Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Concrete durability enhancement from nopal (opuntia ficus-indica)

additions
Andres Antonio Torres-Acosta a,⇑, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz b
a
Civil Engineering Full Time Professor, Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Science, Queretaro Campus, Epigmenio González 500,
San Pablo, 76130 Santiago de Queretaro, Queretaro, Building 2, 4th Floor, Office 28, Mexico
b
Research and Development Engineer, Colossal Cement Mixer SC, Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Durability criteria were used to evaluate concretes containing Opuntia Ficus Indica (OFI, also called
Received 1 July 2019 nopal) derivatives: exudate nopal mucilage (eNm), cooked nopal mucilage (cNm), and dehydrated nopal
Received in revised form 10 January 2020 powder (dNp). Concrete containing eNm and cNm was fabricated using 4%, 8%, 15%, and 30% concentra-
Accepted 13 January 2020
tions by water mass replacement. The dNp was added at 1%, 2%, and 4% (per cement weight) by sand
Available online 31 January 2020
mass replacement. Concrete’s physical and mechanical performance was monitored for the nopal deriva-
tive treatments and the control (without nopal derivatives), to quantify any possible durability improve-
Keywords:
ments.
Additions
Concrete
The durability tests included: saturated electrical resistivity (qS); total voids percentage (TV%), capillary
Chloride permeability absorption (effective porosity, eEF); compressive strength (fc); rapid chloride permeability (RCP); and
Durability SEM micrograph analysis. Because nopal derivatives have an apparently slow reaction time, the tests
Nopal were evaluated at 30, 90, 180, and 400 days.
Opuntia Ficus Indica Addition of dehydrated nopal powder (dNp) did not improve substantially concrete durability perfor-
mance, except chloride transport: additions <2% decreased RCP index values up to 10%. Exudate nopal
mucilage (eNm) exhibited improved durability index values up to 20% (TV%/eEF decrease and qS/fc
increase), and RCP index was improved up to 30%. Cooked nopal mucilage (cNm), at all four tested ages,
produced results superior to the control mixture (between 20% and 40% improvements). In summary,
nopal derivatives may act as clogging sponge-like biopolymer within the cement matrix pores, stopping
water and chloride transport into concrete.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction tested to increase the durability of reinforced concrete structures

Knowing the physical and chemical properties of construction
materials is vital for engineers and architects when selecting mate-
rials appropriate for meeting project specifications. Steel and con-
crete are the most commonly used materials in construction due to
their wide availability, cost effectiveness, and versatility. These
two materials work well together mechanically and chemically:
steel provides tensile strength, which concrete lacks, and concrete
protects steel from corrosion due to environment’s aggressive con-
taminants. Common aggressive contaminants include chlorides (in
marine environments) [1] and carbon/sulfur dioxides (in urban
and/or industrial environments) [2].
Durability is a key property of concrete that does not yet receive
a serious attention as it merits. Several techniques have been
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: atorresa@tec.mx (A.A. Torres-Acosta).
in aggressive environments. These range from improving concrete
quality, which provides chemical protection to steel; protection
systems applied directly to steel reinforcing prior to placement in
concrete (i.e. corrosion inhibiting paints or coatings); protection
systems applied to the outside of the finished structure (i.e. poly-
meric coatings); cathodic protection for the reinforcing steel; and
alternative materials with greater corrosion resistance (i.e. stain-
less steels, galvanized steels, and carbon fiber, among others).
Various additions can improve concrete mechanical properties
and durability. Opuntia ficus indica (OFI) cactus has been used as
a satisfactory ingredient in anticorrosion treatments for steel [3]
and as waterproofing in mortar and concrete [4,5]. These and many
other applications for OFI cactus (widely known by its Spanish
name nopal) can be traced to its traditional uses in Mexico, its
point of origin, since Mesoamerican cultures (i.e. Mayas, Mexicas,
etc). For example, mortar quality, in terms of mechanical and chem-
ical properties is known to increase with nopal addition [3–5]. But

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118170
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170
concrete performance when such botanical addition is placed is yet
not evaluated in detail.
2. Research significance
The research significance is to evaluate concrete physical char-
acteristics (i.e. porosity and mechanical resistance) from its dura-
bility performance, if nopal derivatives were added to the
mixture. Three nopal derivatives were evaluated: exudate nopal
mucilage (eNm); cooked nopal mucilage (cNm); and dehydrated
nopal powder (dNp). The mucilage (either eNm or cNm) was added
to the concrete at different proportions by water replacement (by
mass), and dNp was added at different percentages by sand mass
replacement. Concrete mixtures were then evaluated using dura-
bility index tests to identify which treatment(s) resulted in
improvements beyond the control concrete (without nopal deriva-
tive additions).
3. Experimental procedure
Concrete cylinders (10 cm diameter and 20 cm height) were
fabricated with concrete containing different proportions of nopal
derivatives. Forty-eight (48) cylinders were fabricated containing
4%, 8%, 15%, or 30% eNm and cNm derivatives. Thirty-six (36) cylin-
ders were made using concrete containing 1%, 2% or 4% dNp deriva-
tive. Finally, as control mixture, twelve (12) cylinders were
fabricated using concrete containing no nopal derivatives. Physical
characterization tests were performed of the coarse and fine aggre-
gate, and after cylinder fabrication, physical and mechanical tests
were performed to the concrete. All tests complied with ASTM nor-
malized procedures and will be explained later.
3.1. Nopal derivative preparation
Nopal is a cactus plant very characteristic of Mexico, is deeply
rooted in its history, culture, gastronomy and even forms part of
the country’s national symbols. During Spaińs Viceroyalty in Mex-
ico, the plant was widespread in several countries and regions (i.e.
South America, Nor Africa, Australia, even Spain) [3–5].
Mucilage extraction was done by first harvesting nopal clado-
des, removing thorns and cutting them into cubes (approx.
1
1 cm). Exudate mucilage (eNm) was extracted by soaking this
nopal cubes in water at a 1:1 ratio for 48 hrs, and then separating
the mucilage from the solid matter with a kitchen sieve. Cooked
mucilage (cNm) was produced by placing nopal cubes in water at
a 1:1 ratio, heating to boiling, cooling to room temperature and
separating the mucilage from the solid matter with a kitchen sieve.
For both mucilage types, the solid matter was pressed after pro-
cessing to obtain the largest possible amount of mucilage. Dehy-
drated nopal powder (dNp) was obtained from a commercial
supplier previously used [4].
3.2. Fabrication of cylinder specimens
A total of 144 concrete cylinders (10 cm diameter and 20 cm
height) were fabricated using CPC 30R-RS type cement (Mexican
designation for a Type II ASTM cement with clinker content
between 60%95%) [6]. Crushed limestone, and mine sand were
used as coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. Physical charac-
teristic of the fine/coarse aggregate was determined for concrete
mixture design. Grading, bulk specific gravity, absorption capacity,
surface moisture, and fineness modulus were obtained from the
fine aggregate. Grading, maximum size, bulk specific gravity,
absorption capacity, surface moisture, and dry-rodded unit weight
were obtained from the coarse aggregate. The water/cement (w/c)
ratio was 0.50, and 30 MPa was chosen as the 28-day compressive
strength (f0 c) for this concrete mix design. Concrete mixture design
was obtained from ACI standard practice 211.1. Ingredient propor-
tions changed only in terms of water content for eNm and cNm
treatments, and sand content for the dNp treatment. All cylinders
exhibited 10 cm slump with permitted tolerances of ±2.5 cm [7].
Mixture proportions are listed in Tables 1 and 2. Cylinders were
placed in sealed containers with enough water to prevent moisture
loss and kept at room temperature until testing (continuous
curing).
3.3. Saturated electrical resistivity (qS) index
Saturated electrical resistivity (qS) is a natural property of all
materials corresponding to their resistance against the pass of an
electrical current and is expressed as kX-cm or X-m [8]. Concrete
qS depends on degree of porosity and degree of pore saturation,
both properties that depend on the water/cement ratio and mix-
ture compaction. Bulk qS was measured using ASTM C-1876 proce-
dure with an electrical resistance meter, in which saturated
sponges were placed at the two specimen ends and stainless steel
plates on top of the sponges. Cables were connected from both
plates to the electrical resistance meter. The meter emitted a DC
voltage (V) and measure the DC current (I), then it gives the elec-
trical resistance (Re). qS estimate is obtained by multiplying Re
data by the specimen dimensions as in Eq. (1) [8,9]:
 
A
qS ¼ Re ð1Þ
L
where: qS = electrical resistivity (kO-cm or O-m), Re = Resistance
(kO or O), A = Area (cm2 or m2), and L = Length (cm or m).
3.4. Total void percentage (TV%) index
The quantity of pores in a concrete seriously affects its perme-
ability and thus its durability. This test quantifies all voids in con-
crete (macropores, micropores, interconnected, and discrete pores)
from excess of water content during fabrication, or air encapsu-
lated during handling. Total void content was measured following
the ASTM C-642 procedure [8]. The cylinders were cut saw in slices
10 cm diameter and 4–5 cm thick. After drying the slices at 50 °C
(122°F) until constant mass (from 21 to 35 days), an initial mea-
surement was taken and designated as dry mass (Wdry). The slices
were then placed in a high humidity plastic container and mea-
surements taken constantly until reaching constant mass, when a
final saturated mass (Wsa) was recorded. The water-saturated
slices were weighed inside the water to measure saturated-
submerged mass (Wsu). Total void content (%) was estimated with
the formula [8]:
W sa  W dry
TV% ¼
100 ð2Þ
W Sa  W su
where: TV% = percentage total void content (%), Wsa = specimeńs
saturated mass; Wdry = specimeńs dry mass; Wsu = specimeńs sat-
urated and submerged mass.
3.5. Effective porosity (eEF) index
eE index represents a fraction of the TV% index, which is the
porosity that allows the transport of aggressive contaminants into
concrete (i.e. O2, H2O, Cl-, SO-4, CO2), thus its name: effective poros-
ity. The results of this test (also known as the water capillarity
absorption test or the Fagerlund Test), are expressed as percent-
ages [8]. This technique is the basis of the Swedish standard using
four coefficients to describe mortar and concrete capillary
 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170 3

Table 1
Proportions for control, eNm, and cNm concrete mixtures. Quantities for twelve 10x20 cm cylinders.

Material Control cylinders 4% mucilage 8% mucilage 15% mucilage 30% mucilage

Mucilage (kg) – 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.1
Water (kg) 3.6 3.4 3.3 3.0 2.5
Cement (kg) 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7
Gravel (kg) 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2 17.2
Sand (kg) 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3 16.3

Table 2 3.7. Rapid chloride permeability (RCP) index

Proportions for dNp concrete mixtures. Quantities for twelve 10x20 cm cylinders.

Materials 1% Dehydrated 2% Dehydrated 4% Dehydrated This test quantifies concrete resistance to chloride ions trans-
nopal nopal nopal port by applying an external potential difference at both ends of
Dehydrated nopal 0.1 0.2 0.4 the specimen tested following ASTM C-1202 standard procedure
(kg) [11]. Water-saturated concrete slices (10 cm diameter by 5 cm
Water (kg) 3.6 3.6 3.6 thick) were placed in specially designed acrylic cells containing,
Cement (kg) 8.7 8.7 8.7
one a 3% NaCl solution, and another a 0.3 N NaOH solution. A neg-
Gravel (kg) 17.2 17.2 17.2
Sand (kg) 16.2 16.1 15.9 ative terminal was connected to the NaCl receptacle and a positive
terminal to the NaOH receptacle. A direct current potential (60
DCV) was then applied to the cell. In response, negatively charged
absorption kinetics: m (water penetration resistance), k (capillary chloride ions migrate towards the positive terminal. The more per-
absorption coefficient), eEF (effective capillary porosity), and S meable is the concrete, the more chloride ions will travel through
(capillary sorption) [8]. the specimen, resulting in a higher total current. The current was
The cylinders were cut saw in slices 10 cm diameter and 4–5 cm measured for six hours. The area under the curve electrical current
thick. The slices were dried at 50 °C [108 °F] and <30% R.H. until versus time was estimated to obtain the total charge (or Coulomb)
constant mass was achieved and subsequent drying in a desiccator. that has passed through the specimen.
The slices were then covered with paraffin on the circumferential
surface (perimeter). After recording initial dry mass with paraffin 4. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis
cover, W0, the slices were placed inside a flat-bottomed container
(22 ± 4 °C [97 ± 18°F] and ~100% R.H.), making sure that the water A SEM analysis of the concrete mixtures at the end of the exper-
level was reached between 3 and 5 mm [0.1 and 0.2 in] deep. The imental period was also performed. After compressive strength
slices were kept inside the recipient and the water level was daily tests, concrete samples were taken from the tested cylinders by
monitored to maintain it at the same mark level (avoiding water chipping out from one of the cylinder border (clean of macroc-
loss due to evaporation, or slices water absorption). racks) and allowed to dry for 21 days in laboratory desiccator
The change in mass of the concrete slices per exposed unit area (20 ± 2 °C, 30 ± 2% RH). Two samples were selected from the con-
((Wt  W0)  A1) was then registered once a day, five days a week. trol mixture (no addition) and from cNm, eNm, and dNp mixtures
During subsequent weeks, three measurements per week were to perform this SEM analysis. The concrete samples were then pho-
recorded until constant mass. tographed using a SEM with a high vacuum chamber (since sam-
The absorption coefficients were calculated based on the fol- ples were porous), and a 20 kV energy at different magnifications
lowing equations [8]: from x37 to x430. The micrographs of the concrete mixture types

(with and without additions) were then reviewed and comparisons
m sec  m2 ¼ t n  z2 ð3Þ between them were made.


k kg  m2  sec1=2 ¼ ðW t  W 0 Þ  A1  t1=2 ð4Þ 5. Results and discussion

eEF ð%Þ ¼ 0; 001  k  m1=2

experiment.
S m  sec1=2 ¼ m1=2
where the coefficient k can be determined as the slope of the
linear region of graph (Wt  W0)  A1 as a function of t1/2; the
m coefficient can be determined by calculating the time tn
required for water to get to the top face of the probe (i.e., when
z = 5 cm for the slices used). For this investigation, only the eEF
index was estimated and compared.
3.6. Compressive strength (fc) index
Concretés compressive strength (fc) depends mainly on the w/c
ratio and porosity. ASTM C-39 standard procedure was used to
determine this index [10]. The load (P) is divided by the specimeńs
cross section (A) and expressed in mega Pascals (MPa) units. A
servo hydraulic universal machine was used to apply load to the
cylinders until rupture, and fc then calculated using typical stress
equation fc = P/A (fc = f0 c at 28 days.
ð5Þ Data were collected at 30, 90, 180, and 400 days after concrete
fabrication. Following are the results obtained separated by
ð6Þ
5.1. qS index
qS index values at 30, 90, 180 and 400 days are shown in Fig. 1.
As observed, qS increased with specimen age in all concrete mix-
tures, control and nopal derivatives. This increase was more
noticeable in the concretes formulated with cNm, and the higher
the mucilage concentration, the greater the increase in qS. Appar-
ently, the cNm sealed the pores in the cement matrix, meaning that
it did not mix with the cementing gel as a pozzolan, but did cover
the pores as a biopolymer coating, thus increasing the electrical
resistance against ion movement.
5.2. Tv%
The TV% index results showed a generalized decrease in values
(Fig. 2) with specimen age, which is consistent with the observed
4 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170

30

25

ρ S ( KΩ-cm )
20

15

10

0
CR (180)
CR (400)
CR (30)
CR (90)

dNp1 (180)
dNp1 (400)

dNp2 (180)
dNp2 (400)

dNp4 (180)
dNp4 (400)

eNm4 (180)
eNm4 (400)

eNm8 (180)
eNm8 (400)
eNm15 (30)
eNm15 (90)

eNm30 (30)
eNm30 (90)
dNp1 (30)
dNp1 (90)

dNp2 (30)
dNp2 (90)

dNp4 (30)
dNp4 (90)

eNm4 (30)
eNm4 (90)

eNm8 (30)
eNm8 (90)

cNm4 (180)
cNm4 (400)

cNm8 (180)
cNm8 (400)
cNm4 (30)

cNm30 (90)
cNm4 (90)

cNm8 (30)
cNm8 (90)

cNm15 (30)
cNm15 (90)

cNm30 (30)
eNm15 (180)
eNm15 (400)

eNm30 (180)
eNm30 (400)

cNm15 (180)
cNm15 (400)

cNm30 (180)
cNm30 (400)
Avg Min Max

Fig. 1. Saturated electrical resisitivity (qS) of evaluated concretes: control (CR), dNp, eNm, and cNm at different ages.

30

25

20
TV% ( % )

15

10

0
CR (30)
CR (90)
CR (180)
CR (400)
dNp1 (30)
dNp1 (90)
dNp1 (180)
dNp1 (400)
dNp2 (30)
dNp2 (90)
dNp2 (180)
dNp2 (400)
dNp4 (30)
dNp4 (90)
dNp4 (180)

eNm15 (90)

eNm30 (30)
eNm30 (90)

cNm8 (400)
cNm15 (30)
cNm15 (90)

cNm30 (30)
cNm30 (90)
dN4 (400)
eNm4 (30)
eNm4 (90)
eNm4 (180)
eNm4 (400)
eNm8 (30)
eNm8 (90)
eNm8 (180)
eNm8 (400)
eNm15 (30)

cNm4 (180)
cNm4 (400)

cNm8 (180)
cNm4 (30)
cNm4 (90)

cNm8 (30)
cNm8 (90)
eNm15 (180)
eNm15 (400)

eNm30 (180)
eNm30 (400)

cNm15 (180)
cNm15 (400)

cNm30 (180)
cNm30 (400)

Avg Min Max

Fig. 2. Percentage total void content (TV%) of evaluated concretes: control (CR), dNp, eNm, and cNm at different ages.

increase in qS (Fig. 1). The dNp concretes generally contained more
voids than the control. The dNp4 mixture performed as having
higher TV% values than all the other mixtures and the control,
while the dNp1 mixture at 180 days had the lowest value of the
treatments with this additive, below even the control mixture.
At 400 days, the eNm mixture had TV% values lower than most
other treatments and the control, with very similar values between
all eNm mixtures. But at other specimeńs age TV% index of eNm
mixtures were similar to the control TV% index.
The cNm mixtures had generally lower values than the other
nopal added mixtures at the same times, and comparable to the con-
trol, although the cNm15 mixture had the lowest TV% index from all.
Similar as with eNm, mixtures, all TV% index values for cNm mix-
tures at 400 days were smaller than control mixture. This coincides
with the qS index results obtained with the evaluated mixtures.
5.3. eEF index
Data from eEF index in the eNm and cNm mixtures was similar
to, or lower than the control mixture index obtained (Fig. 3).
Among the dNp mixture, only the 1% and 2% treatments exhibited
improved effective porosity versus the control at 180 and 400 days
ages. For eNm and cNm mixtures, all eEF indices were improved
than the control index values, with the best performance at
 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170 5

30

25

εEF ( % ) 20

15

10

0
dNp1 (30)
dNp1 (90)

dNp2 (30)
dNp2 (90)

dNp4 (30)
dNp4 (90)

dN4 (400)

eNm15 (180)
eNm15 (400)

eNm30 (180)
eNm30 (400)

cNm4 (180)
cNm4 (400)

cNm8 (180)
cNm8 (400)
cNm15 (30)
cNm15 (90)

cNm30 (30)
cNm30 (90)
dNp1 (180)
dNp1 (400)

dNp2 (180)
dNp2 (400)

dNp4 (180)

eNm4 (30)
eNm4 (90)
eNm4 (180)
eNm4 (400)
eNm8 (30)
eNm8 (90)
eNm8 (180)
eNm8 (400)
eNm15 (30)
eNm15 (90)

eNm30 (30)
eNm30 (90)
CR (30)
CR (90)
CR (180)
CR (400)

cNm4 (30)
cNm4 (90)

cNm8 (30)
cNm8 (90)

cNm15 (180)
cNm15 (400)

cNm30 (180)
cNm30 (400)
Avg Min Max

Fig. 3. Effective porosity (eEF) of evaluated concretes: control (CR), dNp, eNm, and cNm at different ages.

400-day age, especially eNm mixtures. Again, cNm mixture was
the one with the lowest eEF index estimates from all mixtures,
including the control.
5.4. fc index
As observed from Fig. 4, all concrete mixtures surpass the f0 c
deign value of 30 MPa (by definition f0 c is the 28-day fc of any
concrete), except dNp2 and dNp4. Especially dNp4 mixture did
not reach such design value even at 400 days of age. On the contrary,
dNp2 mixture exceeded this f0 c design value after 90 days of age.
Almost all the cNm mixtures values exceeded the control,
whereas in the eNm mixtures the final values (400 days age) were
fairly uniform and similar to the control. In contrast, the dNp mix-
tures exhibited values generally below those of the control, except
dNp1 at 400 days, and one of the highest fc index value from all
mixtures was for cNm30 mixture. It is important to notice that
although dNp4 mixture showed low fc value it did improve some-
what starting at 90 days.
This was probably due to the slow activation of dehydrated
nopal; prior to activation this concrete was extremely breakable,
a sign of low compressive strength. This high concentration dNp

60

50

40
fc( MPa )

30

20

10

0
CR (180)
CR (400)
CR (30)
CR (90)

dNp1 (180)

dNp2 (180)

eNm4 (180)
eNm4 (400)

eNm8 (180)
eNm8 (400)
dNp1 (30)

dNp1 (400)

eNm15 (30)
eNm15 (90)

eNm30 (30)
eNm30 (90)
dNp1 (90)

dNp2 (30)

dNp2 (400)
dNp2 (90)

dNp4 (30)

dNp4 (180)
dNp4 (90)

dN4 (400)
eNm4 (30)
eNm4 (90)

eNm8 (30)
eNm8 (90)

cNm4 (180)
cNm4 (400)

cNm8 (180)
cNm8 (400)
cNm4 (30)
cNm4 (90)

cNm8 (30)
cNm8 (90)

cNm15 (30)
cNm15 (90)

cNm30 (30)
cNm30 (90)
eNm15 (180)
eNm15 (400)

eNm30 (180)
eNm30 (400)

cNm15 (180)
cNm15 (400)

cNm30 (180)
cNm30 (400)

Avg Min Max

Fig. 4. Mechanical compressive strength (MCS) of evaluated concretes: control (CR), dNp, eNm, and cNm at different ages.
6 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170

mixture performance corroborate the results obtained with
cement-based mortars with similar nopal concentrations, where
the fc increased slowly but never reached the controĺs fc [4,5].
5.5. RCP index
All the concrete mixtures exhibited considerable decreases in
RCP index values over time (Fig. 5). The mixtures with cNm and
eNm both had values generally lower than the control at all four
ages. Although values did decrease over time in the dNp mixtures,
they remained similar (1% and 2% treatments at all times) or
noticeably higher (4% treatment at all times) than the control
mixture values (i.e. dNp4 at 30 days, which had values so high they
were off the graph scale in Fig. 5). These results agree with the fc
index results, and are to be expected since dNp takes longer time
to activate in concrete as the concentration levels increase, but
>4% dNp concentrations has a detriment effect on the concrete
mixture as observed from previous investigations performed in
cement-based mortars [4,5].
Lower RCP index values observed in Fig. 5 for all mixtures with
nopal additions than the index values obtained from control mix-
ture, corroborate results obtained previously from direct chloride
diffusion experiments performed in prismatic mortars, where
nopal apparently worked as a chloride binder [5].

10000

1000

100
dNp1 (30)
dNp1 (90)

dNp2 (30)
dNp2 (90)

dNp4 (30)
dNp4 (90)

eNm4 (30)
eNm4 (90)

eNm8 (30)
eNm8 (90)

cNm4 (30)
cNm4 (90)

cNm8 (30)
cNm8 (90)
CR (30)
CR (90)
CR (180)
CR (400)

dNp1 (180)
dNp1 (400)

dNp2 (180)
dNp2 (400)

dNp4 (180)
dNp4 (400)

eNm4 (180)
eNm4 (400)

eNm8 (180)
eNm8 (400)
eNm15 (30)
eNm15 (90)
eNm15 (180)
eNm15 (400)
eNm30 (30)
eNm30 (90)
eNm30 (180)
eNm30 (400)

cNm4 (180)
cNm4 (400)

cNm8 (180)
cNm8 (400)
cNm15 (30)
cNm15 (90)
cNm15 (180)
cNm15 (400)
cNm30 (30)
cNm30 (90)
cNm30 (180)
cNm30 (400)
Avg Min Max

Fig. 5. Rapid chlorides permeability (RCP) of evaluated concretes: control (CR), dNp, eNm, and cNm at different ages.

Fig. 6. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) micrographs from one cylinder of the control (CR) mixture.
 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170 7

5.6. Discussion correlated between them: the higher the fc of the concrete mix-
ture, the less its TV%. Therefore, no nopal derivative changed the
From the five durability indices evaluated for the three differ- amount of TV% in the concrete, and thus there is not a substan-
ent nopal derivatives, it is clear to observe that the best per- tial fc improvement if these additions are included in the
formed concretes were the ones with cNm additions, and from mixture.
all of these (cNm4, cNm8, cNm15, and cNm30) cNm15 was the Nevertheless, the durability indices that were improved were
mixture with the best durability index values form all mixtures. the ones that change the mass transport (water, chlorides) inside
As observed form Figs. 1 through 5, the least improvement the material (concrete): qS, eEF, and RCP indices. Apparently, either
observed was TV% index and fc index, which in fact are quite dNp or eNm/cNm filled the pores inside the material and absorb

Fig. 7. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) micrographs from one cylinder of the cooked nopal mucilage (cNm) mixture.

10 26
RCP ( x 103 Coulomb )

(a) 24 (b)
8
22
εEF ( % )

6 20
18
4 16
14
2
12
0 10
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
ρS ( kΩ - cm ) ρS ( kΩ - cm )

10
RCP ( x 103 Coulomb )

8 CR
6 dNp1

4 dNp2

2 dNp4
(c)
0
10 15 20 25
εEF ( % )

Fig. 8. Empirical correlation between qS, eEF, and RCP durability indices for dNp mixtures.
8 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170

either water or chlorides decreasing their transport rate, as matrix of concrete, filled at least partially with nopal mucilage
observed in previous investigations performed in cement-based biopolymer and possibly water (Fig. 7).
mortars [4,5]. These pockets were not found from the control samples evalu-
Micrographic photographs taken to the material were analyzed ated (Fig. 6), corroborating that they were formed by the presence
to compare the microstructure of the concrete with such nopal of nopal mucilage addition in concrete. These sponge-like pockets,
additions. Figs. 6 and 7 present typical SEM micrographs for con- as observed from the taken micrographs, might be working as liq-
trol mixture (Fig. 6) and cNm15 mixture (Fig. 7). As observed from uid traps and diminish water transport rate inside the concrete,
SEM photos taken to the cNm15 mixture, the mucilage had formed corroborated from the eEF index performance obtained in this
several sponge-like open pockets within the pores in the cement investigation (Fig. 3). The TV% did not change, as observed in

6 25
RCP ( x 103 Coulomb )

5
(a) (b)
20
4

εEF ( % )
3 15
2
10
1
0 5
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
ρS ( kΩ - cm ) ρS ( kΩ - cm )

6
RCP ( x 103 Coulomb )

5 CR
4 eNm4
3 eNm8
2 eNm15
1
(c) eNm30
0
5 10 15 20 25
εEF ( % )

Fig. 9. Empirical correlation between qS, eEF, and RCP durability indices for eNm mixtures.

6 25
(b)
RCP ( x 103 Coulomb )

5
(a)
20
εEF ( % )

4
3 15

2
10
1
0 5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

ρS ( kΩ - cm ) ρS ( kΩ - cm )

6
RCP ( x 103 Coulomb )

CR
5
cNm4
4
cNm8
3
cNm15
2
1 cNm30
(c)
0
5 10 15 20 25
εEF ( % )

Fig. 10. Empirical correlation between qS, eEF, and RCP durability indices for cNm mixtures.
 A.A. Torres-Acosta, L. Alejandra Díaz-Cruz / Construction and Building Materials 243 (2020) 118170
Fig. 2, nevertheless the eEF and RCP indices decreased, as observed
from the results obtained in this investigation (Figs. 3 and 5,
respectively) and the water or chloride transport might change in
this nopal added concretes.
To corroborate this decrease in transport phenomena form the
nopal added concretes, Figs. 8 through 10 show the empirical cor-
relations between qS, eEF, and RCP indices. As observed form dNp
mixtures (Fig. 8a) qS vs RCP indices presented small differences
between control mixture data and dNp1/dNp2 mixtures data,
showing a discrete improvement (decrease in both indices). On
the contrary, dNp4 showed the worst transport performance from
all mixtures due to highest RCP and lowest qS durability indices
obtained. In Fig. 8b, a more marked difference between dNp1/
dNp2 mixtures and the control mixture was noticeable: although
qS were in the same order eEF presented difference between these
two mixtures. Same with the empirical correlation between RCP
and eEF (Fig. 8c): dNp1/dNp2 mixtures started with similar perfor-
mance than control mixture, and from 180 days the performance
improved faster than control.
For eNm mixtures in Fig. 9, and cNm mixtures in Fig. 10, well-
defined differences were observed between these added mixtures
and the control. A marginal improvement was observed with the
qS index values (increase between 13% and 25% depending on
the age vs control). Marked PRC index improvement was observed
between nopal added mixtures and the control (PRC index
decrease between 24% and 43% depending on age vs control).
Finally, for the eEF index again a marked improvement of these
added mixtures against the control was observed (decrease
between 17% and 28% depending on age vs control).
6. Conclusions
Based on the results of this experimental investigation with
concrete mixtures with and without nopal additions, the following
conclusions are drawn:
1. The present results cover up to 400 days post fabrication, and
clearly indicate durability improvements from the index evalu-
ated: qS, TV%, eEE, fc, and RCP. These improvements were
observed in concretes containing cooked nopal mucilage
(cNm, all nopal addition levels), exudate nopal mucilage
(eNm15 and eNm30) and dehydrated nopal powder (dNp1
and dNp2).
2. TV% and fc were the least improved indices (<15% improve-
ment) and might be due to the fact that nopal additions neither
react with the hydration products (like a pozzolan) to decrease
the porosity of concrete, nor increase the compressive strength
substantially.
3. qS, eEE, and RCP were the most improved durability indices
when nopal derivatives were added to the concrete mixtures.
This might be due to the action of nopal derivatives as
sponge-like biopolymer within the cement matrix pores. This
acts as a clogging product stopping water and chloride trans-
port into the concrete.
9
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Authors acknowledge E. Ramirez-Vázquez and V. Vázquez-
Galván (Marist Univerity of Queretaro, UMQ); E. Díaz de la Cruz,
N. García Jimenez, and V. Ramón García (Juarez Autonomous
University of Tabasco (UAJT)) for performing some of the tests of
this investigation. The authors greatly acknowladge the funding
provided by SATELSA SA de CV from the project number SAT
01/16 during the 2016 Summer Science Program by UAJT as eco-
nomical support given to the undergraduate students listed above.
The opinions and findings in this paper are those of the author and
not necessarily those of the funding agencies.
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