IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry Bonding and structure 4

3 Carbon exists in two forms, graphite and diamond.

Questions on Section 4 = carbon atom
strong bonds
Answers for these questions are on page 165.
weak forces
Core curriculum
1 a Copy and complete the diagram to show the electronic structure of water.
show hydrogen electrons by ‘o’
show oxygen electrons by ‘× diamond graphite
××
×O × Use ideas about structure and bonding to suggest
a why graphite is used as a lubricant,
b why diamond is very hard.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 2 Q6e November 2007
b The structure of phosphorus trioxide is shown below.
Extended curriculum

Extended
P 1 The structural formula of carbonyl chloride is given below.
Cl
O O C
O Cl
P P
Draw a diagram that shows the arrangement of the valency electrons in one molecule
O O of this covalent compound.
P Use x for an electron from a chlorine atom.
Use o for an electron from a carbon atom.
Write the simplest formula for phosphorus trioxide.
Use • for an electron from an oxygen atom.
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 2 Q1g and h November 2007
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 31 Q5d June 2008

2 The structures of some elements and compounds are shown below. 2 Copy and complete the following table.

H
type of particles present electrical electrical example
S S S H C H structure conductivity conductivity of
S S C C of solid liquid
S S S H
ionic positive and negative ions poor ............................ ...........................
A B C
macromolecular atoms of two different poor poor ...........................
elements in a giant
covalent structure

metallic ........................... good ........................... copper

Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+
and
Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl ............................
Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Pb Pb Pb Pb Pb
Pb Pb Pb Pb Adapted from Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Paper 3 Q2 June 2007
Cl Na+ Cl Na+ Cl Pb Pb Pb Pb Pb

D E F

Answer these questions using the letters A to F.

i Which structure is methane?
ii Which structure contains ions?
iii Which structure is a metal?
iv Which structure is sodium chloride?
v Which structure is diamond?
vi Which structure contains a double covalent bond?
vii Which three structures are elements?

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 Ratios and amounts in reactions 5

5 Ratios and amounts in reactions

5.2 Writing balanced chemical equations
This table shows how to write a balanced chemical (symbol) equation.
The big picture
• Chemistry is all about substances reacting with each other. Steps Worked example
• Chemical equations are just a short and efcient way to describe how substances react. 1 Write the word equation. calcium + water → calcium hydroxide + hydrogen
• From a chemical equation, you can work out:
➤ what the reactants and products are 2 Write the correct formulae. Ca + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
➤ the ratios of the substances taking part in the reaction 3 Count atoms on each side of the arrow. Ca: 1 on left, 1 on right
➤ amounts of substances, in grams (or kilograms, or tonnes). Are the numbers equal? H: 2 on left, 4 on right
• The study of the ratios in which substances react is called stoichiometry. O: 1 on left, 2 on right
The numbers are not equal, so the equation is not balanced.

4 Try putting numbers in front of formulae, to There is twice as much hydrogen on the right, sotry a 2 in front of
balance the atoms. (You must not change any H2O on the left:
5.1 Chemical formulae and equations formulae.) Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2
Check atoms again …
Ca: 1 on left, 1 on right
Chemical formulae H: 4 on left, 4 on right
• Atoms always combine in a xed ratio. O: 2 on left, 2 on right
• They combine in the ratio that will give them full outer shells of electrons. so the equation is now balanced.
• You can tell what the ratio is, from the chemical formula.
5 Add state symbols to show the state of the Ca (s ) + 2H2O (l ) → Ca(OH)2 (aq ) + H2 (g)
substances taking part in the reaction:
Example water carbon dioxide (s ) for solid
Formula H2O CO2 (l ) for liquid
(g) for gas
Ratio in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with two atoms of oxygen combine with (aq) for aqueous solution (a solution in water).
atoms combine one atom of oxygen one atom of carbon

Chemical equations Quick check for 5.2 (Answers on page 165)

• Chemical equations are a short way to describe a reaction. 1 Write a balanced symbol equation for this reaction: 1 molecule of hydrogen and
• You can give them in words, as word equations. Or you can use formulae, giving 1 molecule of chlorine react to give 2 molecules of hydrogen chloride.
symbol equations, which provide much more information. 2 The formulae below are correct. But are the equations balanced?
• The + sign in an equation means and. The arrow means react(s) to give If not, balance them. Then see if you can add the correct state symbols:
a Mg + O2 → MgO b Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
Example burning of hydrogen in oxygen burning of carbon in oxygen 3 The colourless liquid hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) decomposes slowly to water and
Word equation hydrogen + oxygen → water carbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide oxygen. Write a balanced symbol equation for the reaction, withstate symbols.

Balanced symbol equation 2H2 (g ) + O2 (g ) → 2H2O (l ) C (s ) + O2 (g ) → CO2 (g )

Ratios of atoms and molecules two molecules of hydrogen and one atom of carbon and
in the reaction one molecule of oxygen react to give one molecule of oxygen react to give 5.3 Relative atomic and molecular mass
two molecules of water one molecule of carbon dioxide

Relative atomic mass, Ar

An atom is so tiny that we can’t measure its mass in grams. Instead, the carbon-12 atom is
Quick check for 5.1 (Answers on page 165) taken as the standard, and assigned a mass of 12 units. Other atoms are compared to it:
1 In these compounds, which atoms are combined, and in what ratio?
a methane, CH4 It has:
6 protons C-12 Mg H
b ammonia, NH3
6 neutrons
c iron sulde, FeS
d calcium carbonate, CaCO3 The mass of the C-12 atom is taken This magnesium atom was found to This hydrogen atom was found to
2 Write the word equation for this reaction: as 12. (That ts with a mass of have twice the mass of a carbon-12 have 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l ) 1 for each proton and neutron.) atom. So its mass is 24. atom. So its mass is 1.
3 Give the ratios for all the molecules that take part in the reaction in question 2 The relative atomic mass of an atom, or Ar, is the average mass of the naturally occurring
atoms of an element, on a scale where the C-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units.
(The r tells you it is a relative value.)

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IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry Ratios and amounts in reactions 5

Ar values for some common elements

5.4 Calculating masses from equations
Element Symbol Ar

carbon C 12 You can now calculate the masses from chemical equations, using Ar and Mr values.
You just give Ar and Mr as grams. Look at these examples.
hydrogen H 1

nitrogen N 14 Why does chlorine have an Ar of 35.5? Example 1

Chlorine has two isotopes (page 16).
oxygen O 16 75% of its atoms are chlorine-35, and 25% are chlorine-37.
Balanced equation 2H2 (g ) + O2 (g ) → 2H2O (l )
75 25
sodium Na 23 So Ar for chlorine = ____
100
x 35 + ____
100
x 37 = 35.5
Ratios two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen react to give
sulfur S 32 Since 35.5 is halfway between 35 and 36, this Ar is not two molecules of water
chlorine Cl 35.5 rounded off for calculations.
Using Ar and Mr 2 × H2 = 4; O2 = 32; 2 × H2O = 36

Giving Ar and Mr 4 g of hydrogen and 32 g of oxygen react to give 36 g of water

Relative molecular mass (Mr ) as grams
• The mass of a molecule is called its relative molecular mass or Mr Which means … 2 g of hydrogen and 16 g of oxygen react to give 18 g of water
• You work it out by adding up the Ar values.
• So the Mr for water, H2O, is: 1 + 1 + 16 = 18. and … 1 g of hydrogen and 8 g of oxygen react to give 9 g of water
and so on.
Relative formula mass (Mr )
• Many compounds are made of ions, not molecules. We still use the symbol Mr Example 2
for them, but we call it relative formula mass
• Again you work it out by adding up Ar values. (Ions have the same Ar as atoms, Balanced equation C (s ) + O2 (g ) → CO2 (g )
since electrons gained or lost make no difference to the mass.)
• So the Mr for NaCl is: 23 + 35.5 = 58.5. Ratios one atom of carbon and one molecule of oxygen react to give
one molecule of carbon dioxide

More examples of Mr values Using Ar and Mr C = 12; O2 = 32; CO2 = 44

Giving Ar and Mr 12 g of carbon and 32 g of oxygen react to give 44 g of carbon dioxide

Element or compound Formula Sum of Ar Mr
as grams
oxygen O2 2 × 16 32 elements that exist Which means … 6 g of carbon and 16 g of oxygen react to give 22 g of carbon dioxide
as molecules
nitrogen N2 2 × 14 28
and … 24 g of carbon and 64 g of oxygen react to give 88 g of carbon dioxide
hydrogen peroxide H2O2 (2 × 1) + (2 × 16) 34 and so on.

carbon monoxide CO 12 + 16 28 So the substances taking part in the reaction are always in the same proportion.
molecular compounds
carbon dioxide CO2 12 + (2 × 16) 44
And note that the mass on each side of the arrow is the same.
sulfur dioxide SO2 32 + (2 × 16) 64 Mass before reaction = mass after reaction.
The mass does not change in a chemical reaction
sodium hydroxide NaOH 23 + 16 + 1 40
ionic compounds
ammonium sulfate (NH4 )2SO4 2 × [14 + (4 × 1)] + 32 + (4 × 16) 132
Quick check for 5.4 (Answers on page 165)
1 100 g of reactants react completely, to give a product. What is the mass of
thisproduct?
Quick check for 5.3 (Answers on page 165)
2 a How many grams of oxygen will react with 20 g of hydrogen to form water?
1 Dene relative atomic mass.
b How many grams of water will form?
2 An element has atoms that are 4 times heavier than carbon-12 atoms.
c 50 g of hydrogen reacted, and 450 g of water was formed. What mass of
a What is Ar for this element? b Identify it. (Try the Periodic Table on page 105.)
oxygen was used up?
3 Ar for a calcium atom is 40. What is Ar for a calcium ion (Ca2+)?
3 This is the symbol equation for a reaction:
4 Why is the relative atomic mass of chlorine not a whole number? Remember
CuCO3 (s) → CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
5 Work out Mr for these compounds: In working out mass for a
a Give the word equation for the reaction.
a ammonia, NH3 b methanol, CH3OH c sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 compound like CuS04.5H20,
5H20 means b Calculate how much of each product will form, starting with 31 g of the
6 For sodium carbonate, Mr stands for relative formula mass. What does that tell
10H and 50 reactant. The Ar values are: Cu, 64; C, 12; O, 16.
you about sodium carbonate?

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