International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013, 48, 893–902 893

Invited review
Ready-to-eat snack products: the role of extrusion technology in
developing consumer acceptable and nutritious snacks

Margaret A. Brennan,1,2 Emma Derbyshire,1 Brijesh K. Tiwari1 & Charles S. Brennan*1,2

1 Hollings Faculty, Manchester Metropolitan University, Old Hall Lane, Manchester, UK
2 Department of Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand
(Received 24 June 2012; Accepted in revised form 28 October 2012)

Summary Consumer appeal for ready-to-eat (RTE) products is forecast to grow rapidly over the next 5 years as
consumers demand convenient snacks with exciting sensory and textural properties. Extrusion technology
has been used extensively in the production of cereal RTE snacks due to its ease of operation and ability
to produce a variety of textures and shapes which appeal to consumers. Many of the existing RTE prod-
ucts are relatively high in sugar and salt, thus being regarded as energy dense but nutritionally poor
foods. However, there exists a potential to manipulate the nutritional status of extruded RTEs by altering
the digestion potentials of starch and protein, and by the incorporation of bioactive components such as
dietary fibre. The review article explores some of the recent research in this field and illustrates opportuni-
ties by which the global food industry could react to consumers’ requirements for healthful RTE snack
products in the coming years.
Keywords Dietary fibre, extrusion, glycaemic index, protein, starch.

with new products entering the food market nearly

Ready-to-eat foods – a definition
Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods are increasingly popular
with the consumer predominantly due to their conve-
nience of consumption and ease of preparation and
storage and consumer appeal factors such as conve-
nience, value, attractive appearance and texture (Har-
per, 1981). The Food Standards Agency (FSA, UK)
defines ready-to-eat products as: ‘any food for con-
sumption without further heating or processing’. This
definition covers both open and pre-wrapped ready-to-
eat products and is intended to apply whether the
ready-to-eat food may be consumed hot or cold. The
expression ‘further heating or processing’ is not
intended to include food preparation activities such as
light washing, slicing, chopping, portioning, marinat-
ing or preservation carried out by the consumer by
way of preference to an otherwise ready to eat food
item (Food Standards Agency, 2011).
Under this definition, a number of processed foods
can be regarded as RTE products including biscuits,
crisps, breads, pies, sandwiches and rolls, dairy prod-
ucts (milk, cheese, spreads), prepared salads and vege-
tables, and fruit. The list can be extremely long and
*Correspondent: Fax: +64-33253851;
e-mail: charles.brennan@lincoln.ac.nz
every day, the list is getting longer and longer (Fast,
1999). One of the most important sectors of the RTE
product market is the cereal RTE segment. This is tra-
ditionally dominated by extruded snack products, for
instance, breakfast cereals, extruded cereal shapes and
cereal biscuits/bars. These products originate from the
rise of the breakfast cereal market in the United States
of America in the late eighteen hundreds and the
beginning of the twentieth century, and the develop-
ment by the Kellogg brothers of healthy vegetarian
foods related to human nutrition (Fast, 1999).
Originally, the majority of these cereal RTE prod-
ucts were derived from whole-grain sources and were
predominately flaked from steamed grains (the steam
making the grains pliable to be reformed by the flak-
ing process). The popularity of flaked cereal products
is evident in terms of corn flakes or bran flakes, which
are the mainstay of the product range for many cereal
food producers. However, with the advent of more
intense flour separation techniques and refining pro-
cessing, partly driven by the consumer expectations of
white food products and products with a finer taste
and texture, more recent extruded cereal snacks are
derived from mixtures of flour components rather than
being whole grain in nature. This has an obvious
impact on the composition of the raw material and

doi:10.1111/ijfs.12055
© 2013 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
894 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al.
hence the nutritional quality of the product. The mill-
ing and refining of cereals concentrates the amount of
starch in a food product, removing the outer coats of
the cereal grain (Seal, 2007). As the outer coat of the
cereal grain is rich in fibre and phytochemicals, mod-
ern refined white cereal flours are high in starch mate-
rial, but low in bioactive ingredients (such as ferulic
acid and arabinoxylan) associated with the cereal grain
outer layer (Klepacka & Fornal, 2007; Barron et al.,
2011; Broekaert et al., 2011). To counter this negative
impact on nutrition, recent research has been con-
ducted to investigate the possibility of utilising whole
grains or whole-grain components in RTE foods
(Poutanen, 2010).
Extrusion technology as a vehicle for snack
production
In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion
process for making lead pipe and for the last 250 years
extrusion technology has been used in the manufacture
of plastics, moulded metals and synthetic materials. It
is only relatively recently (since the 1970s) that there
has been an appreciable use of extrusion technology in
the food industry. The interest in the use of extruders
in the food industry stems from the fact that they are
capable of blending diverse ingredients into novel food
structures and hence may be useful in the development
of functional foods. The quality of the final products
may vary and depend on a few variables of extrusion
parameters such as raw materials composition, feed
moisture, barrel temperature, screw speed, type of
extruded and screw configuration (Miller & Mulvaney,
2000). There are two forms of extrusion – cold (below
70°C) and hot (above 70°C). This review concentrates
on the role of hot extrusion (rather than cold extru-
sion) on RTE quality.
Although relatively simplistic, we can regard extru-
sion as a continuous cooking process. There are three
major screw-types: single-screw and intermeshing twin-
screw in either counter rotating or co-rotating styles
(Miller & Mulvaney, 2000). Whichever screw-type is
used, it constantly rotates within the barrel during
extrusion, thereby propelling food material forward
creating continuous pressure and shear. At the end of
the screw, the product is forced (at high pressure and
temperature) through a restrictive orifice commonly
called the die. For continuous cooking, the single-
screw type is most commonly used as it is simple to
use and costs less. The ingredients are transported via
the rotational action of the screw (s) creating both
shear forces and drag along the barrel generally in a
laminar flow. Depending upon the construction of the
extrusion screw, paddles and reverse flights can be fit-
ted to enhance backward flow of material and as a
consequence causing a limited amount of back mixing
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
(Janssen, 1989). The intermeshing twin-screw extruders
have a variable residence time (time spent travelling
along the barrel before leaving the extruder die) of the
product along the barrel which is generally affected by
the screw configuration. This in turn may have effects
on the product as it travels along the barrel, poten-
tially causing a positive displacement pumping mecha-
nism effect (Janssen, 1989).
As the product has to pass through the die assembly
at the end of the screw-barrel system, pressure and
heat develop along the barrel so that the product melts
before exiting the die. The flash pressure reduction at
the interface between the die face and the atmosphere,
with the resulting evaporation of the water present,
means that the molten product behind the die face
then expands considerably at the die face. The rate of
expansion depends on the rheological and thermal
properties of the molten material and on the geometry
of the shaping insert (Guy, 2001a). The cutting of the
expanded extrudate is usually done by a rotating knife
on the outer face of the die. The pieces, also known as
collets, can be coated with sugar, flavour or coloured
molasses (Burns et al., 2000). The rheology of the
extrudate pastes within the extruder has a significant
influence of the product characteristics (bubble growth
rate, degree of expansion and subsequent product col-
lapse due to relaxation). Differences in flow rate and
hence product characteristics can be created by chang-
ing the process parameters of die pressure drop, screw
flow dynamics or screw energy consumption. Figure 1
illustrates some of the different factors that have an
influence on the extrusion cooking process.
Extrusion is therefore a process which combines the
mixing, forming, texturising and cooking of raw mate-
rial into a food product (Sumathi et al., 2007). The
process of flashing off moisture and pressure equalisa-
tion of the relative fluid product in the extruder is
essential in terms of RTE production. In essence, the
rapid expansion and inflation of the product post
extruder die generate a puffed texture with numerous
expanded gas cells (Brennan et al., 2008a; Parada
et al., 2011; Robin et al., 2011a,b; Karkle et al., 2012).
It is this texture and cooked characteristics which are
so appealing to consumers and the reason why extru-
sion technology is enormously versatile in the produc-
tion of RTEs. The ability to transform raw ingredients
into puffed extrudates has also been used in the pro-
duction of grain type analogues, for instance Mishra
et al. (2012) illustrate the potential of extrusion tech-
nology to produce rice analogues, which in turn may
be used in RTE foods. Production of expanded
extruded products may be appealing to the consumer
in the aspect of enhanced crispiness or crunchiness;
however, from an industrial perspective, the expansion
ratio has an effect on causing increased brittleness of
the product as described by Robin et al. (2011a,b).
© 2013 The Authors
 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al. 895

Raw material
properes Processing
• Moisture content parameters
• Water absorpon index
• Starch characteriscs • Screw configuraon
• Fibre characteriscs • Screw speed
• Fat content • Feed rate
• Parcle Size • Added moisture
• Grain hardness • Die diameter/shape
• Rate of heang

Extrusion variables

• Barrel residence me

• Temperature profile of
barrel
• Pressure profile with in
barrel
• Amount of shear
created

Together
Effects of extrusion material &
on starch, fibre and parameters can
protein be manipulated
to affect product
• Gelanisaon
• Dextrinisaon
• Denaturaon
• Modificaon of
molecular structure Funconal properes
Figure 1 Potential interactions of raw of product
materials, process variables and extruder to
form product.

This in turn may have serious implications in loss of
product intactness during transportation of commer-
cial samples if the product is too highly expanded. As
in everything, an optimum level has to be met which
pleases the organoleptic expectations of the consumer
and the productivity measurements of industry.
The role of raw material selection in affecting
extruded RTE product quality
The major ingredients of most snack foods on the
market are corn, wheat, rice, potato and oats based.
Numerous papers have discussed the role of extrusion
technology in the manufacture of wheat and corn
products (Unlu & Faller, 1998; Holgu
ın-Acu~ na et al.,
2008; Sobata et al., 2010) or the role of extrusion
technology in altering heat-labile vitamins, minerals or
bioactive ingredients (Singh et al., 2007; Pilli et al.,
2008; Batista et al., 2010; Dehghan-Shoar et al., 2011b;
Conti-Silva et al., 2012; Seth & Rajamanickam, 2012).
These authors have shown relationships between extru-
sion parameters. For instance, Bhattachary et al.
(1986) have long established that moisture and lipid
levels affect shear rate and hence specific mechanical
energy within extrusion. Extensive research by Robin
et al. (2011a,b) has also illustrated that starch and
protein composition of raw mixtures can increase
product expansion, whilst dietary fibre inclusion
(wheat bran) can reduce the expansion and density of
final products. Indeed, numerous researchers have
focused on the utilisation of dietary fibre (DF) / non-
starch polysaccharides (NSP) in the formulation of
extruded snack products and how these DF ingredi-
ents can alter the nutritional quality of foods (Brennan
et al., 2008a,b; Kim et al., 2009; Parada et al., 2011;
Robin et al., 2011a,b; Aravind et al., 2012). Bjorck
et al. (1984a,b) investigated the effect of extrusion on
DF content and also protein content of extruded
snacks. The most interesting observation was that the
process of extrusion increased the amount of soluble

© 2013 The Authors International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
896 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al.
DF present in extrudates, indicating a potential role of
extrusion in altering the molecular structure of compo-
nents such as fibre and protein.
The incorporation of fibre in the extruded snack
generally results in changes of extrusion parameters
(torque, pressure thrust and energy consumption),
chemical properties (nutrient profile) and physical
properties (structure and texture) of the final extruded
products (Brennan et al., 2008a). However, there is
still a dearth of information and knowledge on how
the different ingredients (for instance sugars and
DFs) affect the rheological properties of the extrudate
both pre and post die, and hence the overall operation
of a food extruder system.
Both ingredients and formulation play an important
role towards final quality texture of an extruded snack
product and may have a major effect on the consumer
acceptability and functional properties of the extruded
product. The structure and configuration of this puffed
product are important in terms of understanding the
consumer quality of the product (Kim et al., 2009).
High expansion ratio (as measured by the percentage
increase in product diameter post extrusion, compared
with the die size) equates to increased porosity of the
product and either a large number of gas cells, or a
number of large gas cells. Generally, the extruded
product has a relatively hard outer coat, representing
a layer of collapsed gas cells, and an expanded inner
matrix composing of these gas cells. The texture of the
extrudate is dependent on both the extent of expansion
(related to the amount of gas cell space in the extru-
date) and the integrity of the outer coat of the extru-
date (Burtea, 2001; Pai et al., 2009). The outer coat of
the extrudate is generally important in terms of mois-
ture penetration and is essential to consider when pro-
ducing breakfast cereals, with sufficient bowl life for
the consumer, or RTE snacks, which need to remain
crisp for a long storage time. The internal structure is
also important in terms of the perceived crispiness of
the product. A connected network of fine gas cells is
produced from homogenous raw material and repre-
sents a consistent crisp product. Extrudates that are
formed from non-homogenous material may have a
number of large gas cells, connected by smaller gas
cells; this can lead to a brittle material which fractures
relatively easily (Burtea, 2001; Pai et al., 2009). Whilst
the consumer would wish to have a crispy, expanded
product, there is a fine balance in terms of brittleness
and crispiness when it comes to packing quality and
the potential brittleness of a product causing broken
shapes during storage. Generally, highly expanded
extruded products are less dense than unexpanded
products.
It is clear, therefore, that different raw materials
with varying functionality affect the formation and
stabilisation of the final product quality such as
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
colour, flavour and nutritional quality (Guy, 2001a).
In addition, different ingredients affect the rate and
degree of expansion of a product as it exits the extru-
der die, and hence can modulate the texture of the
extruded product. Sugar, starch, lipid, salt and DF all
contribute to altered physical properties of extruded
products (Guy, 2001a,b; Brennan et al., 2008a,b,
2012a,b; Robin et al., 2011a,b). For instance, sugars
and lipids can lead to a reduction in extrudate viscos-
ity within the extruder barrel; this in turn can reduce
the amount of shear and pressure (and overall SME)
in the extruder and hence a reduction in the amount
of pressure required to be released at the die face.
The reduction in pressure difference pre and post die
face can result in a poorly expanded product (Guy,
2001b; Brennan et al., 2008a; Robin et al., 2011a). In
addition, salt and DF ingredients alter the amount of
available (free) water in the extrudate in the extruder
barrel. This in turn may result in an increased
amount of pressure in the system; however, the water
may be less available for flashing off at the die face
(being held more closely in combination with these
ingredients) and consequently produce an unexpanded
product (Guy, 2001b; Brennan et al., 2008a; Robin
et al., 2011a). In this case, there should therefore be a
relationship between high moisture loss of the
extruded product (moisture of raw material in barrel
– moisture of final product) and expansion and crispi-
ness.
Consumer demand for snack foods
As already mentioned, RTE food products are conve-
nient items, which appeal to the consumer eating hab-
its (Fast, 1999), especially in the snack product sector.
As with the RTE food sector as a whole, the snack
food market is expanding rapidly and continued
growth is forecast into the future. A report conducted
by Euromonitor in 2011 estimated that the market size
of snack foods in the UK was expected to reach £4.6
billion in 2011 with production volume of 448 000 ton-
nes (Euromonitor, 2011). Although follow-up data
have not been found to substantiate this claim, there
exists a large range of snack foods on the supermarket
shelves with a large variety of sizes, shapes, colours
and flavours available designed to attract the con-
sumer. Of this market, potato crisps/chips generally
dominate the snack food sector followed by corn
(maize) chips. Most snacks are made from starch-
based products (e.g. corn, wheat, rice, oats and
potato). These products are usually high in starch con-
tent, but low in nutritional value in terms of vitamins,
minor minerals, amino acids and fibre (Table 1).
Indeed, many RTE snack products are regarded as
energy dense and nutrient poor foods exhibiting high
glycaemic index (GI) values (Table 2).
© 2013 The Authors
 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al. 897

Table 1 Composition of selected ready to eat snacks

Energy
Starch Sugars Dietary fibre Fat Protein Water values
(g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (g/100 g) (Kcal/100 g)

Popcorn 15.5 62.1 4.5 20.0 2.1 2.6 480

Potato crisps 52.6 0.7 5.3 34.2 6.2 2.8 530
Tortilla chips 58.9 1.2 6.0 22.6 7.6 0.9 459
Breadstick 67.5 5.0 3.8 8.4 11.2 3.5 392
Cereal bar 28.3 27.6 4.8 22.2 10.4 2.6 468
Kit kat 12.9 50.1 1.4 26.0 7.5 2.0 500
Crispbread 67.4 3.2 11.7 0.6 9.4 6.4 308
Rice krispies 82.5 10.4 0.7 1.0 6.1 3.0 382
Corn flakes 81.4 8.2 0.6 0.9 7.9 3.0 376

Adapted from (McCance & Widdowson 2002).

Table 2 Comparative Glycaemic Index (GI) values of selected RTE so as to increase the amount of fibre and micro-nutri-
food products ents into the food product (Altan et al., 2008; Brennan
et al., 2008a; Vitaglione et al., 2008).
GI GI
Recent research attention has focused on the link
(Glucose = 100) (Bread = 100)
between RTE snacks, snacking and nutritional impact.
All Bran 30 43 For instance, there has been a long standing relation-
Bagel 72 103 ship between snack intake and skipping of meals or
Breakfast cereal bar 78 111 grazing during the day (de Graaf, 2006). Early
Cheerios 74 106 research has indicated that the skipping of meals has a
Corn chips 63 90 negative effect on mood and behaviour (Lindeman &
Cupcake 73 104
Clancy, 1990). Wolfe et al. (1994) also suggested a
Mars bar 68 97
relationship between obesity levels in children and
Pretzels 83 119
Puffed crisp bread 81 116
their incidence of breakfast skipping. It is for these
Puffed rice cake 91 128 reasons that the global food industry has been concen-
Scone 92 131 trating on ensuring a balanced nutritional status of
Waffle 76 109 RTE products.
Adapted from (Foster-Powell et al., 2002).
Extrusion processing and its impact on the
nutritional quality of RTEs
During the last ten to 15 years, consumers have Over the years, extrusion cooking has become a major
become more health conscious and are demanding processing method for food and feed industries, such
snack products which are healthier and more nutri- that since the 1970′s researchers have turned this rap-
tious than those previously available (Euromonitor, idly evolving process from an art into a science (Riaz
2011). Thus, the consumer is demanding a convenient, et al., 2009). Extrusion cooking has been studied
RTE product which satisfies their hunger requirement extensively to produce variety of specialty foods
and yet is low fat, rich in DF and is potentially forti- including pasta products and RTE breakfast cereals,
fied with vitamin and minerals. This move towards baby foods, snack foods, texturised vegetable protein,
healthier snack products is driving manufacturers pet foods, dried soups and dry beverage mixes. Extru-
away from the sugar and starch rich foods of tradi- sion not only alters digestibility of both protein and
tional snack products into a balanced formulation of starch, both positively and negatively depending on
potentially added value ingredients in a nutrient-rich the process variables (Singh et al., 2010), but likewise
but energy low food product. This in itself presents affects the bioavailability / bioaccessibility of nutrients
numerous problems associated with ingredient formu- (Gu et al., 2008; Brennan et al., 2011; Dehghan-Shoar
lation and processing parameters, such as increased et al., 2011a) compared with conventional cooking.
hardness, reduced expansion and lowered organoleptic There has also been a set of data examining the poten-
quality. Such a healthier snack food could be tial use of pre-germinated grains (mainly rice) to
produced by the incorporation of naturally derived enhance the nutritional content of extruded snack
phytochemical ingredients (from fruits and vegetables) products. In many cases, this has resulted in elevated

© 2013 The Authors International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
898 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al.
levels of sugars, amino acids and potentially antioxi-
dants. For instance, the recent publication from Gujral
et al. (2012) examined the potential use of pre-
germinated brown rice as a source of increasing total
phenolic and antioxidant activity of extruded snacks.
Although the authors indicated that levels of such
components were increased in pre-extruded mixes com-
pared with control samples, the extrusion process itself
reduced the total phenolic content of the pre-
germinated brown rice-enriched products by over 50%
compared to the pre-extruded samples. The role of
temperature and shear during extrusion on the antioxi-
dant activity of products is receiving interest with
some authors reporting significant increases in gamma-
aminobutyric acid content when incorporating pre-
germinated cereals (Ohtsubo et al., 2005; Chanlat
et al., 2011). Incorporation of pre-germinated and
fermented cereal products not only appears to enhance
the nutritional content of the extruded snacks but can
also manipulate the sensorial characteristics and con-
sumer perception of the products as was illustrated in
research by Heinio et al. (2003) on conducting studies
using rye grains which were pre-germinated. In this
case mainly from the sugars and volitiles, which are
released during the germination process of most cereal
grains.
One of the more widely researched aspects of extru-
sion on the nutritional content of products is the way
extrusion technology can affect carbohydrate digest-
ibility. Simplistically, humans cannot easily digest
ungelatinised (raw) starch (Holm et al., 1988; Butter-
worth et al., 2011). Although the extrusion process can
‘cook’ starch, and melt the raw material within the
extruder, water levels are normally well regulated and
may prevent complete gelatinisation (Bornet, 1993;
Chessari & Sellahewa, 2001). However, the digestibility
of starch may be improved by the extrusion process
due to partial gelatinisation and fragmentation of
starch attributed to the mechanical shearing effect of
the extruder on starch granules (Wang et al., 1993).
Extrusion may be used as a method to initiate the pre
digestion of starch; consequently, it is not surprising
therefore that extruded snack products tend to be
regarded as having high GI status (Capriles et al.,
2009; Onwulata et al., 2010). Similarly, research has
illustrated that the use of extrusion technology in the
manufacture of RTEs can increase the digestibility of
proteins (probably from the effects of shear on protein
structure and conformation) thus enabling RTEs with
highly digestible proteins to be produced (Cabrera-
Chavez et al., 2012; Karkle et al., 2012; Cian et al.,
2010; Vaz & Areas, 2010). Chen et al. (2011) working
with soybean proteins, illustrated an increase in pro-
tein solubility and potential degradation due to altera-
tions in protein structure occurring from shear
conditions during extrusion. Similarly, Vaz & Areas
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
(2010) illustrated increased protein solubility from
meat-based formulations, again linked to protein deg-
radation and denaturation during the extrusion pro-
cess. Earlier research by Perez-Navarrete et al. (2006)
investigated the use of bean flour blends to improve
the protein content of extruded snacks showing a pos-
sibility of including bean flour of up to 50% wheat
flour replacement to improve the nutritional value of
expanded snack products. Legumes show a great
potential for improving the nutritional quality of a
numerous snack products as illustrated by Tiwari et al.
(2011) when conducting research on snacks prepared
from legume by-products. This pre-digestion of starch,
and also protein, can aid the rapid utilisation of these
compounds from food items and fulfil a requirement
from a number of consumer populations (for instance
consumers partaking in sporting activities, or mature
consumers requiring rapidly digestible forms of starch
and protein to maintain energy and protein levels for
balanced metabolism).
Extruded RTEs and the manipulation of the
glycaemic index (GI) of foods
The depolymerisation of the starch, combined with the
high temperatures associated with extrusion, contrib-
utes to the fact that starch will be made more readily
available to amylolytic enzymes during digestion, and
hence extruded snack products tend to yield a higher
glycaemic response compared with their unprocessed
raw ingredients. For instance, the extrusion process
can increase the available digestible carbohydrate from
raw (un extruded) cereal mix to extruded cereal mix
by between 200 and 300% (Brennan et al., 2008a).
Extrusion alters not only the digestibility of starch but
also the conformation of starch. Both amylose and
amylopectin have been found to exhibit a reduced
molecular weight distribution following extrusion pro-
cessing (Politz et al., 1994a). In a similar manner, it
has also been documented that extrusion of wheat
starch can be optimised to maintain specific molecular
weights and produce defined starch products (Politz
et al., 1994b).
However, research has also suggested that these
shorter branches could cross link forming novel, indi-
gestible linkages and therefore lower the GI (Theander
& Westerlund, 1987). These complexes may be
regarded as resistant starch material and potentially
contribute to the overall DF content of the food prod-
uct. High amylose rice has been extruded into noodles
which then have a reduced GI (Panlasigui et al., 1992).
This ability to modify the molecular structure and
hence functionality of starch is of obvious use to the
food industry not only when trying to derive products
with known digestibility properties but also when
trying to produce novel structures and textures, which
© 2013 The Authors

will appeal to the sensory expectations of the modern
consumer.
Another reason that extruded snack products gener-
ally have a high GI status is due to the relatively low
DF composition of such snack products combined
with the high carbohydrate content of the cereals. It is
for this reason that recent attention has focused on
increasing the level of whole grain materials and/or
DF in extruded snack products and exploring the way
that some DF components can be used to manipulate
the GI of food systems (Brennan, 2005). For instance,
Norfezah et al. (2011) have used pumpkin waste from
growers and processors of this vegetable in food prod-
ucts and have found wastes from the seeds and also
the skins (outer peelings) of pumpkin can be a high
source of fibre and protein. These fibre-rich fractions
have then been applied to extruded food products to
increase the fibre content of snack foods. In so doing,
the recovered fibre components have been utilised in
food systems to produce added fibre foods, which have
shown potential in the regulation of blood glucose
(Norfezah et al., 2011). Similarly, Dehghan-Shoar
et al. (2010, 2011a) have used lycopene-rich fibre waste
material from the tomato processing industry in the
form of tomato peel from tomato paste production to
increase not only the fibre content of extruded snacks
but also their bioactive content. Further experiments
have shown that the lycopene – fibre-rich components
can be incorporated into extruded snacks to produce
novel foods rich in bioavailable lycopene (Dehghan-
Shoar et al., 2011b).
Work from our laboratory (Brennan et al., 2012a,b,
c; Brennan et al., 2008a; ) has illustrated that by
manipulation of product composition it is possible to
increase the amount of slowly digestible starch compo-
nents (digestibility between 20 and 120 min in an in vi-
tro procedure) in processed foods, hence reduce the
rate and extent of predicted glycaemic response. For
instance, the utilisation of wholemeal flour in extruded
snack products, instead of refined flour components,
has been shown to reduce the amount of rapidly
digestible starch components and increase the amount
of slowly digestible starch in extruded breakfast cereal
products (Brennan et al., 2008a,b). Our most recent
publication clearly illustrates that it is possible to use
extrusion technology to produce nutritionally sound,
sensorially acceptable, RTE products containing up to
a third of the recommended daily intake of DF in one
portion (Brennan et al., 2012c).
Mishra et al. (2008) have also illustrated that differ-
ing the processing techniques employed in the cooking
of potato can increase the amount of slowly digestible
starch in a potato meal, hence reduce the potential gly-
caemic impact of such a product. Particle size of the
carbohydrate source can also impact the digestibility
of the starch fraction. This has been given as one of
© 2013 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al. 899
the reasons why chickpea and pasta grade flours gen-
erally produce lower glycaemic responses compared
with finely milled bread wheat flour (Hardacre et al.,
2006). In fact, numerous authors have reported results
in terms of fibre reducing glucose release obtained in
both soluble and insoluble dietary fibres. In such
reports, the authors have explained the effect of fibre
in reducing starch degradation on the possibility of
fibres coating starch granules and inhibiting enzyme
penetration (Brennan et al., 1996; Anderson et al.,
1999; Brennan et al., 2002; Brennan, 2005; Granfeldt
et al., 2008) and the possibility that the viscous nature
of fibres affects the efficiency of enzyme functionality
(Jenkins et al., 2002; Flammang et al., 2006; Kendall
et al., 2008; Aravind et al., 2012). It is probable that
inclusion of DFs to the extruded snack products acts
in a viscous-related manner in modulating starch
digestion process (Brennan et al., 2012a,b,c).
Early research by Wolever & Jenkins (1986) also
illustrated that dietary carbohydrates can impact the
GI of a later meal, finding a reduced glycaemic
response to a lunch time meal when it is preceded by a
low GI compared with a high GI breakfast. Similarly,
Bj€orck & Elmst ahl (2003) reported a glycaemic impact
of DF from one meal to another, where an evening
meal rich in DF, with a low GI will result in an
improved glucose tolerance the following morning. It
is therefore possible that the consumption of a low GI
extruded snack could have advantages in the regulat-
ing the glycaemic response of meals throughout the
day. One of the major problems with this suggestion is
that many extruded snacks tend to be regarded as high
GI food products (Foster-Powell et al., 2002). This is
in part due to cereals being the major component of
extruded snacks and hence the snacks having a high
carbohydrate content; it is also in part related to the
extrusion process which alters the chemical composi-
tion of the food product, and the digestibility of the
starch within the carbohydrate food products.
Conclusion
The consumer demand for RTE snacks is showing
consistent growth due to the convenient nature of
snack products and also the appeal of RTEs for tex-
ture and sensory properties. Extrusion processing
offers the food industry a method to produce con-
sumer acceptable RTEs from relatively inexpensive
cereal-based ingredients. There exists a great potential
for the global food industry to manipulate the nutri-
tional status of these products so as to offer the con-
sumer RTEs with a range of nutritional profiles from
highly digestible starch and protein products for peo-
ple indulging in sport activities for instance, to rela-
tively low GI and high bioactive containing RTEs for
those consumers interested in maintaining a balanced
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
900 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al.
nutrition. During the next 10 years, we will undoubt-
edly see a preponderance of research investigating the
effects of extrusion technology on the chemical and
nutritional profile of RTE, which will help both the
consumer and the food industry to benefit from cur-
rent research investigating the food structure and
nutrition interface.
References
Altan, A., McCarthy, K.L. & Maskan, M. (2008). Evaluation of
snack foods from barley–tomato pomace blends by extrusion pro-
cessing. Journal of Food Engineering, 84, 231–242.
Anderson, J.W., Allgood, L.D., Turner, J., Oelten, P.R. & Daggy,
B.P. (1999). Effects of psyllium on glucose and serum lipid
responses in men with type 2 diabetes and hypercholesterolemia.
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70, 466–473.
Aravind, N., Sissons, M. & Fellows, C.M. (2012). Effect of soluble
fibre (guar gum and carboxymethylcellulose) addition on techno-
logical, sensory and structural properties of durum wheat
spaghetti. Food Chemistry, 131, 893–900.
Barron, C., Samson, M.F., Lullien-Pellerin, V. & Rouau, X. (2011).
Wheat grain tissue proportions in milling fractions using biochemi-
cal marker measurements: application to different wheat cultivars.
Journal of Cereal Science, 53, 306–311.
Batista, K.A., Prud^encio, S.H. & Fernandes, K.F. (2010). Changes
in the biochemical and functional properties of the extruded hard-
to-cook cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). International Journal
of Food Science and Technology, 45, 794–799.
Bhattachary, M., Hanna, M.A. & Kaufman, R.E. (1986). Textural
properties of extruded plant protein blends. Journal of Food
Science, 51, 988–993.
Bjorck, I., Nyman, M. & Asp, N.G. (1984a). Extrusion cooking and
dietary fibre – effects on dietary fibre content and on degradation
in the rat intestinal tract. Cereal Chemistry, 61, 174–179.
Bjorck, I., Asp, N.G. & Dahlqvist, A. (1984b). Protein nutritional
value of extrusion cooked wheat flours. Food Chemistry, 15,
203–214.
Bornet, F. (1993). Technological treatments of cereals. Repercussions
on the physiological properties of starch. Carbohydrate Polymers,
21, 195–203.
Brennan, C.S. (2005). Dietary fibre, glycaemic response, and diabe-
tes. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 49, 560–570.
Brennan, C.S., Tudorica, D.E., Elis, P.R. & Schofield, J.D. (1996).
Effects of guar galactomannan on wheat bread microstructure and
on the in vitro and in vivo digestibility of starch in bread. Journal
of Cereal Science, 24, 151–160.
Brennan, C.S., Tudorica, C.M., & Kuri, V. (2002). Soluble and Inso-
luble Dietary Fibres (Non-Starch Polysaccharides) and Their
Effects on Food Structure and Nutritional. Food Industry Journal,
5, 261–272.
Brennan, M.A., Merts, I., Monro, J., Woolnough, J. & Brennan,
C.S. (2008a). Impact of guar and wheat bran on the physical and
nutritional quality of extruded breakfast cereals. Starch – St€ arke,
60, 248–256.
Brennan, M.A., Monro, J.A. & Brennan, C.S. (2008b). Effect of
inclusion of soluble and insoluble fibres into extruded breakfast
cereal products made with reverse screw configuration. Interna-
tional Journal of Food Science & Technology, 43, 2278–2288.
Brennan, C., Brennan, M., Derbyshire, E. & Tiwari, B. (2011).
Effects of extrusion on the polyphenols, vitamins and antioxidant
activity of foods. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 22,
570–575.
Brennan, M.A., Derbyshire, E., Tiwari, B.K., Phillips, G.O., Ogasaw-
ara, T. & Brennan, C.S. (2012a). Novel use of Acacia senegal
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
(Super Gum) and Anogeisus latifolia (Gatifolia SD) as functional
ingredients in extruded snack products. Starch, 64, 757–764.
Brennan, M.A., Derbyshire, E.J., Tiwari, B.K. & Brennan, C.S.
(2012b). Enrichment of extruded snack products with co-products
from chestnut mushroom (Agrocybe aegerita) production:
interactions between dietary fibre, physicochemical characteristics
and glycaemic load. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 60,
4396–4401.
Brennan, M.A., Derbyshire, E., Brennan, C.S. & Tiwari, B.K.
(2012c). Impact of dietary fibre-enriched ready to eat extruded
snacks on the postprandial glycaemic response of non-diabetic
patients. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 56, 834–837.
Broekaert, W.F., Courtin, C.M., Verbeke, K., Van de Iele, T., Ver-
straete, W. & Delcour, J.A. (2011). Prebiotic and other health
related effects of cereal derived arabinoxylans, arabinoxylan-
oligosachharides, and xylooligosaccharides. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition, 51, 178–194.
Burns, R.E., Caldwell, E.F., Fast, R.B. & Jones, W.H. (2000).
Application of nutritional and flavoring/sweetening coatings. In:
Breakfast Cereals, and How They are Made. (edited by R.B. Fast
& E.F. Caldwell). Pp. 279–314. St. Paul, Minn: American Associa-
tion of Cereal Chemists.
Burtea, O. (2001). Snack foods from formers and high-shear
extruders. In: Snack Foods Processing. (edited by E.W. Lusas &
L.W. Rooney Snack). Pp. 281–314. Lancaster, Pa: Technomic Pub.
Co.
Butterworth, P.J., Warren, F.J. & Ellis, P.R. (2011). Human a-amy-
lase and starch digestion: an interesting marriage. Starch – St€
arke,
63, 395–405.
Cabrera-Chavez, F., Calderon de la Barca, A.M., Islas-Rubio, A.R.
et al. (2012). Molecular rearrangements in extrusion processes for
the production of amaranth-enriched, gluten free rice pasta. LWT-
Food Science and Technology, 47, 421–426.
Capriles, V.D., Soares, R.A.M., Pinto e Silva, M.E.M. & Ar^eas,
J.A.G. (2009). Effect of fructans-based fat replacer on chemical
composition, starch digestibility and sensory acceptability of corn
snacks. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 44,
1895–1901.
Chanlat, N., Songsermpong, S., Chilaluck, C. & Onanong, N.
(2011). Twin screw extrusion of pre-germinated brown rice: physi-
cochemical properties and gamma aminobutyric acid content
(GABA) of extruded snack. International Journal of Food Engineer-
ing, 7, doi:10.2202/1556-3758.2328.
Chen, F.L., Wei, Y.M. & Zhang, B. (2011). Chemical cross-linking
and molecular aggregation of soybean protein during extrusion
cooking at low and high moisture content. LWT- Food Science and
Technology, 44, 957–962.
Chessari, C.J. & Sellahewa, J.N. (2001). Effective process control. In:
Extrusion Cooking: Technologies and Applications (edited by R.
Guy). Pp. 83–107. Cambridge, England: CRC Press; Woodhead
Publishers.
Cian, R.E., Drago, S.R., Greef, D.M., Torres, R.L. & Gonzalez,
R.J. (2010). Iron and zinc availability and some physical character-
istics from extruded products with added concentrate and hydoly-
sates from bovine haemoglobin. International Journal of Food
Sciences and Nutrition, 61, 573–582.
Conti-Silva, A.C., Bastos, D.H.M. & Ar^eas, A.G. (2012). The effects
of extrusion conditions and the addition of volatile compounds
and flavour enhancers to corn grits on the retention of the volatile
compounds and texture of extrudates. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 47, 1896–1902.
Dehghan-Shoar, Z., Hardacre, A. & Brennan, C. (2010). The physi-
co-chemical characteristics of extruded snacks enriched with
tomato lycopene. Food Chemistry, 123, 1117–1122.
Dehghan-Shoar, Z., Mandimika, T., Hardacre, A., Reynolds, G. &
Brennan, C. (2011a). Lycopene bioaccessibility and starch digest-
ibility for extruded snacks enriched with tomato derivatives. Jour-
nal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 12047–12053.
© 2013 The Authors

Dehghan-Shoar, Z., Hardacre, A., Meerdink, G. & Brennan, C.
(2011b). Lycopene extraction from extruded products containing
tomato skin. International Journal of Food Science & Technology,
46, 365–371.
Euromonitor (2011), Euromonitor International – Analysis https://
www.portal.euromonitor.com/Portal/Pages/Search/SearchResults-
List.aspx. Accessed on 30/01/2012d.
Fast, R.B. (1999). Origins of the US breakfast cereal industry. Cereal
Foods World, 44, 394.
Flammang, A., Kendall, D., Baumgartner, C., Slagle, T. & Choe, Y.
(2006). Effect of a viscous fiber bar on postprandial glycemia in
subjects with type 2 diabetes. Journal of the American College of
Nutrition, 25, 409–414.
Food Standards Agency (2011). E. coli O157 control of cross-con-
tamination guidance for food business operators and enforcement
authorities. http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/publication/
ecoliguide0211.pdf. Accessed on 01/07/2012.
Foster-Powell, K., Holt, S.H.A. & Brand-Miller, J.C. (2002). Inter-
national table of glycaemic index and glycaemic loads values: 2002.
Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 76, 5–56.
de Graaf, C. (2006). Effects of snacks on energy intake: an evolu-
tionary perspective. Appetite, 47, 18–23.
Granfeldt, Y., Nyberg, L. & Bj€ orck, I. (2008). Muesli with 4 g oat b-
glucans lowers glucose and insulin responses after a bread meal in
healthy subjects. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62, 600–607.
Gu, L., House, S., Rooney, L. & Prior, R. (2008). Sorghum Extru-
sion Increases Bioavailability of Catechins in Weanling Pigs. Jour-
nal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 1283–1288.
Gujral, H.S., Sharma, P., Kumar, A. & Singh, B. (2012). Total phe-
nolic content and antioxidant activity of extruded brown rice.
International Journal of Food Properties, 15, 301–311.
Guy, R. (2001a). Raw materials for extrusion cooking. In: Extrusion
Cooking: Technologies and Applications. (edited by R. Guy).
Pp. 5–28. Cambridge, England: CRC Press; Woodhead Publishers.
Guy, R. (2001b). Snack foods. In: Extrusion Cooking: Technologies
and Applications. (edited by R. Guy). Pp. 161–181. Cambridge,
England: CRC Press; Woodhead Publishers.
Hardacre, A., Clark, S., Riviere, S., Monro, J. & Hawkins, A.
(2006). Some textural, sensory and nutritional properties of
expanded snack food wafers made from corn, lentil and other
ingredients. Journal of Texture Studies, 37, 94–111.
Harper, J.M. (1981). Extrusion of Foods, vol. 1. Florida: CRC Press,
Inc..
Heinio, R.L., Katina, K., Wilhelmson, A. et al. (2003). Relationship
between sensory perception and flavour-active volatile compounds
of germinated, sourdough fermented and native rye following the
extrusion process. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft Und- Technologie-
Food Science and Technology, 36, 533–545.
Holgu
ın-Acu~ na, A., Carvajal-Mill
an, E., Santana-Rodr
ıguez, V.
et al. (2008). Maize bran/oat flour extruded breakfast cereal: a
novel source of complex polysaccharides and an antioxidant. Food
Chemistry, 111, 654–657.
Holm, J., Lundquist, I., Bj€ orck, I., Eliasson, A. & Asp, N. (1988).
Degree of starch gelatinization, digestion rate of starch in vitro,
and metabolic response in rats. The American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 47, 1010–1016.
Janssen, L. (1989). Engineering aspects of food extrusion. In: Extru-
sion Cooking. (edited by C. Mercier, P. Linko & J. Harper). Pp. 17
–38. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: American Association of Cereal
Chemists.
Jenkins, A., Jenkins, D., Zdravkovic, U., W€ ursch, P. & Vuksan, V.
(2002). Depression of the glycemic index by high levels of b-glucan
fiber in two functional foods tested in type 2 diabetes. European
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 56, 622–628.
Karkle, E.L., Alavi, S. & Dogan, H. (2012) Cellular architecture and
its relationship with mechanical properties in expanded extrudates
containing apple pomace. Food research international, 46, 10–21.
© 2013 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al. 901
Kendall, C., Esfahani, A., Hoffman, A. et al. (2008). Effect of
novel maize-based dietary fibers on postprandial glycemia and
insulinemia. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 27,
711–718.
Kim, E., Corrigan, V., Hedderley, D., Motoi, L., Wilson, A. & Mor-
genstern, M. (2009). Predicting the sensory texture of cereal snack
bars using instrumental measurements. Journal of Texture Studies,
40, 457–481.
Klepacka, J. & Fornal, L. (2007). Ferulic acid and its position
among phenolic compounds of wheat. Critical Reviews in Food Sci-
ence and Nutrition, 46, 639–647.
Lindeman, A.K. & Clancy, K.L. (1990). Assessment of breakfast
habits and social-emotional behaviour of elementary schoolchil-
dren. Journal of Nutrition Education, 22, 226–231.
Miller, R. & Mulvaney, S. (2000). Extrusion and extruders. In:
Breakfast Cereals, and How They are Made (edited by R. Fast &
E. Caldwell). Pp. 215–278. St. Paul, Minn.: American Association
of Cereal Chemists.
Mishra, S., Monro, J. & Hedderley, D. (2008). Effect of processing
on slowly digestible starch and resistant starch in potato. Starch –
St€arke, 60, 500–507.
Mishra, A., Mishra, H.N. & Rao, P.S. (2012). Preparation of rice
analogues using extrusion technology. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 47, 1789–1797.
Norfezah, M.N., Hardacre, A. & Brennan, C.S. (2011). Compari-
son of waste pumpkin material and its potential use in extruded
snack foods. Food Science and Technology International, 17,
367–373.
Ohtsubo, K., Suzuki, K., Yasui, Y. & Kasumi, T. (2005). Bio-func-
tional components in the processed pre-germinated brown rice by a
twin-screw extruder. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 18,
303–316.
Onwulata, C., Thomas, A., Cooke, P. et al. (2010). Glycemic poten-
tial of extruded barley, cassava, corn, and quinoa enriched with
whey proteins and cashew pulp. International Journal of Food
Properties, 13, 338–359.
Pai, D., Blake, O., Hamaker, B. & Campenella, O. (2009). Impor-
tance of extensional rheological properties on fiber-enriched corn
extrudates. Journal of Cereal Science, 50, 227–234.
Panlasigui, L., Thompson, L., Juliano, B., Perez, C., Jenkins, D. &
Yiu, S. (1992). Extruded rice noodles: starch digestibility and glyce-
mic response of healthy and diabetic subjects with different habit-
ual diets. Nutrition Research, 12, 1195–1204.
Parada, J., Aguilera, J.M. & Brennan, C. (2011). Effect of guar gum
content on some physical and nutritional properties of extruded
products. Journal of Food Engineering, 103, 324–332.
Perez-Navarrete, C., Gonzalez, R., Chel-Guerrero, L. & Betancur-
Ancona, D. (2006). Effect of extrusion on nutritional quality of
maize and Lima bean flour blends. Journal of the Science of Food
and Agriculture, 86, 2477–2484.
Pilli, T.D., Carbone, B.F., Derossi, A., Fiore, A.G. & Severini, C.
(2008). Effects of operating conditions on oil loss and structure of
almond snacks. International Journal of Food Science and Technol-
ogy, 43, 430–439.
Politz, M.L., Timpa, J.D. & Wasserman, B.P. (1994a). Quantitative
measurement of extrusion-induced starch fragmentation products
in maize flour using nonaqueous automated gel-permeation chro-
matography. Cereal Chemistry, 71, 532–536.
Politz, M.L., Timpa, J.D., White, A.R. & Wasserman, B.P. (1994b).
Non-aqueous gel permeation chromatography of wheat starch in
dimethylacetamide (DMAC) and LiCl: extrusion-induced fragmen-
tation. Carbohydrate Polymers, 24, 91–99.
Poutanen, K. (2010). Rye, oats, and weight management. Cereal
Foods World, 55, 66–69.
Riaz, M.N., Asif, M. & Ali, R. (2009). Stability of vitamins during
extrusion. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 49,
361–368.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
902 Ready to eat snack products M. A. Brennan et al.
Robin, F., Dubois, C., Pineau, N., Schuchmann, H. & Palzer, S.
(2011a). Expansion mechanism of extruded foams supplemented
with wheat bran. Journal of Food Engineering, 107, 80–89.
Robin, F., Th
eoduloz, C., Gianfrancesco, A., Pineau, N., Schuhman,
H. & Palzer, S. (2011b). Starch transformation in bran-enriched
extruded wheat flour. Carbohydrate Polymers, 85, 65–74.
Seal, C.J. (2007). Whole grains and CVD risk. Proceedings of the
Nutrition Society, 65, 24–34.
Seth, D. & Rajamanickam, G. (2012). Development of extruded
snacks using soy, sorghum, millet and rice blend – A response sur-
face methodology approach. International Journal of Food Science
and Technology, 47, 1526–1531.
Singh, S., Gamlath, S. & Wakeling, L. (2007). Nutritional aspects of
food extrusion: a review. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 42, 916–929.
Singh, J., Dartois, A. & Kaur, L. (2010). Starch digestibility in food
matrix: a review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21, 168–180.
Sobata, A., Sykut-Domanska, E. & Redzedzicki, Z. (2010). Effect of
Extrusion-cooking process on the chemical composition of corn-
wheat extrudates, with particular emphasis on dietary fibre frac-
tions. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 60, 251–259.
Sumathi, A., Ushakumari, S. & Malleshi, N. (2007). Physico-chemi-
cal characteristics, nutritional quality and shelf-life of pearl millet
based extrusion cooked supplementary foods. International Journal
of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 58, 350–362.
Theander, O. & Westerlund, E. (1987). Studies on chemical modifi-
cations in heat-processed starch and wheat flour. Starch – St€ arke,
39, 88–93.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2013
International Journal of Food Science and Technology © 2013 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Tiwari, U., Gunasekaren, M., Jaganmohan, R., Alsgusundaram, K.
& Tiwari, B.K. (2011). Quality characteristics and shelf life studies
of deep fried snack prepared from rice brokens and legume by-
product. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 4, 1172–1178.
Unlu, E. & Faller, J. (1998). Formation of resistant starch by a
twin-screw extruder. Cereal Chemistry, 75, 346–350.
Vaz, L.C.M.A. & Areas, J.A.G. (2010). Recovery and upgrading
bovine rumen protein by extrusion: effect of lipid content on pro-
tein disulphide cross-linking, solubility and molecular weight. Meat
Science, 84, 39–45.
Vitaglione, P., Napolitano, A. & Fogliano, V. (2008). Cereal dietary
fibre: a natural functional ingredient to deliver phenolic
compounds into the gut. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 19,
451–463.
Wang, W.M., Klopfenstein, C.F. & Ponte, J.G. (1993). Effects of
twin -screw extrusion on the physical properties of dietary fibre
and other components of whole wheat and wheat bran on the bak-
ing quality of wheat bran. Cereal Chemistry, 70, 707–711.
Wolever, T. & Jenkins, D. (1986). The use of the glycemic index in
predicting the blood glucose response to mixed meals. The Ameri-
can Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 43, 167–172.
Wolfe, W., Campbell, C., Frongillo, E., Haas, J. & Melnik, T.
(1994). Overweight schoolchildren in New York State: prevalence
and characteristics. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 807–
813.
© 2013 The Authors