally take the time and on the Y-axis the value of the variable and
join the various points by straight lines it also called line graph.
(a) Range chart
(b) Bend Graph
• ii. Graphs of frequency distributions:
A frequency distribution can be presented graphically in any of the following
ways:
(a) Histogram
(b) Frequency polygon
(c) Smoothed frequency carve
(d) Cumulative frequency carve or “Ogives”
(i) One-dimensional Diagram:
• (a) Simple Bar Diagrams:
A simple bar diagram is used to represent only one variable. For example, the
figure of sales, production, population, etc. for various years may be shown by means
of a simple bar diagram.
Illustration: the fund flow of Khandaker Ltd. From 2015-16 to 2019-20 are given
below: Year Funds Flow (BDT thousand)
2015-16 85
2016-17 89
2017-18 130
2018-19 107
2019-20 142
Requirements: Represent this data by a suitable bar diagram.
Fund Flow of Khandaker Ltd. (BDT)
150
142
130
100 107
BDT
85 89
50
0
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20
Year

• (b) Subdivided bar diagrams/ Stacked bar:
This diagrams are used to present various parts of the total. For example, the number of employees
in various departments of a company may be presented by a sub divided bar diagram.
Illustration: Represent the following data by subdivided bar diagram/ stacked bar.
Semester wise Faculty Budget for Development. (in thousand )
Year School of Business School of Engineering School of Human Science Total
2014-15 190 105 185 480

2015-16 100 190 180 470
2016-17 130 120 60 310
2017-18 185 110 140 435
2018-19 205
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195 100 2021
500
600
BDT (in thousand)
500
100
400 185 180 140
300 60 195 School of Human Science
105 110 School of Engineering
200 190 120
100 205 school of Business
190 130 185
100
0
2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19
Year

• (c) Multiple bar diagram:
In multiple bar diagram two or more sets of interrelated data are
represented. The technique of drawing such diagram is the same as that of simple bar
diagram.
Illustration: Represent the following data by multiple bar diagram:
2017-18 2018-19
Gross profit 3104 3123
Profits before tax 1663 1376
Profits after tax 1219 982
Retained profits 846 589
Solution: The multiple bar diagram of the data is given below.
3500
3000
2500
BDT cores
2000 Gross Profit

1500 Profits before tax
1000 profits after tax
500 retained profits
0
2017-18 2018-19
Years

• (d) Percentage bar diagrams:
Percentage Bar diagrams are particularly useful in statistical work
which requires the portrayal of relative changes in data. When such diagrams
are prepared , the length of the bars is kept equal to 100 and segments are cut
in these bars to represent the components (percentages ) of an aggregate.

• (e) Deviation bars:
Deviation bars are popularly used for representing net quantities – excess or
deficit, i.e., net profit net loss, net exports or imports, etc. Such bars can have both
positive and negative values. Positive values are shown above the base line and negative
values below it.
Illustration9: the following are the figure of sales and net profits of public sector units
over the last three years. Represent the data by a suitable diagram.
Year Sales Net profits
2017-18 14% 29%
1018-19 11% 61%
2019-20
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 17% -74% 2021
• Solution: the above data can best be represented by deviation bars.
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
-100%
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04
sales 14% 11% 17%
Net profits 29%
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 61% -74%
2021
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
-20%
-40%
-60%
-80%
-100%
2001-02 2002-03 2003-04
sales 14% 11% 17%
Net profits 29%
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 61% -74%
2021
• (f) Broken bars:
In certain types of data there may be wide variations in values – some values
may be very small, other vary large. In order to gain space for the smaller bars of the
data, the large bars may be broken.
Illustration : Represent the following data by a suitable diagram:
Five year plan Actual public sector outlay
6th 109,290
7th 218,730
8th 485,460
9th 859,200
10th 10,068,815
10,068,815
1000000
900000 859200
800000
700000
BDT (cores)
600000
485460
500000
400000
300000 218730
200000 109290
100000
0
6th Plan 7th plan 8th Plan 9th Plan 10th Plan
Plans
• Solution: 10th plan expenditure is much more than of 9th plan. In order to
gain space we have broken the bar for 10th plan. Otherwise, the length of
this bar would have almost 2 times that of the bar for 9th plan and the
diagram would have occupied a lot of space and given an ugly look.

(i) Two-dimensional Diagram:
• (a) Rectangles:
This form is quite popular. Since the area of a rectangle is equal to the
product of its length width, while constructing such a diagram both length and
width are considered. When two sets of figures are to be represented by
rectangles, either of the two methods may be adopted. We may represent the
figure as they are given or may convert them to percentages and then subdivide
the length into various components.

• (b) Squares:
The method of drawing a squire diagram is very simple. One has to
take the square root of the values of various items that are to be shown in the
diagram and then select a suitable scale to draw the squares.

• (c) Circles:
In circle diagrams both the total and the component parts or sectors
can be shown. The area of a circle is proportional to the square of its radius.

• Example 8: Draw a Pie chart to represent the following data relating to the
production cost of manufacture. Cost of materials=38400, Cost of
labor=30720, Direct Expense Of manufacture=11520, Factory
overhead=15360.

• Solution: We first express each item as a percentage of the total cost.
Total cost =38400+30720+11520+15360 =96000

Calculation of Pie Chart

Graphical presentation of Pie
Expenditure
Factory overhead
16%
Direct Exp.
12%
Labor Materials
32% 40%

Materials Labor Factory overhead Direct Exp.
• (a) Pictograms:
Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as such this method is
particularly useful in presenting statistics to the layman. The picture symbol
should be self-explanatory in nature, i.e., it should represent clearly the
phenomena.
For example: if the increase in number of buses on road is shown over a
period of time the appropriate symbol would be bus.

Pictograms:

Pictograms:

• (b) Cartograms:
Cartograms or statistical maps are used to give quantitative information on a
geographical basis. They are thus used to represent special distribution. The
quantities on the map can be shown in many ways. Such as, through shades of
colours, by dots, by placing pictograms in each geographical unit.


Cartograms:

• (a) Range chart:
It is a very good method of showing the range of variation, i.e., the minimum
and maximum value of a variable. For example, if we are interested in showing
the minimum and maximum prices of a commodity for different periods of
time or the minimum and maximum temperature or prices of shares of some
company for different periods, the range chart would be appropriate.

(a) Range chart
Illustration 16
Represent the following data by a suitable graph.
Year Principal Imports Principal Exports

(BDT. Crores ) (BDT. Crores)
2015-16 122678 106353
2016-17 178332 139752
2017-18 215236 159561
2018-19 230873 203571
2019-20 245199 209018
(a) Range chart
Chart Title
600000
500000
400000
Axis Title
300000
Principal Export
Principal Imports
200000
100000
0
2015-16
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monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2021
Axis Title
• (b) Band Graphs:
The various component parts of the whole are plotted one over the other and
the plots between the successive lines are filled by different shades, colors, etc.,
so that the chart has the appearance of a series of bands.
Band graph can also be used where the data are put to percentage form; the
whole chart will depict 100% and the bands, the percentage each component
bears to whole.

(b) Band Graphs
Illustration : Present the following data about Bangladesh by a suitable graph.
(Production in m. tonnes )
Year Rice Wheat Pulses Other cereals
2014-15 82.5 66.4 13.0 30.4
2015-16 86.1 71.3 14.9 31.3
2016-17 89.7 76.4 13.4 30.3
2017-18 84.9 68.8 10.7 31.6
2018-19 93.1 71.8 13.2 33.9
2019-20 77.7 68.9 11.5 25.1
Illustration:
100
90
Production in million tonnes 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20
Year
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 Rice Wheat Pulses Other Cereals 2021
• (a) Histogram:
A histogram is a display of statistical information that uses rectangles to show the frequency of data
items in successive numerical intervals of equal size.
A histogram is a graphical method for presenting data, where the observations are located on a
horizontal axis (usually grouped into intervals) and the frequency of those observations are depicted on a
horizontal axis. So, it is a graph that represents the class frequencies in a frequency distribution by
vertical adjacent rectangles.
For, presenting frequency distribution graphically, Histogram or the column diagram, is the most popular
and widely used in practice.
It is a graphical method of representing a frequency distribution. To construct this graph the horizontal
axis is divided into segments corresponding to the class boundaries of the frequency distribution. On
each segment a rectangle with area proportional to the frequency in the class is erected. The set of
adjacent rectangles constitute a histogram.
• Illustration:
Example 9: Represent the following data by a histogram (when class intervals
are equal)
Marks No. of Students Marks No. of Students
20 – 30 10 60 – 70 52
30 – 40 30 70 – 80 40
40 – 50 40 80 – 90 20
50 – 60 60 90 – 100 05
Graphical presentation of Histogram
HISTOGRAM
• Solution: 60
55
Number of Students 50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
• (b) Frequency polygon:
A frequency distribution is a graph of frequency distribution. It has more than
four sides. It is particularly effective in comparing two or more frequency
distributions.

Graphical presentation of Frequency
Polygon
Histogram
• Solution: 60
55
45
Frequency polygon
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
• (c) Smoothed frequency carve:
The carve is drawn freehand in such a manner that the area included under the
curve is approximately the same as that of the polygon.

Graphical presentation of Histogram and
Smoothed Polygon Carve
HISTOGRAM
• Solution: 60
55
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Marks
• (d) Cumulative frequency carves or ‘Ogives’:
Sometimes one needs to know the answers to questions like ‘how many workers of a factory’
earn more than BDT 15000 per month or how man workers earn less than BDT 12000 per
month. To answer the questions it is necessary to add the frequencies. When frequencies are
added, they are called cumulative frequencies. These frequencies are than listed in a table called
a cumulative frequency table. The graph of such a distribution is called a cumulative frequency
carve or an Ogive.
There are two methods of constructing ogive, namely:
i) The ‘less than’ method, and
ii) The ‘more than’ method.

• i) The ‘less than’ method:
In the ‘less than’ method, we start with the upper limits of the classes and go on
adding the frequencies. When these frequencies are potted, we get a rising curve.
• ii) The ‘more than’ method:

In the ‘less than’ method, we start with the lower limits of the classes and from the
total frequencies we subtract the frequency of each class. When frequencies are
plotted, we get declining curve.

Illustration 22:
The following table gives the average yearly profits for 580 companies:
Yearly Profits No. of com: Yearly Profits No. of Com:
(BDT. Lakhs) (BDT. Lakhs)
80—85 21 120—125 36
85—90 29 125—130 45
90—95 19 130—135 27
95—100 39 135—140 48
100—105 43 140—145 21
105—110 94 145—150 12
110—115 73 150—155 36
115—120 68
(a) Draw ogives by ‘less than’ and ‘more than ’ for the data given above
(b) Find the
Md. Monowar number
Uddin Talukdar, of companies
monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, whose yearly profits (in Lakhs) lie between BDT. 118 and
01718650131 2021 BDT.148.
Solution: Let us first arrange the frequency distribution for less than and more
than methods as given below:
Ogive by Less than Method
Yearly Profit Frequency

Less than 85 21
Less than 90 50
Less than 95 69
Less than 100 108
Less than 105 151
Less than 110 245
Less than 115 318
Less than 120 386
Less than 125 422
Less than 130 467
Less than 135 494
Less than 140 542
Less than
01718650131 563 2021
Less than 150 575
Less than 155 580
Ogive Less than Method
700
600
No of companies
500
400
300
200
100
0
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
Yearly Profit (BDT Lakhs)
Ogive by Less than Method

Ogive by More than Method
Yearly Profit Frequency

More than 80 580
More than 85 559
More than 90 530
More than 95 511
More than 100 472
More than 105 429
More than 110 335
More than 115 262
More than 120 194
More than 125 158
More than 130 113
More than 135 86
More than 140 38
More than 145 17
More than 150
5 2021
Ogive by More than Method
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
Ogive by More Than Method

Solution: Let us first arrange the frequency distribution for less
than and more than methods as given below:
Less than and More than Ogive and Median
700
600
500
No of companies
400
300
200
100
0
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 Yearly Profit (BDT Lakhs) 2021
Ogive by Less than Method Ogive by More than Method

Guide to Charts for Written Reports





Flash Back
Types Charting Data
i. One-dimensional, e.g., Bar Diagrams (c) Multiple bar diagram
(d) Percentage bar diagrams
(i) Diagrams (e) Deviation bars
(f) Broken bars
ii. Two-dimensional, e.g., Rectangles, (a) Rectangles
Square and circles (b) Squares
(c) Circles
iii. Pictograms and cartograms (a) Pictograms
(b) Cartograms
Flash Back
Types Charting Data
i. Graphs of time series or (a) Range chart

line graphs
(b) Band Graphs
(ii) Graphs i. Graphs of frequency (a) Histogram
distributions
(b) Frequency polygon
(c) Smoothed frequency carve

(d) Cumulative frequency carves or 2021
‘Ogives’
Graphical presentation of Data:
There are various types of charts and diagrams. Some of the more common
types used are described below:
1. Bar charts or diagram or graphs
2. Pie charts
3. Histogram
4. Frequency Polygon
5. Ogive Curve.

Limitation of Charts:
• They can present only approximate values.
• They can appropriately represent only limited amount of information.
• They are intended mostly to explain quantitative facts to the general public.
From the point of view of the statistician, they are not of much help in
analyzing data.
• They can be easily misinterpreted.

700
600
No of companies
500
400
300
200
100
0
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155
Yearly Profit (BDT Lakhs)
Ogive by Less than Method Ogive by More than Method

700
580 559 563 575 580
600 530 511 542
472 494
No. of Companies
467
500 429 422
386
400 335 318
245 262
300
194
200 151 158
108 113 86
50 69 38
100 0 21 17 5 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Less than Ogive 21 50 69 108 151 245 318 386 422 467 494 542 563 575 580
More than Ogive 580 559 530 511 472 429 335 262 194 158 113 86 38 17 5
YEARLY PROFIT

Chapter-03 (Presentation of Statistical Data) - Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar

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Business Statistics - I

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Year Sales Year Sales

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Literates Illiterates Literates Illiterates

Emp. Unemp. Emp. Unemp. Emp. Unemp.

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

• The following technical terms are important when data are

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

• Arranged these raw data in order of ascending magnitudes:

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

• iii) Class limits:

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• Here, total classes are 5 in number. 26-30

• A few points to be remember before the construction of Classes:

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

• The process of preparing this type of distribution is very simple. We have

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Construct a frequency distribution using suitable class interval.

Solution: We have, n = 128, L.V. = 36 and S.V. = 15

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Cumulative frequency (C.F)

18 – 20 19 |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| |||| | 31 43 116

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

**only for the month of December, 2020

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

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Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

2014-15 190 105 185 480

Md. Monowar Uddin Talukdar, monowarjkkniu@gmail.com, 01718650131 2021

2000 Gross Profit

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