Week 3 “DIGITAL INSTRUMENT BASICS”

A) Basic Logical Gates

B) Flip-Flops

C) Digital Displays

D) Digital Counting

E) A2D Converter

F) D2A Converter

Basic Logical Gates

Logic Gates Are The Basic Building Blocks Of Any Digital System. It Is An Electronic Circuit
Having One Or More Than One Input And Only One Output. The Relationship Between The
Input And The Output Is Based On A Certain Logic. Based On This, Logic Gates Are Named
As AND Gate, OR Gate, NOT Gate Etc.

AND Gate

A Circuit Which Performs An AND Operation Is Shown In Figure. It Has N Input (N >= 2)
And One Output.

Logic Diagram

Truth Table
OR Gate

A Circuit Which Performs An OR Operation Is Shown In Figure. It Has N Input (N >= 2) And
One Output.

Logic Diagram

Truth Table
NOT Gate

NOT Gate Is Also Known As Inverter. It Has One Input A And One Output Y.

Logic Diagram

Truth Table

NAND Gate

A NOT-AND Operation Is Known As NAND Operation. It Has N Input (N >= 2) And One
Output.

Logic Diagram

Truth Table
NOR Gate

A NOT-OR Operation Is Known As NOR Operation. It Has N Input (N >= 2) And One Output.

Logic Diagram

Truth Table
XOR Gate

XOR Or Ex-OR Gate Is A Special Type Of Gate. It Can Be Used In The Half Adder, Full
Adder And Subtractor. The Exclusive-OR Gate Is Abbreviated As EX-OR Gate Or Sometime
As X-OR Gate. It Has N Input (N >= 2) And One Output.

Logic Diagram

Truth Table

XNOR Gate

XNOR Gate Is A Special Type Of Gate. It Can Be Used In The Half Adder, Full Adder And
Subtractor. The Exclusive-NOR Gate Is Abbreviated As EX-NOR Gate Or Sometime As X-
NOR Gate. It Has N Input (N >= 2) And One Output.

Logic Diagram
Truth Table

B) Flip-Flops
Flip Flops Are Essential In Data Storage. They Are Electronic Circuits With Two Stable
States Used To Store Binary Data. Such A Circuit Has One Or More Control Inputs
And One Or Two Outputs. By Applying Varying Input, The Data Stored Can Be
Changed. In Sequential Logic, The Flip Flop Is The Basic Storage Element.
A Flip Flop Stores A Single Bit Or Binary Digit Of Data. The Two States Of A Flip
Flop Represent “One” And “Zero.” The Output And The Next State Of A Flip Flop
Depend On Its Current Input And Current State When Used In A Finite-State Machine.
TYPES OF FLIP FLOPS
There Are Four Common Types Of Flip Flops.

a) SR Flip-Flop

b) D Flip-Flop

c) JK Flip-Flop

d) T Flip-Flop
SR Flip-Flop

SR Flip-Flop Operates With Only Positive Clock Transitions Or Negative Clock Transitions.
Whereas, SR Latch Operates With Enable Signal. The Circuit Diagram Of SR Flip-Flop Is
Shown In The Following Figure.

This Circuit Has Two Inputs S & R And Two Outputs Qtt & Qtt’. The Operation Of SR
Flipflop Is Similar To SR Latch. But, This Flip-Flop Affects The Outputs Only When Positive
Transition Of The Clock Signal Is Applied Instead Of Active Enable.

The Following Table Shows The State Table Of SR Flip-Flop.

S R Qt+1t+1

0 0 Qtt

0 1 0

1 0 1

1 1 -

Here, Qtt & Qt+1t+1 Are Present State & Next State Respectively. So, SR Flip-Flop Can Be
Used For One Of These Three Functions Such As Hold, Reset & Set Based On The Input
Conditions, When Positive Transition Of Clock Signal Is Applied. The Following Table Shows
The Characteristic Table Of SR Flip-Flop.

Present Inputs Present State Next State

 S R Qtt Qt+1t+1

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 X

1 1 1 X

By Using Three Variable K-Map, We Can Get The Simplified Expression For Next State,
Qt+1t+1. The Three Variable K-Map For Next State, Qt+1t+1 Is Shown In The Following
Figure.

The Maximum Possible Groupings Of Adjacent Ones Are Already Shown In The Figure.
Therefore, The Simplified Expression For Next State Qt+1t+1 Is
Q(T+1)=S+R′Q(T)Q(T+1)=S+R′Q(T)
D Flip-Flop

D Flip-Flop Operates With Only Positive Clock Transitions Or Negative Clock Transitions.
Whereas, D Latch Operates With Enable Signal. That Means, The Output Of D Flip-Flop Is
Insensitive To The Changes In The Input, D Except For Active Transition Of The Clock Signal.
The Circuit Diagram Of D Flip-Flop Is Shown In The Following Figure.

This Circuit Has Single Input D And Two Outputs Qtt & Qtt’. The Operation Of D Flip-Flop Is
Similar To D Latch. But, This Flip-Flop Affects The Outputs Only When Positive Transition Of
The Clock Signal Is Applied Instead Of Active Enable.

The Following Table Shows The State Table Of D Flip-Flop.

D Qt + 1t + 1

0 0

1 1

Therefore, D Flip-Flop Always Hold The Information, Which Is Available On Data Input, D Of
Earlier Positive Transition Of Clock Signal. From The Above State Table, We Can Directly
Write The Next State Equation As

Qt+1t+1 = D
Next State Of D Flip-Flop Is Always Equal To Data Input, D For Every Positive Transition Of
The Clock Signal. Hence, D Flip-Flops Can Be Used In Registers, Shift Registers And Some Of
The Counters.

JK Flip-Flop

JK Flip-Flop Is The Modified Version Of SR Flip-Flop. It Operates With Only Positive Clock
Transitions Or Negative Clock Transitions. The Circuit Diagram Of JK Flip-Flop Is Shown In
The Following Figure.

This Circuit Has Two Inputs J & K And Two Outputs Qtt & Qtt’. The Operation Of JK Flip-
Flop Is Similar To SR Flip-Flop. Here, We Considered The Inputs Of SR Flip-Flop As S = J
Qtt’ And R = Kqtt In Order To Utilize The Modified SR Flip-Flop For 4 Combinations Of
Inputs.

The Following Table Shows The State Table Of JK Flip-Flop.

J K Qt+1t+1

0 0 Qtt

0 1 0
 1 0 1

1 1 Qtt'

Here, Qtt & Qt+1t+1 Are Present State & Next State Respectively. So, JK Flip-Flop Can Be
Used For One Of These Four Functions Such As Hold, Reset, Set & Complement Of Present
State Based On The Input Conditions, When Positive Transition Of Clock Signal Is Applied.
The Following Table Shows The Characteristic Table Of JK Flip-Flop.

Present Inputs Present State Next State

J K Qtt Qt+1t+1

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0

By Using Three Variable K-Map, We Can Get The Simplified Expression For Next State,
Qt+1t+1. Three Variable K-Map For Next State, Qt+1t+1 Is Shown In The Following Figure.
The Maximum Possible Groupings Of Adjacent Ones Are Already Shown In The Figure.
Therefore, The Simplified Expression For Next State Qt+1t+1 Is
Q(T+1)=JQ(T)′+K′Q(T)Q(T+1)=JQ(T)′+K′Q(T)

T Flip-Flop

T Flip-Flop Is The Simplified Version Of JK Flip-Flop. It Is Obtained By Connecting The Same

Input ‘T’ To Both Inputs Of JK Flip-Flop. It Operates With Only Positive Clock Transitions Or
Negative Clock Transitions. The Circuit Diagram Of T Flip-Flop Is Shown In The Following
Figure.
This Circuit Has Single Input T And Two Outputs Qtt & Qtt’. The Operation Of T Flip-Flop Is
Same As That Of JK Flip-Flop. Here, We Considered The Inputs Of JK Flip-Flop As J =
T And K = T In Order To Utilize The Modified JK Flip-Flop For 2 Combinations Of Inputs. So,
We Eliminated The Other Two Combinations Of J & K, For Which Those Two Values Are
Complement To Each Other In T Flip-Flop.

The Following Table Shows The State Table Of T Flip-Flop.

D Qt+1t+1

0 Qtt

1 Qtt’

Here, Qtt & Qt+1t+1 Are Present State & Next State Respectively. So, T Flip-Flop Can Be
Used For One Of These Two Functions Such As Hold, & Complement Of Present State Based
On The Input Conditions, When Positive Transition Of Clock Signal Is Applied. The Following
Table Shows The Characteristic Table Of T Flip-Flop.

Inputs Present State Next State

T Qtt Qt+1t+1

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

From The Above Characteristic Table, We Can Directly Write The Next State Equation As

Q(T+1)=T′Q(T)+TQ(T)′Q(T+1)=T′Q(T)+TQ(T)′

⇒Q(T+1)=T⊕Q(T)⇒Q(T+1)=T⊕Q(T)
The Output Of T Flip-Flop Always Toggles For Every Positive Transition Of The Clock Signal,
When Input T Remains At Logic High 11. Hence, T Flip-Flop Can Be Used In Counters.

C) Digital Displays

A Seven Segment Decoder Is A Digital Circuit Designed To Drive A Very Common Type Of
Digital Display Device: A Set Of LED (Or LCD) Segments That Render Numerals 0 Through 9
At The Command Of A Four-Bit Code:

The Behavior Of The Display Driver IC May Be Represented By A Truth Table With Seven
Outputs: One For Each Segment Of The Seven-Segment Display (A Through G). In The
Following Table, A “1” Output Represents An Active Display Segment, While A “0” Output
Represents An Inactive Segment:

D C B A A B C D E F G Display

0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 “0”
 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 “1”

0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 “2”

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 “3”

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 “4”

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 “5”

0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 “6”

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 “7”

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 “8”

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 “9”

Write The Unsimplified SOP Or POS Expressions (Choose The Most Appropriate Form) For
Outputs A, B, C, And E.
D)Digital Counting

What Is Digital Counter?

Definition: The Circuit Is Designed With Digital Logic To Obtain Information About The
Number Of Events That Occurred. This Type Of Digital Logic Device Can Be Defined As A
Counter. The Design Of Counters Can Be Achieved By Following Various Steps.

1. The Number Of Flip-Flops Based On The Requirement.

2. Accordingly, The State Diagrams/ Excitation Tables Are Drawn.
3. Further, The Expressions Are Minimized Using Various Techniques.
4. Finally, The Logic Diagram Is Designed.

E)A2D Converter

D/A Converters

D/A Converters Convert Digital Signals Into Analog Format.

Digital Data:
Evenly Spaced Discontinuous Values
Temporally Discrete, Quantitatively Discrete

Analog Data (Natural Phenomena):

Continuous Range Of Values
Temporally Continuous, Quantitatively Continuous
A/D Converters

An A/D Converter Is A Device That Converts Analog Signals (Usually Voltage) Obtained From
Environmental (Physical) Phenomena Into Digital Format

Conversion Involves A Series Of Steps, Including Sampling, Quantization, And Coding.

A/D And D/A Requirements

Electrically Sophisticated And High-Speed Processing Are Performed Digitally In Cpus And
Dsps.

Natural Phenomena Are Converted To Digital Signals Using An A/D Converter For Digital
Signal Processing, Then Converted Back To Analog Signals Via A D/A Converter.

Advancements In Microfabrication Technology→Signal Processing Digitization

→A/D And D/A Converters Required

A/D Converter Applications

Digital Audio:
Digital Audio Workstations, Sound Recording, Pulse-Code Modulation

Digital Signal Processing:

TV Tuner Cards, Microcontrollers, Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

Scientific Instruments:
Digital Imaging Systems, Radar Systems, Temperature Sensors
D/A Converter Applications

Digital Audio：
CD, MD, 1-Bit Audio

Digital Video：
DVD, Digital Still Camera

Communication Equipment：
Smartphones, FAX, Adsl Equipment

Pcs：
Audio, Video Cards

Measurement Instruments：
Programmable Power Supplies, Etc.