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Introduction:
Training Course on •X-Rays were discovered by Prof. W. C. Roentgen in 1895.
•X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
BARC RADIOGRAPHY TESTING LEVEL - 2 •They have energies normally in the range 100 eV to 100 keV (soft x-
rays).
•Industrial uses of X-rays for radiography are in the 40-450 KeV
Credit Hours 01 range.
Certification BIS - 13805, 1993 •Much higher-energy X-rays can be generated for medical and
IAEA Tech Doc - 628
Course-end on the guidelines of ISO industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, which utilizes linear
Lecture RT-T 13: X-Ray Sources examination 9712
accelerators to generate X-rays in the ranges of 6–20 MeV.
Course No. 68 •X-rays are generated by decelerating fast electrons. In this was,
Session electrons loose their kinetic energy in the medium by ionisation or
excitation of the target atoms. A fraction of this energy is transformed
Dr. Umesh Kumar, Ph.D.
Scientific Officer(H+) & Head, Ind. Tomography & Instrum. Section
into what is called 'Bremsstrahlung'.
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre •More than 95% of the electron's KE is converted to heat.
Mumbai, India

How X-rays are produced? Electromagnetic Spectrum

X-rays for medical diagnostic procedures or

for research purposes are produced in a
standard way: by accelerating electrons
with a high voltage and allowing them to
collide with a metal target. X-rays are
produced when the electrons are suddenly
decelerated upon collision with the metal
target; these x-rays are commonly called
brehmsstrahlung or "braking radiation". If
the bombarding electrons have sufficient
energy, they can knock an electron out of
an inner shell of the target metal atoms.
Then electrons from higher states drop
down to fill the vacancy, emitting x-ray
photons with precise energies determined
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray
by the electron energy levels. These x-rays
are called characteristic x-rays.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/xtube.html
http://www.physics.isu.edu/radinf/xray.htm

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How X-rays are produced? contd.. Characteristics of X-rays:

Continuous X-ray spectra:
The free electron is attracted to the
tungsten atom nucleus. As the
electron speeds past, the nucleus
alters its course. The electron loses
energy, which it releases as an X-
ray photon.

Characteristic X-rays:
The free electron collides with the
tungsten atom, knocking an
electron out of a lower orbital. A
higher orbital electron fills the Ref: http://science.howstuffworks.com/x-ray1.htm
empty position, releasing its excess
energy as a photon.

http://science.howstuffworks.com/x-ray1.htm

Production of X-rays: Production of X-rays: X-ray Spectrum (Continuous + Characteristic)

A typical X-ray generating machine for industrial radiography includes (i)

HV generators (ii) an X-ray tube (iii) Cooling sub-systems and (iv) a
control sub-system.

There are many configurations of X-ray tubes and X-ray systems.

There are (i) pulsed X-ray equipment and (ii) Constant potential X-ray
systems.

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Production of X-rays: Contd...
The production of X-rays is a function of applied voltage, tube current
and target material. The X-ray intensity is proportional to the voltage
squared, tube current and atomic number of the target.
1. Target Material
The fraction of accelerated electron energy given up as X-rays can
be estimated by:
F= V Z x 10^(-6)
Where F = fraction of energy converted to Bremsstrahlung
V = Applied voltage in kV
Z= Atomic number of the target material
Properties of X-rays:
X-rays are practically invisible to the naked eye.
X-ray travel in a straight line in vacuum and at the speed of light.
Laws of optics generally do not apply to X-rays transmission.
X-rays can pass through matter. However, the degree of penetration
depends upon energy of the X-ray beam and the material
characteristics of the mass.
X-rays are ionising radiation and therefore harmful to living cells.
Many substances fluoresce on absorption of X-ray energy.
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Production of X-rays: Contd...
2. Intensity - A simple method developed by Lindell for estimating exposure rates is
claimed to be accurate to within a factor of 2:
x (R/sec) = 50 . (kV) (mA) . Z
--------------------------
d (cm)^2 . 74
For example: Z=74 (tungsten), HV = 50 kV, I=20 mA, d=10 cm
x= 500 R/sec (Primary and direct only)
It must be remembered that these methods only estimate the exposure rate.
Estimation of exposure due to scattered X-rays are much more complex and should
be done by actual measurements in a given setup.
Minimum wavelength of X-ray emmision:
Quantum theory demands that the energy given up by the electron in
bremsstrahlung be emitted in the form of one or more photons. As the energy of the
bremsstrahlung is continuously distributed, various wavelengths of the emission is
possible. In the case when the electron has a head-on collision with the nucleus,
there exists a minimum wavelenth which must exist corresponding to the max.
energy of the emitted photon. This minimum wavelength however solely depends
on the applied voltage.
The energy of the acclerated electron E = V.e
As per Plank's theorem, E = h. ν
[ Plank's constant h = 6.63 x 10^-34 Joule-sec, ν = frequency of emmission]
Therefore V.e = h.ν = h. c/λ [ since velocity of light c = ν. λ ]
=> λ = h.c/{ν.e } => λ(min) = h.c/{ν(max).e}
substituting values of h, c and e, we have:
λ(min) = 12.4/kV in Angstron unit
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Absorption and Scattering of X-rays: Absorption and Scattering of X-rays:

X-ray absorption: When x-ray beam travels through matter part of it will be absorbed. The absorbed
intensity is proportional to the path in the matter,

X-rays interact with matter in several ways: -dI/ I = μ dz,

•photoelectric absorption,
where μ is the linear attenuation coefficient.
•inelastic scattering, Integration gives the ratio between the intensity of the incident beam I0 and the
•elastic scattering, transmitted beam
•electron-positron pair production in the field of the nucleus
-dI = I(z)μ dz

When x-rays travel through matter part of it will be absorbed. ∫dI /I(z) = ∫ μ dz
An x-ray photon is absorbed by the atom and the excess
I(z=0) = I0
energy is transferred to an electron, which may be expelled
from the atom, leaving the atom ionized. I = I0 exp(-μt) This is the well-known Lambert Beer law.
True absorption arises from electronic transitions within the
I = I0 exp(- μz)
atom.

Absorption and Scattering of X-rays: contd... Industrial X-ray tubes:

Absorption is a result of the photons interacting with the electrons in the sample.
When using energies 1-100 keV the most important processes are photoelectric Operating conditions:
absorption, elastic scattering, and inelastic scattering.
limited by:
The linear attenuation coefficient μ is the product of the absorption cross section σa • saturation limit of the filament
and the atomic density ρa óf the material, • thermal limit of the target assembly
(<200 Watts/sq.mm -sec)
μ = ρa . σa = (ρ N/A) σa,
Tube should have smallest possible
where N is Avocardo number and A the atomic mass number. focal spot for maximum radiographic
The atomic density is computed as definition.
ρa = ρ (N/A)
and the electron density as -Focal spot and X-ray dose (exposure
ρe = ρ N (Z/A) time)
where ρ is the macroscopic density.
Mass attenuation coefficient μ/ρ - Bipolar tubes / Unipolar tubes
X-rays are absorbed into the material or scattered.
Attenuation is described by mass attenuation constant μ/ρ [cm2/g], where ρ is the - Pulsed or CP operation (Film/DR/CR)
density.
I = I0 exp(-(μ/ρ) ρt), where t is the thickness.

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Industrial X-ray Tubes: Focal Spot of X-ray tubes:

Angle -20 -13 -10 0 10 13 20

Inten 30% 70% 80% 100% 104% 105% 95%

Micro-focus X-ray tubes: Flash X-ray tubes:

Flash X-ray generators produce short, intense bursts of radiation (
typ. 150 kV to 2.5 MV). These systems are useful when examining
objects in rapid motion or when studying transient events such as the
tripping of an electrical breaker.

In these type of situations, high-speed video is used to rapidly capture

images from an image intensifier or other real-time detector. Since the
exposure time for each image is very short, a high level of radiation
intensity is needed in order to get a usable output from the detector. To
prevent the imaging system from becoming saturated from a continuous
exposure high intensity radiation, the generator supplies microsecond
bursts of radiation.

http://www.lind.cn/chinese/product1.asp?id=235
The tubes of these X-ray generators do not have a heated filament but
instead electrons are pulled from the cathode by the strong electrical
potential between the cathode and the anode. This process is known as
field emission or cold emission and it is capable of producing electron
currents in the thousands of amperes.

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Merits and demerits of X-rays and Gamma Rays: Merits and demerits of X-rays and Gamma Rays: contd...
Parameter X-Rays Gamma Rays
Generally no power
Power Electrical power required Parameter X-Rays Gamma Rays
required

Supervision and safety required during operation only safety supervision Exposure Time Short (sec - min) Long (hrs)

Relatively light except for Radiography Contrast High contrast (white beam) low contrast
Weight and Dimensions Large, bulky and heavy
Co-60 cameras
Setting up - time Cost High Low
Source Manipulation Ease of manipulation
consuming and difficult
Radiation Hazards Only during ON-time continuously hazardous Maintenance High Low

Radiation penetration adjustable (kV setting) No adjustment possible

Radiation Intensity High and variable (mA) Low
Very fine focal spots depends on specific
Focal Spot
possible activity
unidirectional and multidirectional and
Shape of Beam
panaromic panaromic

Thank you for your kind attention!!