Adapted from:

Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la

elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 1. VIRTUAL SPACES FOR EDUCATION AND LEARNING

1. INTRODUCTION
The implementation of information and communication technologies (or ICTs) in
society has led to unexpected changes, ensuring that we can be permanently
connected. The unlimited possibilities offered by ICT in terms of the storage, handling
and dissemination of information are producing the need to develop new skills as
citizens, and in the specific field of education, the role we play as trainers and
educators in the new spaces of training, entertainment or professional development.
This need to be connected and participate in the virtual world is also linked to a series
of principles (Gauntlett, D, 2011).

- People want to make an impression on the world.

- People want to be sociable and, as a result, people want to be connected.
- Creativity is channelled through tools that allow us to do many things
individually and collectively.
- We place more value on the things that we do if we are able to share them
with others.
- Collaboration with other people contributes to happiness and well-being.

Contemporary society is also characterised by technology. We only have to look

around us to see the ways in which technology impacts our lives, socially, personally
and professionally. The 20th century brought to society, among other things, the
acceleration of technological change and, as a part of it, the extraordinary revolution in
computing and communications (Negroponte, N. 1996; De Ferrari, P. 2003, 2007;
DeNapoli, A. 2003, 2007), not only in adults, but also in the coming generations, who
prefer to use devices with Internet access for watching television in their leisure time
(Bringué and Sádaba, 2009).

The power of the Internet in our cyberculture is of a gigantic dimension, which

promotes an increasingly creative and productive society, especially since the
appearance of what is known as Web 2.0, which encourages online collaboration and
content production, rather than the mere receiving of content. The new virtual spaces
allow us to create, connect and disseminate creations in any professional, academic or
personal field. This need to create and share has been and remains a hallmark of
human knowledge and satisfies another human need, which is that of making our
ideas, contributions or contributions known to other humans. And today, more than
ever, the act of creating means connecting with others, developing new dimensions in
production by ensuring that ideas, situations and results of creation are connected in a
cyclical loop of constant development. As De Vicente (2005) argues: “people love to
create and share content, and are willing to do the bulk of the work (generating,
distributing and classifying it) if given the right tools to do so.”

1
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

The new communicative reality is not based on traditional media but on micro-content
(of which a clear example is offered by Twitter), which can be expressed in text or
audiovisual forms with fixed or moving images. This content is usually disseminated on
the Internet, through a wide array of tools, from simple e-mail with file attachments to
social networks (YouTube, Facebook or Slideshare) or virtual platforms (Moodle,
Blackboard or WebCT).

An educator/teacher in the 21st century must, among other various means and
strategies, have mastered the ability to communicate, create and teach online. The
aim is not for an educator to provide content and interaction among students but to
be a creative role model in the development of materials and in a critical and selective
use of the paid or free resources available in the market. There is no doubt that online
creation requires a series of basic skills to adapt our intentions to the digital tools we
have for the development of different types of content. However, it is also true that
the current applications do not involve an effort that cannot be assumed by the vast
majority of educators. Increasingly, software is being developed that requires minimal
knowledge of web programming and development resources, since the tools available
to educators today are user-friendly at both the user-recipient and user-producer
levels.

It is a primary objective for digital literacy to build the capacity to transform

information into knowledge and to make it a collaborative and transformative element
of society. Gutiérrez (2003) prefers to talk about “multiple or multimedia literacy”, that
is, the basic ability to understand and express oneself with different languages and
media, not only digital forms, when it comes to technology.

Although the benefits of this type of technology in the educational field are evident,
we are also in agreement with the idea presented by Duart and Sangrá (2000:17) when
they state that: “(...) we do not have to subordinate technology to education, but that
technology has to be, in the case at hand, at the service of education. Creating
technologically powerful spaces for their subsequent use in education does not always
work. The richness of a telematic space designed for training lies in its careful training
design, aligned with the needs and educational purposes of its users and not with the
technology it uses to train. Technology must always be a resource in the service of the
learning process.”

2. NEW WAYS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING.

Life in the information society demands a more independent and responsible attitude
and less routine behaviour. One of the key needs in the 21st century is lifelong
learning, which includes ICTs. It is essential to develop skills for the correct search for
information, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and presentation or dissemination of these
contents. As educators, we have a responsibility to ensure that our students adapt to
the changing times, as well as to new learning environments, where the focus is placed
more on learning than on teaching.

2
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

In the last twenty years, technology has changed the way we live, communicate and
learn, in the process generating a new socio-communicational context in which
interactivity and the immediacy of communicative processes preside over our
relationships. This fact has marked a series of relevant trends in learning (Aparici, R.
2010:78)

- Many learners will work in a variety of different, and possibly unrelated,

areas throughout their lifetime.
- Informal learning is a significant aspect of our learning experience. Formal
education no longer constitutes the bulk of our learning. Learning now
occurs in a variety of ways - through communities of practice, personal
networks and also through the performance of on-the-job tasks.
- Learning is a continuous process, which lasts throughout a lifetime.
Learning and work activities are no longer separated. In many cases they are
the one and the same.
- Technology is altering our brains. The tools we use define and shape our
thinking.
- The organisation and the individual are bodies that are capable of learning.
The increased interest in knowledge management shows the need for a
theory that seeks to explain the link between individual and organisational
learning.
- Many of the processes previously handled by learning theories (especially
those involving cognitive information processing) can now be performed, or
supported, by technology.
- “Knowing how” and “knowing what” are being supplemented with
“knowing where” (being aware of where to find the required knowledge).

The concept of network and collaborative work has spread exponentially in these two
decades and people are “learning how to learn” in different ways from the mere
academic receiving of content. Access to information has been turned into a universal
process that generates other forms of learning based not on the assimilation of
concepts but on strategies for communicating, understanding and jointly developing
this great accumulation of data. The significance of learning and the constructivism on
which it is based is structured through processes of connection between people and
the reworking and communication of this content. This immediacy means that revision
a continuous process and that what is communicated forms part of a continuous
feedback loop, so that networking is an essential and necessary principle when
learning. This new way of learning how to learn is called Connectivism and is
characterised by a number of defining features (see section 4 for a more detailed
study):

- It is not possible to learn without relating to others or without exposure to

the content communicated by others.

3
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

- To learn is to rework and interpret what has been learned in order to

communicate the projected conclusions and ideas.
- Learning is consolidated when the channels and means of communication
are dynamic and collaborative.

These three principles mean that the vehicle in which knowledge is built becomes one
of the principles that underpin the new forms of learning and the new social skills that
a citizen must develop in his or her lifelong learning process. This in turn means that,
as knowledge evolves, access to information and its reframing in a network are
essential principles of training and learning in the 21st century.

Current training is perceived from a global perspective rather than from the partial
assimilation of content, obtained from different sources. Therefore, for the control and
optimisation of this learning, it is necessary to promote flexibility, personalisation,
interaction and cooperation between the different users. The strengthening of this
interactivity must be understood in an integral way in which both students and
teachers participate offering feedback and using the learning-by-doing approach. This
learning takes place through practical processes, physical and cognitive manipulation,
in which we constantly adapt our behaviour and what we are learning to new mental
schemes.

This new way of learning promoted by ICTs can be summarised in the following scale
adapted from “Dale’s Cone of Experience” (1969):

People remember:

- 90% what they do ► (simulations, games)

- 70% what they say or write ► (e-lessons, e-courses, e-tutoring)
- 50% what they hear and see ► (audio, video)
- 30% what they see ► (images, online guides, interactive presentations such as
PowerPoint)
- 10% what they read ► (email, readings, etc.)

Within these learner-centred learning models we can find: situated learning, authentic
learning and learning styles. Situated learning bases its theory on the efficiency
provided by a realistic scenario in the acquisition of knowledge. This well-stocked
scenario is the key to success in the assimilation of academic and professional skills.
Authentic learning focuses on the confluence of real situations and contexts offering
close similarities to the reality experienced by the students. This symbiosis leads to
greater creativity and autonomy. Whichever approach is adopted, the diversity of
student learning styles must be taken into account and, to this end, teacher control is
necessary in the following dimensions (Casamayor, 2008):

- Emphasising the active nature of their learning.

4
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

- Increasing the student’s own responsibility.

- Increasing the sense of autonomy among students.
- Establishing an interdependence between teacher and student, and also
among the students themselves.

In the approach involving collaborative works in a virtual format in order to facilitate

significance, while respecting the following parameters:

- Propose authentic tasks, contextualised within real academic or professional

scenarios.
- Propose problems for development in groups that incorporate the proposals
of the various members in the best solution to the problems or situations
raised.
- Facilitate autonomous learning by users.

This autonomous learning requires a methodology of the networked environment that

encourages the user to tackle diverse problems that use the skills they have learned
and practiced. To this end, it is useful to generate an educational context with the
following characteristics:

- Making errors is an inherent part of the training process as a whole and

indeed is necessary for the development of the user’s skills. This means it is
necessary to learn from mistakes and to look for the most efficient solution.
- Interaction is the basis from which we can learn from others. Furthermore,
imitating operational and functional models applied to an academic, personal
or professional field is not simply copying, but rather readapting an approach
to another reality while developing the skills which are necessary to carry it
out.
- It is advisable to prepare interactive cases and simulations that facilitate the
application of the desired skills.
- The evaluation and comparison of the impact of any decisions taken should
be encouraged.

This collaborative networking makes a significant contribution to learning models as

noted by Johnson et al. (1999):

- The positive interdependence it generates among members, who need to

assist each other to achieve the proposed objectives.
- It promotes exchange among its components and facilitates mutual
learning. To the extent that different means of interaction are made
possible, the group will be able to increase its strength and become richer.
- It values individual contributions, since each member of the group has to
assume his or her task in full and, in addition, have the spaces to share it
with the group and receive their contributions.

5
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

- It leads to achievement of personal and group skills as it allows both the

development of individual skills of each of its members and the
development of relational skills (listening, participation, leadership, etc.).
- It requires each group to evaluate its own development and performance,
as well as the contribution of each of its members.

This collaborative work, if properly planned and structured, will have high potential for
the acquisition of skills which can be transferred outside the academic context (Lee
and Tsai, (2004). Collaborative work with ICT from an educational point of view has
several advantages for the teaching-learning process:

- It can stimulate interpersonal communication thanks to the existence of

increasingly complex and varied communication technology tools, from e-
mail and forum to audio or video conferencing, including electronic
whiteboards and a host of other applications.
- ICTs facilitate this collaborative work by enabling the sharing of
information, documents and decision-making processes. Shared
applications, calendars, shared navigation or voting systems are some
examples.
- ICTs allow teachers to monitor and manage the group and each of its
members in a way that would be unthinkable in other environments:
connection statistics, record of participation, understanding of the different
processes that the groups move through, etc.
- ICTs provide access to a variety of information sources and content that
encourage the sharing of resources and the incorporation of different
perspectives.

Likewise, the design needs to be characterised by the interactivity of the training

environments (Bartolomé and Grané, 2004):

- The interactive elements on the screen (menus, buttons, images, etc.) need to
be clearly identifiable through their layout or appearance.
- The appropriate level of interaction, content and set objectives need to be
chosen for the users. Interaction can range from the selection of a menu entry
to the handling of objects when carrying out activities.
- It is important to avoid monotony or excessive repetition in the type and
content of these activities.
- Interaction with sequential activities can be of progressive difficulty or be
based on a previously established narrative order depending on the design of
the training.
- The interactive activities must be related to the content and respond to the
objectives set.

6
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

- The response by the system needs to be immediate, the student needs to

receive feedback on each of his or her actions (completing activities, selecting
navigation elements, etc.).

2.1. CHANGES IN THE ROLE OF TEACHER AND STUDENT

Perhaps one of the most drastic changes in the educational context in this new digital
era has been the transformation of the role of the teacher, who is now seen as more of
a learning coordinator, placing the student in the main role. However, this does not
entail a decrease in the teacher’s importance, since as several authors point out (Lim
and Barnes, 2002), their role continues to be essential in the teaching-learning process.
As far as the language teacher is concerned, Fernández Carballo-Calero (2001) goes
into detail about the importance of the teacher due to the use of new technologies in
the foreign language class:
The fact that the approach we follow focuses on the student (a “student-centred
approach”) does not mean that the teacher will not play an important role in the
educational program, but rather that the teacher’s role will have to change from:
- “transferer of knowledge” to “facilitator” (Davies & Crowther, 1995);
- “authority” to “consultant and facilitator” (Kornum, 1992);
- “director of learning” to “facilitator of learning” (Brett, 1996).
[…] In summary, the teacher who uses multimedia in his classes will become a “guide”
(Barnett, 1993; Willets, 1992) 1.

For their part, students are also forced to develop new skills and competencies in
order to function effectively in this new educational paradigm (Cabero, 2007):
- Adaptability to a rapidly changing environment
- Ability to work in a team.
- Drawing up of creative and original proposals for problem-solving.
- Ability to learn, unlearn and relearn.
- Decision-making.
- Independence.
- Abstract thinking techniques.

One of the latest trends, a consequence of this new era, is what is known as just-in-
time learning, or learning based on the specific needs of each subject: when, how and
on the subject being demanded. Without going to these extremes, there is no doubt
that the 21st century student needs to stop memorising data and learning concepts, in
order to develop another set of skills more akin to self-learning. Similarly, it is clear
that multimedia materials and networked learning, whether under the model of e-
learning, blended learning or any other online education model, will be part of the
education of the future.

1
The fact that the “student-centred approach” is used does not mean that the teacher does not play an
important role in the educational programme, but that the teacher’s role will have to change:
- “knowledge transmitter” to “facilitator” (Davies and Crowther, 1995); - “authority” to “consultant and
facilitator” (Kornum, 1992); - “learning manager” to “learning facilitator” (Brett, 1996). In summary, the
teacher who uses multimedia in his or her classes becomes a “guide” (Barnett, 1993; Willets, 1992).

7
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

3. WEB 2.0 AND SOCIAL LEARNING

In recent years, the Internet has gone from being a simple repository of information to
becoming a social instrument for the production of knowledge (Cabero, 2006). It is
during this era that we have started to work with the Internet in class with students in
a more structured and frequent way. This is what has come to be known as “Web 2.0”.
Tim O’Reilly (2005) coined the term and described the basic principles by which it is
governed:
1) The World Wide Web as a working platform.
2) The harnessing of collective intelligence.
3) Database management as a core skill.
4) The end of the software release cycle.
5) Lightweight programming models, along with the pursuit of simplicity.
6) Software that is not limited to one single device.
7) Rich user experiences.

The differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 can be summarised as follows:
Web 1.0 Web 2.0
Receipt Production

Reading Writing

Companies Communities

Advertising “Mouth to mouth”

Publication Participation

Vertical relationship Horizontal relationship

Unidirectional learning Bi-directional learning

Personal web pages Blogs, wikis, social networks

Table 1. Difference between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0

Clearly, this new environment is becoming more fluid and egalitarian: users are not
only receivers of information, but also creators of content. They take on a much more
active role, generating a new form of knowledge based on collaboration, with a strong
social component. Learning then becomes bi-directional or even multi-directional,
shared by the group.

This “carte blanche” for the generation of web content has generated hundreds of
tools and applications that can be used in an educational context. Below is a selection

8
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

of the most widely used tools in foreign language teaching with Web 2.0 technology:
social networks, blogs and micro-blogs, wikis, podcasts and social repositories.

3.1. SOCIAL NETWORKS

Social networks are the basis of Web 2.0, because of their social collaboration
component. The aim is to make it easier for users to communicate with colleagues,
friends, people with similar interests, and to create communities of people with
common characteristics. It is one of the areas of attention and concern in the
educational landscape, as a result of the problems that can be caused by access to
information that minors register in their profile, including the sharing of images, videos
and other files. Facebook (www.facebook.com) and Tuenti (www.tuenti.com) are the
social networks preferred by Spanish students, and although there are teachers who
have experimented with the educational application of these social networks, most
teachers who already use ICT in the language class are cautious, and even reticent,
about the inclusion of social networks in education.

On the other hand, the use of these social networks among colleagues has been
successful among educators. LinkedIn (www.linkedin.com) is well known today, and in
Spain, for example, there is a community related to bilingual education, Bilingual
Education Platform (http://www.linkedin.com/groups/Bilingual-Education-Platform-
1441287). Webheads in Action (WIA) is one of the best known and most active
internationally, with the aim of using computer-mediated communication applications
and new technologies in general for language learning (http://webheadsinaction.org/).
Also worth mentioning are the platforms that have emerged for non-formal learning of
an LE. A good example is Busuu (www.busuu.com), an online community that allows
the learning of almost any language for free and enables contact with native speakers
from all over the world.

3.2. BLOGS AND MICROBLOGS

Weblogs, or blogs, as they are better known, are the main format for publication on
the Web 2.0 (Cabero, 2007), thanks to the variety of teaching possibilities they offer
and their ease of use. Their promotional purpose is the transmission of information,
but they also allow interaction with other users through comments. As for the origin of
this term, it has been around for more than a decade. The term “weblog” was coined
by Jorn Barger in 1997. The short form, “blog”, was coined by Peter Merholz, who
divided the word “weblog” into the phrase “we blog” in 1999. It was quickly adopted
as both a noun and a verb, and the person who writes and edits them became known
as a “blogger”.

It is necessary to refer here to a type of use of the blog that has emerged strongly in
recent years, called microblogging, a tool that allows its users to publish and send
short messages (about 140 characters). Updates are published on the user’s profile
page and are automatically sent to other users who have subscribed to that particular
page. Twitter (http://twitter.com) is the most widely used service today.

9
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

This tool has become the focus of attention, reflection and debate by the educational
community (http://edutwitter.wikispaces.com/), as it is a very original initiative within
computer-mediated communication. The didactic applications for learning a foreign
language are similar to those of a blog, but a greater degree of spontaneity is added, as
well as being easier for the learner: he or she does not have to worry about the length
of the message, as it necessarily has to be short, due to the limitation on characters
imposed by the service itself. This does not seem to be a passing fad; on the contrary,
an expansion and growth similar to that of blogs is expected:

Micro-blogging isn’t a short-term trend - it is here to stay. The evolution of

blogging has spawned this new mini version of blogging and many are latching
on. The simplicity and ability to post frequently are what attract most to the
concept. We expect much faster adoption and mainstream penetration than
blogging in general. (Henry, 2007: 1)2

3.3. WIKIS
The word “wiki” comes from the Hawaiian term “wiki wiki”, which means “fast”
(Cabero, 2007: 230) and is used to refer to websites that are developed collaboratively
by a group of users, and can be easily edited by any of them. The best known example
of a wiki is Wikipedia (www.wikpedia.org), an online encyclopaedia which is free to
use. Among the websites that offer free wikis, Wikispaces (www.wikispaces.com)
stands out, as it offers the option of creating a wiki free of advertising to those who
can prove their membership of an educational institution.

As for the educational applications in the language classroom, this is open to any type
of collaborative task. In this context, the work is enriched by the different points of
view of the participants (Cabero, 2007).

3.4. PODCASTS
Podcasts are audio or video files that can be listened to or viewed directly on a
website, without the need to download them to your computer (www.wikipedia.org).
It is also possible to automatically download them to a media player (Godwin-Jones,
2005). The origin of the word comes from the union of “iPod”, Apple’s multimedia
player at the time, and “broadcast”. This type of archive has experienced extraordinary
growth since its appearance in 2004: “It has experienced phenomenal growth in the
past year, although the basic enabling technologies have been in place for some time”
(Godwin-Jones, 2005: 10) 3.

2
Micro-blogging isn’t a short-term trend - it is here to stay. The evolution of blogging has spawned this
new mini version of blogging and many are latching on. The simplicity and ability to post frequently are
what attract most to the concept. We expect much faster adoption and mainstream penetration than
blogging in general. (Henry, 2007:1)
3
It has experienced phenomenal growth in the past year, although the basic enabling technologies have
been in place for some time (Godwin-Jones, 2005:10).

10
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

In recent years, podcasts have begun to be used for language learning in listening
comprehension, stimulated by the widespread use of multimedia players by learners:
it is very easy to download files in the LE, whether from a blog, a newspaper, a
television channel, etc., making access to authentic materials much easier. A good
example of the use of podcasts in teaching English as a foreign language is the ESL
Podcast (www.eslpod.com).

3.5. SOCIAL REPOSITORIES

These are Web 2.0 sites that are made up of collections of materials added by users in
order to share them. The ability to communicate, useful for computer-mediated
communication, lies in the ability to comment, vote and tag in interaction with other
users. Examples of these social repositories are Flickr (images, www.flickr.com),
YouTube (videos, www.youtube.com), with its educational variant TeacherTube
(videos, www.teachertube.com), Scribd (documents, www.scribd.com), Delicious
(favourite online links, www.delicious.com) or Slideshare (presentations,
www.slideshare.com).

4. CONNECTIVISM AND EDUCATION

Connectivism is probably the most striking learning theory today, since it has given rise
to such revolutionary movements in Higher Education as the Mass Open Online
Courses (MOOCs, see section 6.4). Postulated by G. Siemens (2005), it is based on the
limitations of previous theories, such as Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism,
which focus on individual learning but do not provide answers to how knowledge is
built up in communities and organisations. As we know, technology has had a strong
impact on the way we communicate and learn. According to Reig (2010):
- People learn like networks.
- Learning and knowledge lie in the diversity of opinions.
- Learning is the process of connecting nodes or sources of information.
- The organisation and the individual are bodies that are capable of learning.
- Our capacity to increase our knowledge is greater than we realise.
- Connections need to be nurtured and maintained to facilitate continuous
learning.
- The ability to see the connections between fields, ideas and concepts is
paramount.

Therefore, this type of connected learning offers students the opportunity to create
their own connections, personalising their learning in a unique way. The student must
then choose sources of information and knowledge with which it is useful to connect
in order to achieve his/her learning objectives. In this way, the learner is given a
clearer and more critical view of his/her path through the educational process.

The application of Connectivism in Education makes the student not only acquire
knowledge, but also understand how he/she can use the connections offered by the
internet, the connected world in which we live thanks to technology, in order to find

11
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

answers, look for experts, experience possibilities and develop skills (EDUCAUSE,
2013a).

5. THE DIGITAL CITIZEN-STUDENT

During these years of digital progress, certain terms have been coined that have been
defining and establishing the theoretical and practical trajectory of ICT with respect to
the role of the citizen in the Information and Communication Society. The distinction
between digital natives and immigrants no longer exists as such (Prensky, 2001). What
actually happens is that the citizen is accessing and accumulating “digital wisdom”
(Prensky, 2010). This digital wisdom is based on new ways of accessing and
understanding the world through information and participation in the network. It is
obvious that the way of disseminating and accessing knowledge has changed
substantially; this is perhaps the most radical and significant change of the 21st
century.

Digital tools today expand and enhance our cognitive abilities in a variety of ways.
Digital technology enhances memory, for example, via data input/output tools and
electronic storage, allowing us to gather more data than we could on our own, helping
us to perform more complex analyses of situations or problems, and increasing our
ability to execute. (Prensky, 2010).

The digital action of young and old people on and outside the internet associated with
digital media has been branded as uncreative, imaginative and tending to the mere
reception of other virtual realities such as those obtained from video games or chats.
Authors such as Johnson et al. (1999) argue that technologies make us think and
increase our capabilities across a wide variety of cognitive tasks. This requires a social
and, above all, family and educational fabric that efficiently integrates technologies
into the routine life of children and adolescents. This approach from childhood with a
family and social education that understands, promotes and develops critical attitudes
towards ICT thus makes possible a new form of citizenship: digital citizenship. This way
of being born, growing up and relating with people through technologies has
promoted a great variety of terms to which sociologists have always been prone and
which try to define this type of human-sociodigital context relations. Thus, we can find
concepts such as: baby boomers, Generation X, Y, Z or Net Generation, among others.
It is perhaps the latter term “Net Generation” that most accurately defines those
citizens born between the 1980s and 1990s who have been educated while
surrounded by digital media. These users are no longer mere receivers but active
participants in the digital world through the internet. Software and development on
the internet imply collaborative operation and the creation of new content through
the editing of communication channels. For this reason, the members of the Net
Generation process information and generate new communication models; and these,
in turn, can generate new educational and learning models (Gutiérrez, 2003).

12
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

This new way of learning and teaching is based on discovery and participation, which
generates learning that is built collaboratively and shared socially.
The use of ICTs is required in net-generation education. It is not possible to educate
these people without using the technologies that unite them and mark them as a
generation. (Guiloff et al. 2007; Moratalla et al. 2002; Negroponte, 1996). The
explosion of technologies in recent years, as well as their increasingly widespread use
in society, has imposed new possibilities for organising the learning process, but the
problem is far from having been solved satisfactorily (Guiloff et al. 2007; Reggini, 2005;
Osin, et at. 1996).

It is impossible to train a generation with the peculiarities already noted in a school

that does not make use of ICT, that insists on the teacher’s explanation when the same
information can be found visually and with possibilities of relating it to other subjects
in electronic search engines or to exercise, review or practice with the help of ICT
(DeNapoli, 2003; Tapscott, 1998). The following section describes the most innovative
educational proposals that have emerged with the turn of the century, which will
contribute to the formation of true digital citizens.

6. NEW EDUCATIONAL OFFERINGS

6.1. OPEN COURSE RESOURCES
In this century the digital environment has become an open space for creation and
collaboration, changing the way learning is built. Since the emergence of Open
Courseware (OCW) - teaching materials with open access content - at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 2002, there has been a significant
increase in the initiatives related to open educational resources (OER), open
educational practices and public education in general, (Pantò and Comas-Quinn, 2013).
This has given educators a unique opportunity to share, use and re-use materials and
tools, encouraging alternative approaches to foreign language teaching, which blur the
distinction between formal, non-formal and informal education and promote new
models of content distribution, assessment and certification.

The growth of OERs has been boosted by initiatives carried out from the field of IT and
software development at the end of the 20th century. It soon extended to the
educational sphere, with the concept of “open content” coined by David Wiley in 1998
(Grossman, 1998) which has been developed more systematically with the creation of
the Creative Commons licences, launched by Lawrence Lessig and his collaborators in
2002.

With the turn of the century, OERs have become established as a key element of
distance and open learning and are linked to the latest educational approaches (OECD,
2007; Okada, Connolly, & Scott, 2012). Such is the importance that they have acquired
that in June 2012 UNESCO held a congress dedicated exclusively to OERs, publishing
shortly afterwards the Paris Declaration in which it asks member states to encourage
and facilitate the use and development of OERs (UNESCO, 2012).

13
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

They have become a true educational movement and there are already numerous
initiatives in the most important educational institutions: the OLnet project promoted
by The Open University in the UK and Carnegie Mellon in the USA is probably the most
concerted attempt to attract researchers and educators to OERs(www.olnet.org). The
Open University is the European university that has placed the greatest emphasis on
OERs, with its platformhttp://www.open.edu/openlearn/, following in the wake of the
OCWs at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (http://ocw.mit.edu/index.htm). In
Spain, the main exponent of this trend is the UNED, with the UNED Abierta strategy,
which was launched in 2012.

6.2. CURATING OF WEB CONTENT

We live in an era of information overload, or “infoxication” (Cornella, 2011) in which
we are often overwhelmed by the amount of information that reaches us, which we
cannot process properly. For this reason, the curating of content has emerged strongly
in this decade, referring to the search, selection, organisation and structured
presentation of information. It is not simply a matter of disseminating information as is
commonly done on social networks, but of filtering it so that the content selected is
relevant to the topic and the audience for which it is intended (Barghava, 2009).

As the Internet has placed unlimited resources within our reach, the need to select,
group, classify and display information has grown in parallel, in a way not unlike that of
a museum curator, who brings together objects from different sources and offers
information to the visitor on the origin and importance of these objects, hence the
name.

There are dozens of tools on the web for content curating. Some of the most
commonly used are:

- Paper.li: http://paper.li
- Pearltrees: http://www.pearltrees.com/
- Pinterest: https://pinterest.com/
- Scoop.it: http://www.scoop.it/
- Tumblr: https://www.tumblr.com/

All these tools are mainly visual and have the format of a bulletin board, a newspaper
or an online magazine, showing a headline, related image and a small part of the text
that can be enlarged. Their success and usefulness lie in the easy organisation of
resources. All of them are intuitive to use and allow you to incorporate content with a
single click.

In educational contexts, they are mainly used to display various resources on a topic,
to show different student works related to each other and also as electronic portfolios
in which the student shows the sources used and their final product, in brainstorming

14
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

sessions and any other educational activity in which information is to be presented in a

mainly visual format.

Although the advantages of content curating are obvious, the tools available on the
web impose the open publication of content, which can be problematic in certain
educational contexts, since it is not possible to create closed and private
environments. Another possible problem may be that of being limited to the collection
of resources and not carrying out a true cataloguing and selection of the information.
In this context, the work of the teacher is vital in helping to discern between important
information and that information which could be irrelevant and incidental.

6.3. PERSONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS (PLE)

The use of virtual learning environments (VLE) is now well established in Education and
the vast majority of higher education institutions offer their courses on platforms such
as Moodle, WebCT or Blackboard. These software programs bring together a variety of
resources that allow teachers and students to interact online, access content and also
save data on student progress. They follow the constructivist philosophy, based on the
premise that students acquire new knowledge through their personal interpretation of
the learning process, linking it to their previous knowledge and beliefs (Piaget, 1980;
Papert, 1991, Vygotsky, 1978).

These VLEs are ideal environments for e-learning, or distance learning through web
tools, as they allow students to work at their own pace, with a flexibility in time and
space that classroom-based teaching lacks. In addition, they encourage both individual
and collaborative learning and foster interaction in work and study groups. However,
with the turn of the millennium and the emergence of Web 2.0 tools, educational
practices are evolving at a rapid pace and these VLEs sometimes do not meet the needs
of the digital citizen accessing higher education today.

As Godwin-Jones points out, the current generation of students arrive on university

campuses with quite sophisticated technological skills and habits (2009). They are fully
comfortable with using the Internet both professionally and personally and often find
that universities are using the services offered by the internet in a much more
antiquated way, focusing communication for example on sending e-mail and using
VLEs, which are far more inflexible than any of the social tools of Web 2.0.

It is in these circumstances that PLE (Personal Learning Environments) appear. They are
a natural evolution of VLE (Attwell, 2007; Guth, 2009) and provide a more creative and
adaptable environment, as they allow learners to personalise the resources and
materials to be used in their learning process, blurring the distinction between formal
and informal learning, between face-to-face and distance learning (see Figure 1).

15
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

PLE
online

Blended
learning

Face-to-
face Web 2.0
class
Figure 1. Blended learning with PLE (Martín Monje, 2012)

According to Adell and Castañeda (2010, p. 23) a PLE “...is the set of tools, information
sources, connections and activities that each person uses regularly for learning”. These
authors distinguish the following as the constituent elements of the PLE:

1) Reading tools and strategies: The sources of information that we access and
that provide us with such information in the form of a multimedia object or
device.
2) Tools and strategies for dissemination: The environments or services in which
we can transform the information obtained and publish or disseminate it.
3) Tools and strategies for reflection: The environments where we relate to
other people from whom we learn and with whom we learn.

Among the benefits of using a PLE in education we can name the following:
- They are more learner-centred, as they can adapt and personalise their learning
resources themselves.
- They do not have to be fully consistent with the VLE of the educational
institution to which they belong.
- They combine formal, non-formal and informal learning.
- They encourage fundamental learning skills, such as meta-cognition, or
reflection on one’s own learning.

It is precisely metacognitive skill that is fundamental to foreign language learning

(Cohen, 1998; Graham, 1997; Macaro, 2006), in which there is no single methodology
which is valid for each and every student, but rather the teacher needs to adopt an
eclectic methodology based on the needs of the students as a whole (Kumaravadivelu,

16
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

2005). It is therefore essential for students to be able to reflect on their own learning
effectively and to apply reasoning to understand their basic mental processes.

One of the authors who has researched the use of PLE in language teaching most
extensively is Guth, for whom PLE is closely related to Web 2.0 tools and collaborative
work understood from a socio-constructivist perspective (2008, 2009). With PLE,
students can personalise their learning in two ways: 1) selecting the contents and
resources most relevant to them and 2) creating their own learning path, allowing the
introduction of reinforcement or extension activities as needed (Martín Monje, 2012).
The key to the success of PLE is therefore their adaptability, promoting individualised
learning away from the constraints of formal education and responding to the need to
filter, organise and share the information and knowledge we acquire. This reflection on
learning itself, as stated by Álvarez (2012), implies a maturing in the management of
lifelong learning, “when the capacity to stop, look back and discover the more or less
complex network of connections, tools and services built as a support for learning itself
is developed” (p. 65).

6.4. MASSIVE ONLINE OPEN COURSES

Massive Online Open Courses or MOOCs follow in the wake of the previously
mentioned OERs (see section 6.1). They were created by G. Siemens and S. Downes in
2008, when they decided to open access to their course “Connectivism and Connective
Knowledge” up to anyone interested in the subject (Cormer and Siemens, 2010). About
5 students paid for the registration and certification of the course, but more than 2,000
students had access to the content free of charge. This initiative demonstrated that
there is a large number of potential learners who are interested in the content but not
necessarily interested in the academic qualifications provided by formal education.

These MOOCs follow the connectivist philosophy, according to which the creation of
knowledge is based on the establishment of connections or nodes, so that the greater
the number of nodes, the greater the possibilities for learning in a given course. As
Siemens (2005, p. 7) states: “Connectivism is driven by the understanding that
decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations. New information is continually
being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions between important and unimportant
information is vital 4.” The boom in these types of courses has been such that The New
York Times called 2012 “The Year of the MOOC” (Papano, 2012) but how do they really
work?

The content of MOOCs can in principle be identical to that of a standard course, but the
activities are often restructured to meet the needs of such a large and fluid group of
students (there are many withdrawals and late entries, EDUCAUSE, 2011, 2013). Most
of the proposed activities are asynchronous, and a flexible structure is recommended,

4
Connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations.
New information is continually being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions between important and
unimportant information is vital.

17
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

in which participants can progress at their own pace without strict deadlines or starting
and finishing dates for the different modules. They are usually hosted on accessible
sites, such as wikis, blogs or Google sites, although many are already on large platforms
(EdX, Coursera, Udacity in the USA; MiriadaX or UNED Abierta in Spain).

As far as the subject matter is concerned, the vast majority are courses related to
Technology or Education, although there are already quite a few examples of foreign
language MOOCs (https://www.classcentral.com/subject/foreign-language) .

The MOOC has marked a watershed in higher education, generating an important

debate on the funding model, sustainability, educational sources and processes,
challenging established models and reaffirming the trend towards open education and
free access to content.

It is important at this point to reflect on the different agents that make the MOOC a
special education model (Jacobs, 2013):
- University professors have never been so close and yet so far away. With the
MOOC, it is possible to attend the classes of a professor from Harvard, Stanford
or MIT, but from the same MOOC platforms it is warned that the professors
who create this content will not be available to answer the questions of the
students, and any attempt at teacher-student contact is discouraged. This is
what curators and facilitators are for.

- The curators are those teaching members of the MOOC who filter the
information and answer questions about the course content (see section 6.2).
-
- The facilitators do not have to be experts in the contents of the MOOC, as their
task is to resolve doubts and technical problems related to the operation of the
platform.

- The activities are mostly closed-ended: multiple choice questionnaires, tests,

true/false questions. Some MOOCs offer open writing or oral production
assignments (students must submit an essay/writing or video recording). In that
case, they are usually what are called P2P (or Peer-to-Peer) tasks, involving peer
evaluation. This type of assessment is fundamental in MOOCs, but has been met
with some reluctance by students, who do not consider peer feedback as valid
as what would be provided by a teacher.

- The interaction between MOOC participants is precisely one of the greatest

strengths of this type of course. The use of all types of social networks is
encouraged: Facebook, Google+, Skype, Twitter, although there are still a
minority of participants in these courses who actually take on an active and
participatory role. As for teacher-student interaction, it is sometimes a source
of frustration among participating students, who are still accustomed to more

18
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

traditional, closed and manageable models in which the teacher has a more
relevant role and perceive as disinterest on the part of the teacher what is in
reality a new conception of the teacher-student relationship. A MOOC ideally
should be self-managing: the learner needs to take responsibility for their own
learning and the figure of the teacher-tutor disappears, giving way to a more
equal relationship between all course participants.

This new, well-focused educational model can help democratise access to education so
that it reaches citizens who would not otherwise have access to higher education. It fits
perfectly into the European directive on lifelong learning (Delors, 1996) and represents
a new and robust learning modality, becoming a real laboratory in which to experiment
and reflect on the various forms of teaching and learning, curriculum design,
accreditation or certification, what constitutes valid learning and who can and should
have access to higher education (EDUCAUSE, 2013b).

6.5. MOBILE LEARNING

According to a recent report (ITU, 2013), about 30% of the population in today’s society
has access to the Internet, while almost 90% use mobile phones. It was therefore only a
matter of time before research began on the possible educational usefulness of this
device. However, mobile learning is not exclusively limited to the use of mobile phones
in education, but includes all those devices that can be easily moved: mobile phones,
tablets, iPads, laptops, mp3 players, etc.

Mobile learning or m-learning can be defined as any educational interaction that takes
place through a mobile device, which the student can access when and from where it is
most convenient (EDUCAUSE, 2010). That is why we have started to talk about
ubiquitous learning, with the intention of encouraging learning to become an integral
part of the life of the citizen, overcoming the spatial and temporal limitation of formal
education and encouraging spontaneous learning and interaction (Kukulska-Hulme,
2007).

These last two concepts are vital in the application of mobile learning to language
teaching. The mobile devices that have been most popular so far are smartphones and
tablets (Stockwell, 2007; Martin Monje, 2012). These devices are increasingly
sophisticated, with better technical features (high-definition colour screens, increased
storage capacity, Internet and PC connection, software for recording, editing and
playing audio, video and images, etc.) and have therefore become more attractive tools
for educational use (Bradley et al., 2009).

It is not uncommon for a foreign language learner to combine studies with a

professional schedule, and therefore to have little time available. In a recent study,
Kukulska-Hulme (2012) analysed how mobile foreign language learning has evolved,
designing a valid theoretical framework for the design of activities adapted to this
mobile learning. As shown in her study, students using mobile devices for language

19
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

learning often access content anywhere: at home, at work, on the move and do not
have a fixed schedule. Some do try to take advantage of quiet moments in their daily
routine: their lunch break, the trip to work, or just before going to sleep. However,
there is a growing trend towards spontaneous behaviour: when free time is available it
is used, such as when waiting for people or on public transport. Also appealing is the
length of these mobile learning periods, which usually do not exceed fifteen to twenty
minutes. The latter is something to take into account in the future design of
educational materials, usually intended for longer periods of time.

8. REFERENCES
Adell, J. and Castañeda, L. (2010). Personal Learning Environments (PLEs): A New Way
of Understanding Learning (“Los Entornos Personales de Aprendizaje (PLEs): una
nueva manera de entender el aprendizaje”). In Roig Vila, R. and Fiorucci, M.
(Eds.) Keys to research in educational innovation and quality. The Integration of
Information and Communication Technologies and Interculturality in Classrooms
(Claves para la investigación en innovación y calidad educativas. La integración
de las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación y la Interculturalidad en
las aulas.) (Strumenti di ricerca per l’innovazioni e la qualità in ámbito educativo.
La Tecnologie dell’informazione e della Comunicazioni e l’interculturalità nella
scuola.) Alcoy: Marfil – Roma TRE Universita degli studi.
Álvarez, D. (2012). Los PLE son para el verano. (PLE's are for the summer.) [http://e-
aprendizaje.es/e-book-gratis/].
Aparici, R. (2010). Conectados en el ciberespacio. (Connected in cyberspace.) Madrid:
UNED.
Attwell G, (2007). Personal learning environments – the future of eLearning? eLearning
papers 2. [http://www.elearningeuropa.info/files/media/media11561.pdf].
(Accessed 18 July 2013).
Barghava, R. (2009). Manifesto for the content curator.
[http://www.rohitbhargava.com/2009/09/manifesto-for-the-content-curator-
the-next-big-social-media-job-of-the-future.html].
Bradley, C., R. Haynes, J. Cook, T. Boyle & C. Smith (2009) Design and Development of
Multimedia Learning Objects for Mobile Phones. In M. Ally, (ed.) Mobile
Learning. Transforming the Delivery of Education and Training. Pages 157-182.
Edmonton, AB: AU Press.
Bartolomé, A. and Grané, M. (2004). Education and technologies: from the exceptional
to the everyday. Aula de Innovación Educativa (Educational Innovation
Classroom), 135, 9-11.
Bringué, X. and Sádaba, C. (2009). La generación interactiva en España. Niños y
adolescentes ante las pantallas. (The Interactive Generation in Spain. Children
and Teenagers in Front of the Screens. ) Madrid: Ariel / Fundación Telefónica.
Cabero, J. (2006). Comunidades virtuales para el aprendizaje. Su utilización en la
enseñanza. (Virtual communities for learning. Its use in teaching.) EDUTEC,
Revista Electrónica de Tecnología Educativa, 20.
[http://edutec.rediris.es/Revelec2/revelec20/ cabero20.htm].

20
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

Cabero, J. (Ed.). (2007). Nuevas tecnologías aplicadas a la educación. (New

technologies applied to education.) Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
Casamayor G. (2008). La formación on-line. Una mirada integral sobre el e-learning, b-
learning. (On-line training. A comprehensive look at e-learning, b-learning)
Barcelona: Grao.
Cohen, A.D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London:
Longman.
Cornella, A. (2011). Infoxicación. [http://www.infonomia.com/articulo/ideas/7150].
(Accessed 12 July 2013).
Cormier, D. and Siemens, G. (2010). Through the open door: open courses as research,
learning, and engagement. EDUCAUSE Review, 45(4), 30-9.
[http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM1042.pdf].
Dale, E. (1969). Audio-visual methods in teaching. New York: Dryden.
De Ferrari, P., et al. (2003). Closing the gap in education and technology. Washington:
World Bank. Latin American and Caribbean Studies.
De Napoli, A. (2003). Tendencias de la tecnología en la educación. Memorias VI
Congreso Internacional Educación para el Talento. (Technology trends in
education. Report from the 6th International Congress Education on Talent.)
De Vicente, J. L. (2005). Inteligencia colectiva en la Web 2.0. ¿Por qué 2005 puede ser
tan importante para la red como 1995? (Collective intelligence in Web 2.0. Why
can 2005 be as important for the internet as 1995?)
[http://elastico.net/archives/005717.html]
Delors, J. (1996). Learning, the Treasure Within: Report to UNESCO of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century. Paris: UNESCO.
Duart, J.M. and Sangrà, A. (2000). Aprender en la virtualidad. (Learning in the virtual
world.) Barcelona: Gedisa-Ediuoc.
EDUCAUSE (2010). 7 things you should know about… Mobile apps for learning.
[http://www-cdn.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7060.pdf].
EDUCAUSE (2011). 7 things you should know about... MOOCs.[http://www-
cdn.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7078.pdf].
EDUCAUSE (2013a). 7 things you should know about… Connected learning. [www-
cdn.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7096.pdf].
EDUCAUSE (2013b). 7 things you should know about... MOOCs II.[http://www-
cdn.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7097.pdf].
Fernández Carballo-Calero, M. (2001). The EFL teacher and the introduction of
multimedia in the classroom. CALL, 14(1), 3-14.
Gauntlett, D. (2011). Making is connecting. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Godwin-Jones, R. (2009). Emerging technologies. Personal learning environments.
Language Learning & Technology, 13 (2), 3–9.
Graham, S. (1997). Effective language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Grossman, L. (1998). New Free License to Cover Content Online. TIME Digital —18
September 1998.

21
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

Guiloff, A. et al. (2007). Generación net. Choque cultural en el salón de clases. (Net
generation. Culture shock in the classroom.) Chile: Centro de Estudios
Universitarios - Única.
Guth, S. (2008). Developing a personal learning environment for language learning
using Web 2.0 tools [Presentación PowerPoint].
[http://www.slideshare.net/lamericaana/developing-a-personal-learning-
environment-for-language-learning-using-web-20-tools-presentation].
Guth, S. (2009). Personal learning environments for language learning. En M. Thomas
(Ed.), Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning (pp 451–
471). Hershey: IGI-Global.
Gutiérrez Martín, A. (2003). Alfabetización digital. (Digital Literacy.) Barcelona: Gedisa.
ITU (2013). The World in 2013: ICT Facts and Figures. Retrieved on 8 August 2013, from
http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-
D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2013.pdf
Jacobs, A.J. (2013, 20 April). Grading the MOOC University. The New York Times.
[http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/21/opinion/sunday/grading-the-mooc-
university.html?pagewanted=all&_r=5&].
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. and Holubec, E.J. (1999). El Aprendizaje Cooperativo en el
Aula. (Cooperative Learning in the Classroom.) Buenos Aires: Paidós.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2007). Mobile Usability in Educational Contexts: What have we
learnt? The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning.
Vol.8, No.2.
Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2012). Language learning defined by time and place: A framework
for next generation designs. En J. Díaz-Vera (ed.) Left to my own devices: Learner
autonomy and mobile assisted language learning. Pages 1-13. Bingley, UK:
Emerald Group Publishing Ltd.
Kumaravadivelu, B. 2005. Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Post-
Method. New York: Routledge.
Lee, C. I. and Tsai, F. Y. (2004). Internet project-based learning environment: the
effects on thinking styles on learning transfer. Journal of Computer Assisted
Learning. 20, 31-39.
Lim, Ch. and Barnes, S. (2002). “Those who can, teach”. The pivotal role of the teacher
in the information and communication technologies (ICT) learning environment.
Journal of Educational Media, 27 (1/2), 19-40.
Macaro, E. (2006). Strategies for Language learning and for Language use: Revising the
theoretical framework. The Modern Language Journal, 90 ( iii), 320–337.
Martín Monje, E. (2012). Presente y futuro de la enseñanza de lenguas asistida por
ordenador. ¿El final de una era? (The present and future of computer-assisted
language teaching - the end of an era?) Revista de lingüística y lenguas aplicadas,
7, 203-212.
Moratalla, D. et al. (2002). Las nuevas funciones de la escuela que mira al futuro. (The
new functions of schools that look to the future.) Spain: Bruño.
Negroponte, N. (1996). Ser digital. (Being digital.) Mexico. Océano.

22
Adapted from:
Vázquez-Cano, E. & Martín-Monje, E. (2014). Nuevas tendencias para la
elaboración y edición de materiales audiovisuales en la enseñanza de
lenguas. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
________________________________________________________________

Osin, L., et al., (1996). A proposal for the reengineering of the educational system.
Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 621-656.
Pantò E. and Comas-Quinn A. (2013). The Challenge of Open Education. Journal of e-
Learning and Knowledge Society, v.9, n.1, 11-22.
O'Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0? [http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/
a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html?page=1].
Papano, L. (2012, 20 November). The year of the MOOC. The New York Times.
[http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/04/education/edlife/massive-open-online-
courses-are-multiplying-at-a-rapid-pace.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0].
Papert, S. (1991). Situating Constructionism. En I. Harel & P. Seymour (Eds.),
Constructionism: Research reports and essays, 1985-1990 (pp 1–11). Cambridge,
MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Piaget, J. (1980). The psychogenesis of knowledge and its epistemological significance.
En M. Piattelli-Palmarini (Ed.) Language and learning (pp 377–384). Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
OECD. (2007) Giving Knowledge for Free: the emergence of open educational
resources. Paris: OECD.
Okada, A., Connolly, T. and Scott, P.J. (Eds.) (2012). Collaborative learning 2.0: Open
Educational Resources. Hershey: IGI Global.
Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon 9 (5),1-6.
[http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-
%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf].
Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching Digital Natives: Partnering for real learning. London:
Corwin.
Reggini, H. C. (2005). El futuro no es más lo que era. La Tecnología y la gente en
tiempos de Internet. (The future is no longer what it was. Technology and people
in the Internet Age.) Buenos Aires: Editorial de la Universidad Católica.
Reig, D. (2010). Conectivismo: Una teoría del aprendizaje para la era digital
(Connectivism. A learning theory for the digital age.) (Presentación PowerPoint).
[http://www.slideshare.net/dreig/conectivismo-2576333].
Semenov, A. (2005). Information and communication technologies in schools –A
handbook for teachers, or how ICT can create new, open learning environments.
Paris: UNESCO.
Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International
Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(10), 3-9.
[http://www.itdl.org/journal/jan_05/jan_05.pdf]
Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The rise of the net generation. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
UNESCO (2012). 2012 Paris OER Declaration.
[www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/Events/Paris%20O
ER%20Declaration_01.pdf].
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Stockwell, G. (2007). A review of technology choice for teaching language skills in the
CALL literature. ReCALL 19 (2). Pages 105-120.

23