SVCE TIRUPATI

COURSE MATERIAL

SUBJECT Experimental Stress Analysis (19A01506a)

III
UNIT

COURSE B.TECH

3 &1
YEAR & SEMESTER

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT

PREPARED BY Dr. M. Vamsi Krishna,

(Faculty Name/s)
Associate Professor

V-1
VERSION

19-09-2021
PREPARED / REVISED DATE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS – UNIT 3

S. NO CONTENTS PAGE
1 COURSE OBJECTIVES 1
2 PREREQUISITES 1
3 SYLLABUS 1
4 COURSE OUTCOMES 1
5 CO - PO/PSO MAPPING 2
6 LESSON PLAN 2
7 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING 2
8 LECTURE NOTES 3
3.1 STRAIN ROSSETTE 3
3.2 NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE 14
9 PRACTICE QUIZ 24
10 ASSIGNMENTS 25
11 PART A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 26
12 PART B QUESTIONS 27
13 SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES 28
14 REAL TIME APPLICATIONS 28
15 CONTENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS 29
16 PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS 29
17 MINI PROJECT SUGGESTION 29

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1. COURSE OBJECTIVES
To bring awareness on experimental method of finding the response of the structure to different
types of load.
 Demonstrates principles of experimental approach.
 Teaches regarding the working principles of various strain gauges.
 Throws knowledge on strain rosettes and principles of non destructive testing of concrete.
 Gives an insight into the principles of photo elasticity.
2. PREREQUISITES
Students should have knowledge on
 Mechanics of materials

3. SYLLABUS

UNIT III
STRAIN ROSSETTES AND NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF CONCRETE:- Introduction –
the three elements Rectangular Rosette – The Delta Rosette Corrections for Transverse Strain
Gauge. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity method –Application to Concrete. Hammer Test – Application to
Concrete.
4. COURSE OUTCOMES
After completion of the course
1. The student will be able to understand different methods of experimental stress analysis
2. The student will be able to understand the use of strain gauges for measurement of strain
3. The student will be exposed to different Non-destructive methods of concrete
4. The student will be able to understand the theory of photo elasticity and its applications in
analysis of structures

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5. Co-PO / PSO Mapping

Experimenta
l stress PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 P10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
analysis
CO1 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2

CO2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2

CO3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2

CO4 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2

CO5 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2

6. LESSON PLAN
LECTU WEE REFERENC
TOPICS TO BE COVERED
RE K ES
STRAIN ROSSETTES AND NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF
1 T1
CONCRETE:- Introduction
2 the three elements Rectangular Rosette T1,R1
3 1 The Delta Rosette Corrections for Transverse Strain Gauge. T1
4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity method- Application to Concrete T1
5 Hammer Test – Application to Concrete.

7. ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

1. Identify and apply various modern management techniques

2. Designing Organization Structure

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8. LECTURE NOTE
3.1 STRAIN ROSSETTES
Introduction: For completely defining the strain or stress at a point on the surface of a component or
structure, generally it is necessary to measure strains along three different directions at that point.
Multiple element strain gages or rosettes with strain gages oriented along fixed directions are used
for this purpose. When both the magnitude and
directions of the principal strains at a point are
unknown, a three-element strain gage is needed
for the complete definition of strain at that point.
Consider the case where the three gages in the
rosette are placed at arbitrary angles related to the
x-and y axis. The strain along these directions A,
B and C are related to strains ∈𝑥,∈𝑦, 𝛾𝑥y

Where θA, θB, and θC are the angles between the

x-axis and the directions A, B, and C respectively
, the magnitudes of strains εA, εB, and εC are
obtained through measurements on gages oriented
along these directions, Hence εxx, εyy, and εxy can be found out by solving the simultaneous eq

The principal strains and principal directions are then

determined through

Here 𝜙 is the angle between the x-axis and the principal axis
corresponding to strain ε1 and ε2, the principal stress σ1 and σ2 can
be determined

Several multiple element rosettes with gages oriented along specified directions are commercially
available. These rosettes are denoted by the angles along which the gages are oriented in them as
the three element rectangular rosettes, delta russets, four element rectangular rosettes and tee-delta
rosette.

1 Two element rectangular rosettes: This rosette is suitable

only when the directions of principal strain are known. The
gage a is arranged along the maximum strain direction chosen
along the x-axis so that 𝜃𝐴 = 0 and the gage b is set along the
minimum strain direction so that 𝜃𝐵 = 90o

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The strain along these directions A, B is ∴ ∈𝐴=∈𝑥𝑥 ∈𝐵=∈𝑦𝑦 Hence ∈1= ∈𝐴, ∈2= ∈𝐵, 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(∈𝐴− ∈𝐵) The principal stress 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 can be

E E E
σ 1=( ϵ A +ϑ ϵ B ) ; σ 2=( ϵ B +ϑ ϵ A ) ; τm = ( ϵ A−ϵ B )
( 1−v )
2
( 1−ν )
2 ax
2 ( 1+ν )

2 Three element rectangular rosettes:

In this rosette the three gage are laid out so that the axis of gages B and C are at 45o and 90 o
respectively to the axis of gage A. taking the OA axis to be coincident with the O x-axis, the angles
corresponding to the gages A, B and C in the three- element rectangular rosette are 𝜃𝐴 = 0 𝜃𝐵 = 450
𝜃𝐶 = 90𝑜 Than

∴ ∈𝐴=∈𝑥𝑥…………………………….. (1)

∈𝐵= 1 2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦+ 𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … … (2)

∈𝐶=∈𝑦𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)

We can rewrite these eq in terms of∈𝑥𝑥, ∈𝑦𝑦, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 are obtained as

∴ ∈𝑥𝑥=∈𝐴

∈𝑦𝑦=∈𝐶

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2 ∈𝐵− ( ∈𝐴+ ∈𝐶 )……………… (4)

The principal strains are given by

∈1= 1/ 2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) + 1/ 2 ((∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 ) 1⁄2

∈1= 1/2 (∈𝐴+∈𝐶 ) + 1 2 ((∈𝐴−∈𝐶 ) 2 + ( 2 ∈𝐵− ( ∈𝐴+ ∈𝐶 )) 2 ) 1⁄2

∈2= 1/ 2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) − 1 /2 ((∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 ) 1⁄2

∈2= 1/2 (∈𝐴+∈𝐶 ) – 1/2 ((∈𝐴−∈𝐶 ) 2 + ( 2 ∈𝐵− ( ∈𝐴+ ∈𝐶 )) 2 ) 1⁄2 ………………….. (5)

Maximum shear strains

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝒙𝒙−∈𝒚𝒚) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 } 1⁄2

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝑨−∈𝑪 ) 2 + (2 ∈𝑩−∈𝑨−∈𝑪 ) 2 } 1⁄2……………… (6)

Principal strain directions are

tan 2∅ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦⁄(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦).

tan 2∅ = [ 2 ∈𝐵− ∈𝐴− ∈𝐶 ] (∈𝐴−∈𝐶 )……. (7)

Substituting eq 5 value in the general eq of the principal stress 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 and we get

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𝜎1 = 𝐸(∈1+ 𝜗 ∈2 ) (1 − 𝜗2)

𝜎1 = 𝐸/2 [ (∈𝐴+∈𝐶) /(1 − 𝜗) + 1/ (1 + 𝜗) {(∈𝐴−∈𝐶 ) 2 + ( 2∈𝐵− ∈𝐴− ∈𝐶 ) 2 } 1⁄2 ]

𝜎2 = 𝐸(∈2+ 𝜗 ∈1 ) (1 − 𝜗2 )

𝜎2 = 𝐸/2 [ (∈𝐴+∈𝐶)/ (1 − 𝜗) − 1 /(1 + 𝜗) {(∈𝐴−∈𝐶 ) 2 + ( 2 ∈𝐵− ∈𝐴− ∈𝐶 ) 2 } 1⁄2 ]

Maximum shear stress is given by 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐸 /2(1 + 𝜗)) 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸/ 2(1 + 𝜗) {(∈𝑨−∈𝑪 ) 2 + (2 ∈𝑩−∈𝑨−∈𝑪 ) 2 } 1⁄2

3. Three element delta rosettes:

In a three element delta rosette three gages are placed at

angular disposition of 0o ,120o , 240o . for a delta rosette,

Than ∴ ∈𝐴=∈𝑥𝑥…………………………….. (1)

∈𝐵= 1/4 (∈𝑥𝑥+ 3 ∈𝑦𝑦− √3𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … …

(2)

∈𝐶= 1/4 (∈𝑥𝑥+ 3 ∈𝑦𝑦+ √3𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … … …

… … … … … . (3)

We can rewrite these eq in terms of ∈𝑥𝑥, ∈𝑦𝑦, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 are

obtained as

∈𝑥𝑥 = ∈𝐴

∈𝑦𝑦= 1/3 ( 2(∈𝐵+∈𝐶 )−∈𝐴 )

𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2/√3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)………………… (4)

The principal strains ∈1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∈2 are

∈1= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) + 1/2 ((∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 )1⁄2

∈1= 1/3 (∈𝐴+∈𝐵+∈𝐶 ) + 1/2 {((∈𝐴+ ∈𝐴− 2 ∈𝐵− 2 ∈𝐶)/ 3 )2 + ( 2/√3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵))2 } 1⁄2

∈2= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) – 1/2 ((∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦)2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦2 ) 1⁄2

∈2= 1/3 (∈𝐴+∈𝐵+∈𝐶 ) – 1/2 {(∈𝐴+ (∈𝐴− 2 ∈𝐵− 2 ∈𝐶)/ 3 )2 + ( 2 √3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)) 2 } 1⁄2

The principle angle ∅ is obtained as

tan 2∅ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦⁄(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦)

tan 2∅ = 2/√3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵) [(∈𝐴+ ∈𝐴− 2 ∈𝐵− 2 ∈𝐶)/ 3]

tan 2∅ = √3(∈𝐶−∈𝐵)/(2 ∈𝐴−∈𝐵−∈𝐶)

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Maximum shear strains 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝒙𝒙−∈𝒚𝒚) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 } 1⁄2

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝐴+ ∈𝐴− 2 ∈𝐵− 2 ∈𝐶 3 )2 + (2 √3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵))2 } 1⁄2

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2/√3 {( (2 ∈𝐴−∈𝐵−∈𝐶)/ √3 ) 2 + ((∈𝐶−∈𝐵)) 2 } 1⁄2

The principal stresses are 𝜎1 = 𝐸(∈1+ 𝜗 ∈2 )/ (1 − 𝜗 2)

𝜎1 = 𝐸 [(∈𝐴+∈𝐵 +∈𝐶 )/ 3(1 − 𝜗) + 2/√3(1+𝜗 {( (2 ∈𝐴−∈𝐵−∈𝐶)/√3)2 +((∈𝐶−∈𝐵))2}1⁄2 ]

𝜎2 = 𝐸(∈2+ 𝜗 ∈1)/(1 − 𝜗2)

𝜎2 = 𝐸 [(∈𝐴+∈𝐵 +∈𝐶)/3(1−𝜗)– 2/√3(1 + 𝜗){( (2∈𝐴−∈𝐵−∈𝐶)/√3 )2 + ((∈𝐶−∈𝐵))2 }1⁄2 ]

4 Four element rectangular rosettes:

In a four element rectangular rosette four gages are

placed at angular disposition of 0o ,45o , 90o , 135o .

𝜃𝐴 = 0, 𝜃𝐵 = 450, 𝜃𝐶 = 90𝑜, 𝜃𝐷 = 135𝑜

∴ ∈𝐴=∈𝑥𝑥…………………………….. (1)

∈𝐵= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦+ 𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … …

(2)

∈𝐶=∈𝑦𝑦 … … … … … … … … … … … … …
. (3)

∈𝐷= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦− 𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … …

(4)

Solving for ∈𝑥𝑥, ∈𝑦𝑦, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 we get

∈𝑥𝑥=∈𝐴

∈𝑦𝑦=∈𝐶

𝛾𝑥𝑦 =∈𝑩−∈𝑫……………….. (5)

The principal strains are given by

∈1= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) + 1/2 {(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2} 1⁄2

∈1= 1/2 (∈𝐴+∈𝐶) + 1/2 {(∈𝐴−∈𝐶)2 + (∈𝐵−∈𝐷)2 } 1⁄2

∈2= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) – 1/2 {(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦) 2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 } 1⁄2

∈2= 1/2 (∈𝐴+∈𝐶 ) – 1/2 {(∈𝐴−∈𝐶 )2 + (∈𝐵−∈𝐷)2} 1⁄2

tan 2∅ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦⁄(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦)

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∅ = 1/2 tan−1 ( ∈𝐵−∈𝐷/ ∈𝐴−∈𝐶 )

The principal stress are given by

𝜎1 = 𝐸(∈1+ 𝜗 ∈2 ) (1 − 𝜗2)

𝜎1 = 𝐸/2 [ (∈𝐴 +∈𝐶 )/ (1 − 𝜗) + [(∈𝐴−∈𝐶 )2 + (∈𝐵−∈𝐷)2 ] 1⁄2 /(1 + 𝜗) ]

𝜎2 = 𝐸(∈2+ 𝜗 ∈1 )/ (1 − 𝜗2)

𝜎2 = 𝐸/2 [ (∈𝐴 +∈𝐶 )/(1 − 𝜗) − [(∈𝐴−∈𝐶)2 + (∈𝐵−∈𝐷)2 ] 1⁄2 /(1 + 𝜗) ]

Maximum shear strains

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝒙𝒙−∈𝒚𝒚)2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦2 } 1⁄2

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝑨−∈𝑪 )2 + (∈𝑩−∈𝑫)2 } 1⁄2

Maximum shear stress is given by

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸/2(1 + 𝜗) 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸/2(1 + 𝜗) {(∈𝑨−∈𝑪 )2 + (∈𝑩−∈𝑫)2 }1⁄2

5. Four element delta rosettes:

In a four element rectangular rosette four gages are placed at angular disposition of 0o ,60o ,
120o , 90o . 𝜃𝐴 = 0, 𝜃𝐵 = 600 , 𝜃𝐶 = 120𝑜 , 𝜃𝐷 = 90𝑜
∴ ∈𝐴=∈𝑥𝑥…………………………….. (1)
∈𝐵= 1/4 (∈𝑥𝑥+ 3 ∈𝑦𝑦+ √3𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … … (2)
∈𝐶= 1 4 (∈𝑥𝑥+ 3 ∈𝑦𝑦− √3𝛾𝑥𝑦) … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (3)
∈𝐷=∈𝑦𝑦 … … … … … … … (4)
Solving for ∈𝑥𝑥, ∈𝑦𝑦, 𝛾𝑥𝑦 we get
∈𝑥𝑥=∈𝐴
∈𝑦𝑦=∈𝐷
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 2/√3 (∈𝑪−∈𝑩)……………….. (5)
The principal strains are given by
∈1= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) + 1/2 {(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦)2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦 2 } 1⁄2
∈1= 1/2 (∈𝐴+∈𝐷) + 1/2 {(∈𝐴−∈𝐷)2 + 4/3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)2 }1⁄2
∈2= 1/2 (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦) – 1/2 {(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦)2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦2 } 1⁄2
∈2= 1/2 (∈𝐴+∈𝐷) – 1/2 {(∈𝐴−∈𝐷)2 + 4/3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)2 } 1⁄2
tan 2∅ = 𝛾𝑥𝑦⁄(∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦)
∅ = 1/2 tan−1 ( (2/√3)((∈𝐶−∈𝐵)/(∈𝐴−∈𝐷)))
The principal stress are given by
𝜎1 = 𝐸(∈1+ 𝜗 ∈2 ) /(1 − 𝜗2)
𝜎1 = 𝐸/2 [ ((∈𝐴 +∈𝐷)/ (1 − 𝜗)) + [(∈𝐴−∈𝐷)2 + 4/3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)2 ] 1⁄2 (1 + 𝜗) ]
𝜎2 = 𝐸(∈2+ 𝜗 ∈1 )/(1 − 𝜗2)
𝜎2 = 𝐸/2 [ ((∈𝐴 +∈𝐷)/ (1 − 𝜗)) – ([(∈𝐴−∈𝐷)2 + 4/3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)2] 1⁄2 )/(1 + 𝜗)
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Maximum shear strains

𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝒙𝒙−∈𝒚𝒚)2 + 𝛾𝑥𝑦2 } 1⁄2
𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {(∈𝑨−∈𝑫)2 + 4/3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)2 } 1⁄2
Maximum shear stress is given by
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸/2(1 + 𝜗) 𝛾𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸/2(1 + 𝜗) {(∈𝑨−∈𝑫)2 + 4/3 (∈𝐶−∈𝐵)2 } 1⁄2

2.3 Transverse sensitivity error in rosettes:

In the analysis presented above the strain gage readings were assumed to be free from errors due to
transverse sensitivity effects. However, in actual practice the effect of transverse sensitivity should
be studied while measuring the stresses in a biaxial stress field with strain gages. If it is found that
the error due to transverse sensitivity effect is significant, the strain gage readings should be
corrected for it.
2.4 Two element rectangular rosette: Consider first a two-element rosette, with the gage axes
aliened with two perpendicular axes x and y on the test surface. It is assumed that the individual
gage elements in the rosette have the same transverse sensitivity. Where∈̂𝑥𝑥 and ∈̂𝑦𝑦 are strains
indicated by gages along x and y directions respectively. ∈𝑥𝑥 and ∈𝑦𝑦 are the corresponding
corrected strains.

∈𝑥𝑥= (1 − 𝜗𝑘 /1 − 𝑘2) (∈̂𝑥𝑥− 𝑘 ∈̂𝑦𝑦)

∈𝑦𝑦= (1 − 𝜗𝑘 /1 − 𝑘2 )(∈̂𝑦𝑦− 𝑘 ∈̂𝑥𝑥)

The equations given above are for the gage elements oriented along any two orthogonal axes, x and
y. in actual practice the two element rectangular rosette is generally used with the axes of the gage
oriented along the principal axes. In such case x and y axes would denote the principal axes

∈1= 1 − 𝜗𝑘 /1 − 𝑘2 (∈̂1− 𝑘 ∈̂2 )

∈2= 1 – 𝜗𝑘/1 − 𝑘2 (∈̂2− 𝑘 ∈̂1 )

2.5 Three element rectangular rosette:

The individual strain readings,∈̂𝐴, ∈̂𝐵, ∈̂𝐶, of a three element rectangular rosette can be corrected
for transverse sensitivity effects as follows. The corrected strains∈̂𝐴, ∈̂𝐵 along the orthogonal axes
A and B respectively are
∈𝐴= 1 − 𝜗𝑘 /1 − 𝑘2 (∈̂𝐴− 𝑘 ∈̂𝐶 )

∈𝐶= 1 – 𝜗𝑘/ 1 − 𝑘2 (∈̂𝐶− 𝑘 ∈̂𝐴 )

From the condition (∈𝐴+∈𝐶 ) is an invariant, the strain along axis D orthogonal to axis B can be
estimated as

∈𝐷 ′=∈̂𝐴+∈̂𝐶−∈̂𝐵

Substituting the orthogonal strains∈̂𝐵 and ∈𝐷 ′ , the corresponding strain ∈𝐵 is obtained.

∈𝐵= 1 – 𝜗𝑘/ 1 − 𝑘2 (∈̂𝐵− 𝑘(∈̂𝐴+∈̂𝐶−∈̂𝐵))

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The corrected strains are used along with equations given to determine the principal strains, stress
and principal directions.

Three element delta rosette:

Expressions for correcting individual strain readings from a delta rosette for transverse sensitivity
effects can be easily derived for the case where all the three gage element have the same transverse
sensitivity k.
∈𝐴= 1 – 𝜗𝑘/ 1 − 𝑘2 ((1 + 𝑘/3 ) ∈̂𝐴− 2/3 𝑘(∈̂𝐵+∈̂𝐶 ))

∈𝐵= 1 − 𝜗𝑘 /1 − 𝑘2 ((1 + 𝑘/3 ) ∈̂𝐵− 2/3 𝑘(∈̂𝐶+∈̂𝐴 ))

∈𝐶= 1 − 𝜗𝑘 /1 − 𝑘2 ((1 + 𝑘/3 ) ∈̂𝐶− 2/ 3 𝑘(∈̂𝐴+∈̂𝐵))

Shear strain gages:

Strain gages do not respond to shear strains. However the

relationship between shear and normal strains can be utilized to
obtain from a strain rosette an output directly proportional to the
shear strain in the surface. The two strain gages a and b oriented so
that the x axis bisects the angle between the gage axes. Strain along
two gage axes is

∈𝐴= ∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦/ 2 + (∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦/2 )cos 2𝜃 + (𝛾𝑥𝑦/2)sin 2𝜃

∈𝐵= (∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦 )/2 + (∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦/ 2 )cos 2𝜃 – (𝛾𝑥𝑦/2 )sin 2𝜃

From the above eq. The shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 is 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = ∈𝐴−∈𝐵 /sin 2𝜃
From above eq the difference in the normal strain sensed by any two arbitrarily oriented gages in a
uniform strain field is directly proportional to the shear strain along an axis bisecting the included
angle between the strain gage axes. When the included angle is 90 0 , i.e. the rosette is a two-element
rectangular rosette, above eq can be reduced to 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =∈𝐴−∈𝐵
Hence by orienting a two-element rectangular rosette such that the x-axis bisects the 90 0 angle
between the gage elements and connecting the gage elements in the adjacent arm of aWheatstone
bridge, an output from the rosette equal to the shear strain 𝛾𝑥𝑦 can be obtained directly.
Stress gages:
In some application it may be desirable to have an output from a single strain gage directly
proportional to the axial stress in a particular direction. Such gages are known as stress gages. For
eg, if one wishes to determine the stress at
say, five stations along specified directions
under dynamic loading, the use of stress
gage in place of strain rosettes results in
considerable saveing in equipment. The
principle of operation of a stress gage is
given below.

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Fig 1 shows the sketch of a stress gage with its axis along the x-axis. The gage is oriented such that
the x-axis bisects the angle 2θ between the grid elements A and B of this gage. The strains along the
grid elements A and B are given by
∈𝜑1−𝜃= 1/2 (𝜖1 + 𝜖2 ) + 1/2 (𝜖1 − 𝜖2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝜑1 − 𝜃)…………. (a)
∈𝜑1+𝜃= 1/2 (𝜖1 + 𝜖2 ) + 1/2 (𝜖1 − 𝜖2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝜑1 + 𝜃)………… (b)
The average of these will be
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 1/2 (𝜖1 + 𝜖2 ) + 1/4 (𝜖1 − 𝜖2 )[𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝜑1 + 𝜃) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2(𝜑1 − 𝜃)]…………. (c)
On expanding the cosine terms in above eq
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 1/2 (𝜖1 + 𝜖2 ) + 1/2 (𝜖1 − 𝜖2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜑1𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃…………. (d)
From Mohr’s strain circle
∈𝑥𝑥+∈𝑦𝑦=∈1+∈2………..... €
∈𝑥𝑥−∈𝑦𝑦= (∈1−∈2 ) cos 2𝜑1………. (f)
Substituting the values in eq e and f in eq d and simplifying
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 1/2 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦) + 1/2 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦)𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 1/2 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦) + 1/2 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦)(2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 1)
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 1/2 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦) + 𝜖𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 – 1/2 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦)
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 𝜖𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 − 𝜖𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 𝜖𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 𝜖𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃(𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃)……………….(g)
If 𝜃 is so chosen that it is equal to tan−1 √𝜗 then
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜗 ;𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃/𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝜗 ;𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝜗𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
w.k.t 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
Substituting the value of 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 in above eq 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃(1 + 𝜗) = 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 1/ 1+𝜗……………. (h)
Substituting these values in eq g yields 1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) = 1/ 1+𝜗 (𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜗𝜖𝑦𝑦)……………..
(i)
However, 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸/1−𝜗2 (∈𝑥𝑥+ 𝜗 ∈𝑦𝑦)………(j)
Substituting the values of (∈𝑥𝑥+ 𝜗 ∈𝑦𝑦) from eq I and j gives
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸 1−𝜗 1 2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃)………………. (1)
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It may be noted that 1/2 (∈𝜑1−𝜃 +∈𝜑1+𝜃) is the strain indicated by the stress gage, i.e. (Δ𝑅⁄𝑅) 𝐹 .
thus the stress 𝜎𝑥𝑥 along the x-axis is obtained by multiplying the strain indicated by the stress gage
with (𝐸/(1 − 𝜗)).
If the direction of the maximum principal stress 𝜎1 is known, a single conventional strain gage can
be used as shown in fig 3 to directly measure the principal stress𝜎1.
In this case as 𝜑 is zero from eq a and b,
∈𝜑1−𝜃=∈𝜑1+𝜃=∈𝜃……… (k)
Substituting this condition in eq 1 gives 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐸 1−𝜗 ∈𝜃 ………. (2)
Hence to measure the principle stress𝜎1 it is only necessary to orient a single strain gage along 𝜃 =
tan−1√𝜗 a direction at an angle to the axis and multiply the strain gage reading by 𝐸/ 1−𝜗 .
laminated in order to reduce the eddy current losses. The displacement to be measured is attached to
this movable soft iron core. LVDT is placed inside the stainless steel housing because it will
provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.

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LVDT working principle

The working principle of LVDT is based on the mutual
induction principle. When AC excitation of 5-15 V at a
frequency of 50-400Hz is applied to the primary winding, then
a magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field induces a
mutual current in secondary windings. Due to this, the induced
voltages in secondary windings (S1 & S2) are E1 & E2
respectively.
Since both the secondary windings are connected in series
opposition, So the net output voltage will be the difference of
both induced voltages (E1 & E2) in secondary windings.
Hence Differential Output of LVDT will be  E0 = E1 – E2
Now according to the position of the core, there are three cases that arise.
So Let’s discuss these three cases one by one in detail. 
Case 1: When the core moves towards S1 (Max Left).
When the core of LVDT moves toward Secondary winding S1. Then, in
this case, the flux linkage with S1 will be more as compared to S2. This
means the emf induced in S1 will be more than the induced emf in S2.
Hence E1>E2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = E1 – E2 will be
positive. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase with the
primary voltage.
Case 2: When the core is at Null position.
When the core is at the null position then the flux linkage with both the
secondary windings will be the same. So the induced emf (E1 & E2) in
both the windings will be the same. Hence the Net differential output
voltage E0 = E1 – E2 will be zero (E0 = E1 – E2 = 0). It shows that no
displacement of the core.
Case 3: When the core moves towards S2 (Max Right).
When the core of LVDT moves toward Secondary winding S2. Then, in
this case, the flux linkage with S2 will be more as compared to S1. This
means the emf induced in S2 will be more than the induced emf in S1.
Hence E2>E1 and Net differential output voltage E0 = E1 – E2 will be
negative. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase opposition
(180 degrees out of phase) with the primary voltage.
From all these three cases, we can have the following conclusions:
1. The direction of the movement of an object can be identified with the help of the differential
output voltage of LVDT. If the output voltage E0 is positive then this means an object is moving
towards the Left from the Null position.
2. Similarly, If the output voltage E0 is negative then this means the object is moving towards the
Right of the Null position.
3. The amount or magnitude of displacement is proportional to the differential output of LVDT.
The more the output voltage, the more will be the displacement of the object.
4. If we take the core out of the former then the net differential of the output of LVDT will be zero.
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5. In fact corresponding to both the cases, whether the core is moving either Left or Right to the
Null position. Then the output voltage will be increased linearly up to 5mm from the Null position
and after 5 mm output E0 will be non-linear.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT:
Following are the main advantages and disadvantages of using LVDT as a secondary Transducer.
Advantages of LVDT:
1. Smooth and Wide Range of Operation :- LVDT has a very wide range of measurement of
displacement. It can measure displacement ranging from 1.25mm to 250 mm.
2.  High Sensitivity:- LVDT gives high output value so that there is no need for any Amplifier
circuit for the amplification process. Typically the sensitivity of LVDT is recorded as 40V/mm.
3. Low Hysteresis Losses:- LVDT gives low hysteresis losses hence repeatability is excellent under
all the conditions.
4. Low Friction Losses:- As the core moves in a hollow Former, So there is no concept of friction
losses. Hence it gives an accurate output value.
5. Rugged Operation:- It can tolerate a high degree of shock and variation, especially when the core
is loaded with spring.
6. Low Power consumption:- LVDT consumes very low power of approx 1W during its operation.
7. Direct conversion to Electrical Signal:- They convert linear displacement directly to the
corresponding electrical voltage signal which are easy to process further.
8. Fast dynamic Response:- Due to the absence of Friction, Its dynamic response becomes very fast
to change in a core position.
Disadvantages of LVDT
1. Since LVDT is Inductive Transducer, so it is sensitive to Stray Magnetic Field. Hence an extra
setup is required to protect it from Stray Magnetic Field.
2. Since it is an electromagnetic device, so it also gets affected by the vibrations and temperature
variation.
Applications of LVDT
1. LVDT is used to measure the physical quantities such as Force, Tension, Pressure, Weight, etc.
These quantities are first converted into displacement by the use of primary transducers and then it
is used to convert the displacement to the corresponding Electrical voltage signal.
2. It is mostly used in industries as well as a servomechanism.
3. It is also used in Industrial Automation, Aircraft. Turbine, Satellite, hydraulics, etc.
LVDT Specifications:
 Range of Measurement:  ± 0.25 mm to ± 750 mm
 Operating Temperature: (-265 to 600) degree Celsius.
 Frequency Range:  50 Hz to 20 kHz.

3.2 Non-Destructive testing

 NDT techniques can be used for all kinds of inspections. But some of the most important types of
NDT inspections are of assets like boilers and pressure vessels, which could be incredibly
dangerous if not properly maintained.

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 Because proper maintenance of these assets is so important for the safety of those working nearby
(or even at a distance, when it comes to nuclear power plants), most countries have laws requiring
companies to adhere to specific inspection codes and standards when conducting inspections.
 These standards and codes typically require inspections to be conducted periodically following
specific guidelines. For the most assets that present the greatest risk, these inspections must be
both conducted by a certified inspector and approved by a certified witness working for a formal
inspection body.

There are several techniques used in NDT for the collection of various types of data, each requiring
its own kind of tools, training, and preparation. 

Some of these techniques might allow for a complete volumetric inspection of an object, while
others only allow for a surface inspection. In a similar way, some NDT methods will have varying
degrees of success depending on the type of material they’re used on, and some techniques—such
as Magnetic Particle NDT, for example—will only work on specific materials (i.e., those that can
be magnetized).

Here are the eight most commonly used NDT techniques:

1. Visual NDT (VT)

2. Ultrasonic NDT (UT)
3. Radiography NDT (RT)
4. Eddy Current NDT (ET)
5. Magnetic Particle NDT (MT)
6. Acoustic Emission NDT (AE) 
7. Liquid Penetrant NDT (PT)
8. Leak Testing (LT)

1. VISUAL TESTING (VT)

Definition: Visual Non-Destructive Testing is the act of collecting visual data on the status of a
material. Visual Testing is the most basic way to examine a material or object without altering it in
any way. 
How to conduct Visual Testing
Visual Testing can be done with the naked eye, by inspectors visually reviewing a material or asset.
For indoor Visual Testing, inspectors use flashlights to add depth to the object being examined.
Visual Testing can also be done with an RVI (Remote Visual Inspection) tool, like an inspection
camera. To get the camera in place, NDT inspectors may use a robot or drone, or may simply hang
it from a rope.
2. ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
Definition: Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing is the process of  transmitting high-frequency
sound waves into a material in order to identify changes in the material’s properties. 
How to conduct Ultrasonic Testing
In general, Ultrasonic Testing uses sound waves to detect defects or imperfections on the surface of
a material created.

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One of the most common Ultrasonic Testing methods is the pulse echo. With this technique,
inspectors introduce sounds into a material and measure the echos (or sound reflections) produced
by imperfections on the surface of the material as they are returned to a receiver.
Here are some other types of Ultrasonic Testing:
 Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)
 Automated Ultrasonic Testing (AUT)
 Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
3. RADIOGRAPHY TESTING (RT)
Definition: Radiography Non-Destructive Testing is the act of using gamma- or X-radiation on
materials to identify imperfections. 
How to conduct Radiography NDT Testing
Radiography Testing directs radiation from a radioactive isotope or an X-ray generator through the
material being tested and onto a film or some other kind of detector. The readings from the detector
create a shadowgraph, which reveals the underlying aspects of the inspected material. 
Radiography Testing can uncover aspects of a material that can be hard to detect with the naked
eye, such as alterations to its density.
4. EDDY CURRENT (ELECTROMAGNETIC) TESTING (ET)
Definition: Eddy Current Non-Destructive Testing is a type of electromagnetic testing that uses
measurements of the strength of electrical currents (also called eddy currents) in a magnetic field
surrounding a material in order to make determinations about the material, which may include the
locations of defects.
How to conduct Eddy Current Testing
To conduct Eddy Current Testing, inspectors examine the flow of eddy currents in the magnetic
field surrounding a conductive material to identify interruptions caused by defects or imperfections
in the material.
5. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MT)
Definition: Magnetic Particle Non-Destructive Testing is the act of identifying imperfections in a
material by examining disruptions in the flow of the magnetic field within the material.
How to conduct Magnetic Particle Testing
To use Magnetic Particle Testing, inspectors first induce a magnetic field in a material that is highly
susceptible to magnetization. After inducing the magnetic field, the surface of the material is then
covered with iron particles, which reveal disruptions in the flow of the magnetic field. These
disruptions create visual indicators for the locations of imperfections within the material.
6. ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING (AE) 
Definition: Acoustic Emission Non-Destructive Testing is the act of using acoustic emissions to
identify possible defects and imperfections in a material.
How to conduct Acoustic Emission Testing
Inspectors conducting Acoustic Emission Tests are examining materials for bursts of acoustic
energy, also called acoustic emissions, which are caused by defects in the material. Intensity,
location, and arrival time can be examined to reveal information about possible defects within the
material.

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7. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING (PT)

Definition: Liquid Penetrant Non-Destructive Testing refers to the process of using a liquid to coat
a material and then looking for breaks in the liquid to identify imperfections in the material.
How to conduct Penetrant Testing
Inspectors conducting a Penetrant Test will first coat the material being tested with a solution that
contains a visible or fluorescent dye. Inspectors then remove any extra solution from the material’s
surface while leaving the solution in defects that “break” the material’s surface. After this,
inspectors use a developer to draw the solution out of the defects, then use ultraviolet light to reveal
imperfections (for fluorescent dyes). For regular dyes, the color shows in the contrast between the
penetrant and the developer.
8. LEAK TESTING (LT)
Definition: Leak Non-Destructive Testing refers to the process of studying leaks in a vessel or
structure in order to identify defects in it.
How to conduct Leak Testing
Inspectors can detect leaks within a vessel using measurements taken with a pressure gauge, soap-
bubble tests, or electronic listening devices, among others.

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY (UPV)

 An ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is an in-situ, non-destructive test to check the quality
of concrete and natural rocks. In this test, the strength and quality of concrete or rock is assessed by
measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse passing through a concrete structure or natural rock
formation.
 This test is conducted by passing a pulse of ultrasonic through concrete to be tested and measuring
the time taken by pulse to get through the structure. Higher velocities indicate good quality and
continuity of the material, while slower velocities may indicate concrete with many cracks or voids.
 Ultrasonic testing equipment includes a pulse generation circuit, consisting of electronic circuit
for generating pulses and a transducer for
transforming electronic pulse into mechanical
pulse having an oscillation frequency in range of
40 kHz to 50 kHz, and a pulse reception circuit
that receives the signal.
 The transducer, clock, oscillation circuit, and
power source are assembled for use.
After calibration to a standard sample of material
with known properties, the transducers are
placed on opposite sides of the material. Pulse
velocity is measured by a simple formula:

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity can be used to:

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 Evaluate the quality and homogeneity of concrete materials

 Predict the strength of concrete
 Evaluate dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete,
 Estimate the depth of cracks in concrete.
 Detect internal flaws, cracks, honeycombing, and poor patches.
The test can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of crack repair. Ultrasonic testing is an
indicative and other tests such as destructive testing must be conducted to find the structural and
mechanical properties of the ma
REBOUND HAMMER TEST
Rebound Hammer test is a Non-destructive testing method of concrete which provide a convenient
and rapid indication of the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound hammer is also called
as Schmidt hammer that consist of a spring controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular
housing. The operation of rebound hammer is shown in the fig.1. When the plunger of rebound
hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled mass with a constant energy
is made to hit concrete surface to rebound back. The extent of rebound, which is a measure of
surface hardness, is measured on a graduated scale. This measured value is designated as Rebound
Number (rebound index). A concrete with low strength and low stiffness will absorb more energy to
yield in a lower rebound value.

Operation of the rebound hammer

Objective of Rebound Hammer Test
As per the Indian code IS: 13311(2)-1992, the rebound hammer test have the following objectives:
1. To determine the compressive strength of the concrete by relating the rebound index and the
compressive strength
2. To assess the uniformity of the concrete
3. To assess the quality of the concrete based on the standard specifications
4. To relate one concrete element with other in terms of quality
REBOUND HAMMER TEST

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Rebound hammer test method can be used to differentiate the acceptable and questionable parts of
the structure or to compare two different structures based on strength.
Principle of Rebound Hammer Test
Rebound hammer test method is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass
depends on the hardness of the concrete surface against which the mass strikes. The operation of
the rebound hammer is shown in figure-1. When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed
against the concrete surface, the spring-controlled mass in the hammer rebounds. The amount of
rebound of the mass depends on the hardness of concrete surface. Thus, the hardness of concrete
and rebound hammer reading can be correlated with compressive strength of concrete.
The rebound value is read off along a graduated scale and is designated as the rebound number or
rebound index.  The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on the
body of the hammer.
Procedure for Rebound Hammer Test
Procedure for rebound hammer test on concrete structure starts with calibration of the rebound
hammer. For this, the rebound hammer is tested against the test anvil made of steel having Brinell
hardness number of about 5000 N/mm2. After the rebound hammer is tested for accuracy on the
test anvil, the rebound hammer is held at right angles to the surface of the concrete structure for
taking the readings. The test thus can be conducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically
upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces as shown in figure below If the rebound hammer is
held at intermediate angle, the rebound number will be different for the same concrete.  

Fig. Rebound Hammer Positions for

Testing Concrete Structure

The impact energy required for the rebound hammer is different for different applications.
Approximate Impact energy levels are mentioned in the table-1 below for different applications.
Table-1: Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications As per IS:
13311(2)-1992
Approximate impact energy for
S.no Applications
rebound hammer in Nm
1 For Normal weight concrete 2.25
For light weight concrete/ For small and
2 0.75
impact resistive concrete parts
3 For mass concrete testing Eg: In roads, 30.00
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hydraulic structures and pavements

Points to Remember in Rebound Hammer Test

1. The concrete surface should be smooth, clean and dry.
2. Ant loose particles should be rubbed off from the concrete surface with a grinding wheel or
stone, before hammer testing.
3. Rebound hammer test should not be conducted on rough surfaces as a result of incomplete
compaction, loss of grout, spalled or tooled concrete surface.
4. The point of impact of rebound hammer on concrete surface should be at least 20mm away
from edge or shape discontinuity.
5. Six readings of rebound number is taken at each point of testing and an average of value of the
readings is taken as rebound index for the corresponding point of observation on concrete surface.
Correlation between compressive strength of concrete and rebound number
The most suitable method of obtaining the correlation between compressive strength of concrete
and rebound number is to test the concrete cubes using compression testing machine as well as
using rebound hammer simultaneously. First the rebound number of concrete cube is taken and
then the compressive strength is tested on compression testing machine. The fixed load required is
of the order of 7 N/ mm2 when the impact energy of the hammer is about 2.2 Nm. The load
should be increased for calibrating rebound hammers of greater impact energy and decreased for
calibrating rebound hammers of lesser impact energy. The test specimens should be as large a
mass as possible in order to minimize the size effect on the test result of a full scale structure.
150mm cube specimens are preferred for calibrating rebound hammers of lower impact energy
(2.2Nm), whereas for rebound hammers of higher impact energy, for example 30 Nm, the test
cubes should not be smaller than 300mm. The concrete cube specimens should be kept at room
temperature for about 24 hours after taking it out from the curing pond, before testing it with the
rebound hammer. To obtain a correlation between rebound numbers and strength of wet cured and
wet tested cubes, it is necessary to establish a correlation between the strength of wet tested cubes
and the strength of dry tested cubes on which rebound readings are taken. A direct correlation
between rebound numbers on wet cubes and the strength of wet cubes is not recommended. Only
the vertical faces of the cubes as cast should be tested. At least nine readings should be taken on
each of the two vertical faces accessible in the compression testing machine when using the
rebound hammers. The points of impact on the specimen must not be nearer an edge than 20mm
and should be not less than 20mm from each other. The same points must not be impacted more
than once.
Interpretation of Rebound Hammer Test Results
After obtaining the correlation between compressive strength and rebound number, the strength of
structure can be assessed. In general, the rebound number increases as the strength increases and is
also affected by a number of parameters i.e. type of cement, type of aggregate, surface condition
and moisture content of the concrete, curing and age of concrete, carbonation of concrete surface
etc.

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Relationship Between Cube Strength and the Rebound Number

More-over the rebound index is indicative of compressive strength of concrete up to a limited
depth from the surface. The internal cracks, flaws etc. or heterogeneity across the cross section
will not be indicated by rebound numbers. Table-2 below shows the quality of concrete for
respective average rebound number.

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Quality of Concrete for different values of rebound number

As such the estimation of strength of concrete by rebound hammer method cannot be held to be
very accurate and probable accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure is ± 25
percent. If the relationship between rebound index and compressive strength can be found by tests
on core samples obtained from the structure or standard specimens made with the same concrete
materials and mix proportion, then the accuracy of results and confidence thereon gets greatly
increased.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rebound Hammer Test
The advantages of Rebound hammer tests are:
1. Apparatus is easy to use
2. Determines uniformity properties of the surface
3. The equipment used is inexpensive
4. Used for the rehabilitation of old monuments
The disadvantages of Rebound Hammer Test
1. The results obtained is based on a local point
2. The test results are not directly related to the strength and the deformation property of the
surface
3. The probe and spring arrangement will require regular cleaning and maintenance
4. Flaws cannot be detected with accuracy
Factors Influencing Rebound Hammer Test
Below mentioned are the important factors that influence rebound hammer test:
1. Type of Aggregate
2. Type of Cement
3. Surface and moisture condition of the concrete
4. Curing and Age of concrete
5. Carbonation of concrete surface
Type of Aggregate
The correlation between compressive strength of concrete and the rebound number will vary with
the use of different aggregates. Normal correlations in the results are obtained by the use of
normal aggregates like gravels and crushed aggregates. The use of lightweight aggregates in
concrete will require special calibration to undergo the test.
Type of Cement
The concrete made of high alumina cement ought to have higher compressive strength compared
to Ordinary Portland cement. The use of super

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sulphated cement in concrete decreases the compressive strength by 50% compared to that of
OPC.
Type of Surface and Moisture Condition
The rebound hammer test work best for close texture concrete compared with open texture
concrete.  Concrete with high honeycombs and no-fines concrete is not suitable to be tested by
rebound hammer. The strength is overestimated by the test when testing floated or trowelled
surfaces when compared with moulded surfaces. Wet concrete surface if tested will give a lower
strength value. This underestimation of strength can go lower to 20% that of dry concrete.
Type of curing and age of concrete
As time passes, the relation between the strength and hardness of concrete will change. Curing
conditions of concrete and their moisture exposure conditions also affects this relationship. For
concrete with an age between 3days to 90 days is exempted from the effect of age. For greater
aged concrete special calibrated curves is necessary.
Carbonation on Concrete Surface
A higher strength is estimated by the rebound hammer on a concrete that is subjected to
carbonation. It is estimated to be 50% higher. So the test have to be conducted by removing the
carbonated layer and testing by rebound hammer over non-carbonated layer of concrete.  

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9. Practice Quiz
1. Strain gauge rosettes are used
a. when the direction of principal stress is known
b. when the direction of principal stress is not known
c. when the direction of hoop stress is not known
d. when the direction of longitudinal stress is not known
2. To measure _______ strain , strain rosettes are used
a. Linear
b. Shear
c. Volumetric
d. Any of the above
3. In order to find out state of plane strain______, strain gauges in__________ different
directions are required
a. 2,2
b. 2,3
c. 3,3
d. 3,2
4. Consider the following regarding types of strain gauges
A. Semi conductor strain gauges
B. Conductor strain gauges
C. Capacitive strain gauges, The types of strain gauges are
a. Only B
b. Only A and B
c. Only A and C
d. Only C
e. Only A.
5. At a point in a biaxial stressed material, the principal stress directions are known. Which
one of the following choices will be optimum to calculate strain tensor at the point.
a. Rectangular rosette
b. Delta rosette
c. T- rosette
d. Stacked delta rosette
6.Rosette gauges are used to
a. Amplify strain values
b. Measure variable strain
c. Compensate for temperature variations
d. Measure strain in more than one direction

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7.Strain rosettes are generally used for

a. Measurement of load
b. Measurement of shear strain
c. Measurement of resilience
d. Measurement of proof stress
e. Measurement of longitudinal strains
8. Ultrasonic testing is done in materials to determine
a. Cracks below the surface
b. Yield strength
c. Ultimate tensile strength
d. Hardness
9. Non-destructive testing plays an important role in
a. Quantity control
b. Production control
c. Planning control
d. Quantitative analysis
10. The non-destructive inspection (NDI) technique employed during inspection for castings
of tubes and pipes to check the overall strength of a casting in resistance to bursting under
hydraulic pressure is
a. Radiographic inspection
b. Magnetic particle inspection
c. Fluorescent penetrant
d. Pressure testing
11. Which of the following non destructive testing is used to detect change in composition of
any material?
a) Liquid penetration test
b) Ultrasonic test
c) Eddy current test
d) radiography

10. Assignments
S.
Question BL CO
No
Derive the expression for principal strains and its direction in terms of strain
1 measured in a three element rectangular rosette (gauge A along x- axis, gauge B 3 3
along 450 to the x- axis and gauge C along y- axis).
Determine principal stresses and principal strains with help of a delta rosette
2 mounted on an aluminum specimen with values of єA = 400µ, єB = 400µ, єC= 400µ, 3 3
Eal = 70GPa, γ = 0.33
Derive the expression for principal strains and its direction in terms of strain
3 3 3
measured in a Four element rectangular rosette
4 Derive the expression for principal strains and its direction in terms of strain 3 3
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measured in a Delta rosette

Three strain gauges are applied to an area at a point in such a manner that gauge ‘b’
makes a positive angle of 300 with gauge ‘a’ and gauge ‘c’ makes a positive angle
5 of 450 with gauge ‘b’ . The strain readings obtained from the gauges are as follows. 3 3
Gauge Strain µm/m a -600 b 300 c 400 Calculate the principal strains, principal
stresses and principal directions.

11. Part A- Question & Answers

S. No Question & Answers BL CO
Give some arrangements of strain gauges to obtain strain rosettes
1. Two gauge rosette
1 2. Rectangular rosette a) Three element b) Four element 1 3
3. Delta (or) Equiangular rosette
4. T. Delta rosette
What are the methods are available for computing the strain rosette
datas?
1. Analytical Solutions
2 2. Graphical Solutions 1 3
3. Semi ± graphical (or) vectorial layout method
4. Nomographic Solutions
5. Geometrical Computers.
Give the advantages of strain Rosette analysis.
(i)Extreme simplicity and speed of application.
(ii)Possibility of allowing for transverse effects. 1 3
3
(iii)No requirements for additional equipments.
(iv) The possibility of training relativity unskilled persons to use the
method.
What is known as strain rosettes?
4 An arrangement of strain gauges in particular orientation or angle is known 1 3
as strain rosettes
Classify the mechanical extensometers depending upon the manner of
obtaining the magnification.
1. Wedge magnification 1 3
5
2. Screw magnification
3. Compound magnification
4. Lever magnification
Classify the mechanical extensometers depending upon the manner of
obtaining the magnification.
1. Wedge magnification
6 1 3
2. Screw magnification
3. Compound magnification
4. Lever magnification

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Enumerate the various non-destructive testing (NDT) methods

Here are the eight most commonly used NDT techniques:
1. Visual NDT (VT)
2. Ultrasonic NDT (UT)
3. Radiography NDT (RT) 1 3
7
4. Eddy Current NDT (ET)
5. Magnetic Particle NDT (MT)
6. Acoustic Emission NDT (AE)
7. Liquid Penetrant NDT (PT)
8. Leak Testing (LT)
Where Is Non-Destructive Testing Used?
Depending on how broadly you define NDT you could say that it’s used in
almost every industry in the world, since visual inspections (whether
formalized or casual) take place in almost every workplace in some form or
other.
That being said, there are specific industries that require NDT and have
formalized processes for its use, as codified by those organizations we listed
above like API and ASME.
8 These industries include: 2 3
 Oil & Gas
 Power Generation
 Chemicals
 Mining
 Aerospace
 Automotive
 Maritime
 Mining

12. Part B- Questions

S.
Question BL CO
No
What are strain rosettes? What are their uses? For a rectangular rosette on steel
1 specimen? εA= -600x 10-6, εB= 300x 10-6 εC= 400x 10-6. Determine the principal 3 3
strains, principal stresses and directions Esteel= 210 GPa.
What do you understand by a strain rosette? With the help of neat sketches, give
2 3 3
different types of strain rosette configuration.
3 Explain with neat sketches the working of a Electrical extensometer. 4 3
What are the basic characteristics of a strain gauge? Which factors should be
4 3 3
considered while selecting a strain gauge?
5 Briefly Explain Un-Bonded and Bonded Electrical strain gauges. 3 3

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. Experimental Stress analysis by Prof. K. Ramesh conducted by IIT Madras – 12weeks
14. Real Time Applications
S. No Application CO

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Rectangular Strain-Rosette Method for Measuring the Mode I Stress-Intensity

Factor K I and T-stress
A new experimental technique for measuring Stress Intensity Factor (SIF) and T-stress
under mode I loading is developed. The expressions of the normal and tangential
strains close to the crack tip are given using the first five terms of the generalized
1 Westergaard formulation. In order to accurately determine the SIF and T-stress, the 3
method exploits the optimal positioning of a rectangular strain gage rosette near a
crack tip in mode I. Thus, errors due to the higher order terms of the asymptotic
expansion are eliminated. Finally, a comparison of the analytical results with finite
element calculations, for different specimen dimensions, is carried out.
A Three-Dimensional Strain Rosette Sensor Based on Graphene Composite with
Piezoresistive Effect
Obtaining the internal stress and strain state of concrete to evaluate the safety and
reliability of structures is the important purpose of concrete structural health
monitoring. In this paper, a three-dimensional (3D) strain rosette sensor was designed
and fabricated using graphene-based piezoresistive composite to measure the strains in
concrete structures. The piezoresistive composite was prepared using reduced graphene
oxide (RGO) as conductive filler, cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as dispersant and
structural skeleton, and waterborne epoxy (WEP) as polymer matrix. The mechanical,
electrical, and electromechanical properties of RGO-CNF/WEP composite were tested.
2 3
The results show that the tensile strength, elastic modulus, and conductivity of the
composite are greatly improved by the addition of RGO and CNF. The relative
resistance change of composite films demonstrates high sensitivity to mechanical strain
with gauge factors of 16-52. Within 4% strain, the piezoresistive properties of
composites are stable with good linearity and repeatability. The sensing performance of
the 3D strain rosette was tested. The measured strains are close to the actual strains of
measure point in concrete, and the error is small. The RGO-CNF/WEP composite has
excellent mechanical and piezoresistive properties, which enable the 3D strain rosette
to be used as embedded sensor to measure the internal strain of concrete structures
accurately.

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

Capacitance gauges, Laser displacement sensors.
16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books
Text Book:
1. J.W.Dally and W.F.Riley, “Experimental stress analysis College House Enterprises”
2. Dr.Sadhu Singh, “Experimental stress analysis”, khanna Publishers
References:
1. 1. U.C.Jindal, “Experimental Stress analysis”, Pearson Publications.
2. L.S.Srinath, “Experimental Stress Analysis”, MC.Graw Hill Company Publishers.

17. Mini Project Suggestion

1. Experimental study of stress in transport vehicles.
2. Experimental analysis of stress in structures and machines, apartments, building, pressure
vessel, bridges, dams, towers etc.
3. Experimental verification of theoretical analysis.
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4. Design and development of machines and structures.

5. Assist failure analysis.
6. As a sensing element in transducer for measurement of forces, load, pressure,
displacement, torque etc

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