Extraction Plant Operation

Module 2
Milling, Imbibitions
and
Diffusion
Module 2: Milling, Imbibitions and Diffusion
Table Content
Unit One: Milling Plant .............................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Separation of Juice from Cane ........................................................................................... 8
1.3 Milling Process Development ........................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 The Mill Tandem ........................................................................................................ 8
1.3.2 Development of the Milling Tandem.......................................................................... 9
1.4 The Three-Roller Mill ...................................................................................................... 11
1.5 Mill Rollers ..................................................................................................................... 12
1.5.1.1 Circumferential Grooves ....................................................................................... 16
1.5.1.2 Juice Drainage Grooves ........................................................................................ 17
1.5.1.3 The PERFORMAX TH Drainage ........................................................................... 20
1.5.1.4 Chevron Grooves (See Fig.1.5) ............................................................................ 20
1.6 Roller Scrapers ................................................................................................................. 21
1.7 Arcing of Rollers.............................................................................................................. 22
1.7.1 Description ............................................................................................................... 23
1.7.2 Effectiveness of Roller Arcing................................................................................. 23
1.7.3 Arcing Procedure ..................................................................................................... 24
1.7.4 Electric Power for Arc Welding .............................................................................. 24
1.8 Wear of Rollers ................................................................................................................ 25
1.9 Re-Shelling of Rollers...................................................................................................... 26
Unit Two: Construction of Mills................................................................................................ 28

2.1 Mill Housing ....................................................................................................................... 28
2.2. Mill with Fixed Ratio ..................................................................................................... 29
2.3. Roller Shell Fitting.......................................................................................................... 30
2.4 Roller Diameter Differences ............................................................................................ 30
2.5 Roller Bearings ................................................................................................................ 30
2.5.1 Roller Bearings Advantage ........................................................................................ 33
2.5.2 Roller Flanges ........................................................................................................... 33
2.6. The Trash Plate ................................................................................................................. 34
2.6.1 Trash Plate Setting .................................................................................................... 36
Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 2

2.7 Feeding Devices .............................................................................................................. 37

2.8 Drivers and Gears ............................................................................................................ 38
2.8.1. Mill Drives .................................................................................................................. 38
2.8.1.1.1Turbine Drives ........................................................................................................ 38
2.8.1.2 Electric Drives .................................................................................................... 40
2.8.1.3 Mill Gearing ........................................................................................................... 41
2.9 Hydraulic Pressure ........................................................................................................... 42
Unit Three: Settings in the Mills............................................................................................... 47

3.1 Mill Settings ..................................................................................................................... 47
3.2. Peripheral Speed .............................................................................................................. 48
3.2.1 Hydraulic Loading .................................................................................................... 48
3.2.2 Mill Speed ................................................................................................................. 49
3.2.3 Control ...................................................................................................................... 49
3.3 Setting the Feeder Roller ................................................................................................ 50
3.3.1 The Vertical or Donnelly Chute.............................................................................. 51
3.4 Other Method of Mill Settings ......................................................................................... 51
3.5 Steps to Follow To Calculate Mill Settings ..................................................................... 55
3.6 Mill Extraction ................................................................................................................. 57
3.7 Influence of Cane Quality in Extraction .......................................................................... 57
3.7.2 Fiber and Extraneous Matter ..................................................................................... 57
3.8 Mill Setting By Various Methods ................................................................................... 58
3.9 Performance Indicators ................................................................................................... 65
3.9.1 Brix Extraction ........................................................................................................ 66
3.9.2 Reabsorption Coefficient ........................................................................................ 66
3.9.3 Imbibition Efficiency .............................................................................................. 66
Unit Four: Imbibition ............................................................................................................... 72

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 72
4.2 Imbibition ......................................................................................................................... 75
4.3 Method of Applying Imbibition ....................................................................................... 76
4.3.1 Imbibition Water ...................................................................................................... 76
4.3.2 Unstrained Juice ....................................................................................................... 76

4.4 Point of Application of Imbibition................................................................................. 77

4.5 Hot and Cold Imbibition ................................................................................................ 77
4.6 Influence of Imbibition on Bagasse Moisture................................................................ 78
4.6.1 Optimum Quantity of Imbibition ........................................................................... 78
Chapter Five: Compostion of Mill Juice ................................................................................... 82

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 82
5.2 Influence of Structure of Cane on Milling ....................................................................... 83
5.3 Mills Sanitation ................................................................................................................ 84
5.3.1 Fermentation in Sugar Factory.................................................................................. 84
5.4 Juice Screening .............................................................................................................. 86
5.4.1 Juice Screening Equipments .................................................................................... 86
5.5 Measure of Efficiency of Milling Work ........................................................................ 87
5.5.1 Extraction ............................................................................................................... 87
5.5.2 Reduced Mill Extraction .......................................................................................... 88
5.5.3 Juice Brix Curves ...................................................................................................... 90
5.6 Basic Equation of Milling Control ............................................................................... 92
Unit Six: Start – Up and Shut – Down Procedures of Mill ................................................... 95

6.1 Cane Handling Plant, Preparation and Milling Plant ....................................................... 95
6.2 Mill Steam Turbines ........................................................................................................ 96
6.3 Usual Communication with Other Stations ..................................................................... 97
Unit Seven: Diffusion ................................................................................................................ 99

7.1 Principles of Operation and Definition of Terms ............................................................ 99
7.2 Cane and Bagasse Diffusers........................................................................................... 101
7.3 Types of Diffusers.......................................................................................................... 102
7.4 Construction of a Diffuser ............................................................................................. 102
7.5 Capacity of Diffusers ..................................................................................................... 105
7.6 The Layout of Diffusers ................................................................................................. 106
7.7 The Power and Steam Consumption of Diffusers.......................................................... 107
7.8 The Operation of Diffusers ............................................................................................ 108
7.8.1 Particle Size ............................................................................................................. 108
7.8.2 Temperature ............................................................................................................. 109

7.8.3 Retention Time........................................................................................................ 110

7.8.4 Imbibition................................................................................................................ 110
7.8.5 pH........................................................................................................................... 110
7.8.6 Percolation Rate ..................................................................................................... 110
7.9 Press Water Treatment ................................................................................................ 111
7.10 The Effect of Diffusion on Other Factory Operations ................................................ 112
7.11 Moving Screen and Fixed Screen Diffusers ............................................................... 112
7.12 Cane Preparation ......................................................................................................... 113
7.13 Effect on Operations ................................................................................................... 114
7.14 Microbiological Losses in Mills and Diffusers ........................................................... 116
7.14.1 Measurement of Microbiological Losses ............................................................... 117
7.15 Conclusions of a Comparison of Milling and Diffusion ............................................ 118
7.16 Comparative Cost of Diffusers and Mills .................................................................. 119

Module Introduction
Dear trainees! I welcome you to module two of the course “Cane Sugar Manufacturing” It is the
continuation of module one. In this module we will discuss the Milling Plant, Imbibitions and
Diffusion.
The module is divided into seven units. The first unit deals with the importance of milling in
sugar industry. It deals mainly about the working principle of rollers, the different types of
grooving and arcing. It also deals about the wear and tear of milling roller.
The second unit of the module focuses on the issues of types of mill housing, working principles
of roller bearing, trash plate. In addition it discusses about feeding devices. It also deals about
mill drives, milling gears and hydraulic pressure.
The third unit of this module is devoted on the setting in the milling. It describes about the
factors that influences a mill settings and steps to flow to calculate the mill setting. Finally it
deals about performance indicator of the mill and comparison of the mill extraction efficiency.
The fourth unit deals about imbibitions. The main ideas discussed in this unit include, types of
imbibitions, hot and cold imbibitions, effects of amount of imbibitions water in the operation and
points of application of imbibitions.
The fifth unit of the module deals about composition of mill juice. Other ideas that are discussed
include influence of cane fibre on the extraction, mill sanitation and fermentation processes,
measure of mill efficiency and basic equation for mill control.
The sixth unit of this module deals about the startup and shutdown procedures of mill.
The seventh unit, the last unit of the module describes the second type of extraction, diffusion. It
explain terms used in cane diffusion and discuss factors which influences the operational
performance of a diffuser. In addition to these it deals about the average conditions of a
horizontal bed diffuser and compare the cost of installation and extraction of diffuser with mills.

Unit One
The Milling Plant
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:
Describe briefly the importance of milling in sugar industry.
Identify the two known methods of extracting juice from sugar cane.
Explain the working principle of the three roller mills and differentiate the top, feed
and delivery roller.
Discuss the three major types of grooves on milling rollers
Describe briefly the advantages and disadvantages of variation in grooving along the
tandem.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type of grooving.
Explain briefly the importance of arcing and its draw back.
Describe the major problems (causes) for the wear and tear of milling rollers.
1.1 Introduction
Milling is the process by which pressure is applied to the prepared cane to extra as much juice as
possible from it. The cane is made to pass through a succession of rollers that comprises the
milling tandem, and its juice is squeezed out as it goes through. To help to extract the maximum
juice, use of imbibitions water is made. The extracted juice is sent to process and the fibrous
material left after milling, known as final bagasse, is sent to the boilers to be used as fuel for the
generation of steam.

1.2 Separation of Juice from Cane
The sugar content of cane is dissolved in juice contained in millions of plant cells. There are two
different systems of extracting the sugar containing juice from the cane. Such methods of
Extraction are: -
a) By means of pressure in a number of mills provided with three rollers through which the
cane is forced.
b) By means of diffusion, extracting juice by applying heat and immersion in water and
squeezing of the bagasse. The oldest system of juice separation is by means of mills.
Diffusion technology developed only after the process was made continuous rather than
batch, in the 1950’s
1.3 Milling Process Development
After preparatory process, the cane is grind by mills. Extraction of juice from cane has always
been effected mainly by pressure. At primitive dates two roller mills were used. These were
replaced by vertical three-roll mills set vertically in a straight line. Such mills were recorded in
western world in 1449, which were driven by animal, wind or waterpower. On the latter days of
the 18th Century, three-roll mills with horizontal rollers became general which is similar to that
of the modern one. In 1871, ROUSSELOT introduced the modern design, which has been the
basis of most mills constructed since. In the same year, hydraulic loading of mill rollers was also
employed for the first time.
Multiple milling with imbibition is a comparatively recent development, and the 1st recorded
three mill trains were installed in Louisiana and Australia in 1892. The introduction of steam as
driving force, at the end of 18th century made larger mills possible.
1.3.1 The Mill Tandem
The classic combination of three rollers arranged in triangular form is the standard milling unit
used in the cane milling process. The mill tandem may comprise from three such three-roller

units to seven. Each mill unit may be driven, by a separate drive, either with an electric motor or
a steam turbine. More than one mill tandem is not uncommon in large modern factories.
1.3.2 Development of the Milling Tandem
A milling tandem used to be prepared by a crusher consisting of two rollers in housing through
which cane, whole or knifed, was passed.
The two best known of these two-roller crushers were:
a) The KRAJEWSKI (See Fig: 1.1 (a)), with longitudinal zigzag grooving, and
b) The FULTON (See Fig. 1.1 (b)), with circular grooving.
Figure 1.1 (a): KRAJEWSKI Crusher Roller

Figure 1.1 (b): FULTON Crusher Roller (Fives Lille – Cail)
The purpose of these crushers was to complete the preparation of the cane and extract a fair
proportion of the juice ahead of the milling tandem.
With the development of cane preparation technology, the two-roller crushers gave way to the
three-roller crusher, which was constructed as a three-roller mill but using larger roller grooving
and wider setting. The three-roller crusher allowed for increased capacity and further
improvement in the preparation of the cane. Similarity to the two-roller unit, it precedes the 1st
mill.
With the introduction of heavy-duty knives and shredders and therefore a higher level of cane
preparation, the three-roller crusher was soon converted to become the 1st mill of the tandem. A
modern milling tandem today may consist of four to seven mills.

1.4 The Three - Roller Mill

The three-roller mill consists of three horizontal rollers arranged in a triangular form is the
standard milling unit for the industry. From 3 to 7 sets of such three rollers units described 9
rollers to 21 roller mills are in use. Today combinations of 15 to 18 rollers predominate
throughout the world.
Normally the top roller is driven from the prime mover through reduction gearing and the two
lower rollers by pinions meshing with pinion mounted on the top roller. Thus, the top roller
drives the other two.
The three rolls are known as:-
Top Roll
Feed Roll, Cane Roll, Entering Roll, Front Roll
Delivery Roll, Discharge Roll, Bagasse Roll, Back Roll.
The two bottom rollers are rigidly fixed on position. The top roll controlled by a hydraulic ram,
may rise or fall or float with the variation in feed of cane.
The crushed cane called bagasse is guided from the opening between the top roll and feed roll to
that between the top roll and discharge roll by a curved plate variously called trumplate, trash
plate or trash turner, supported by a heavy steel trash plate bar.
The cane is crushed twice in a three-roll mill, first between the top and feed rollers and then with
heavier pressure, between top and delivery rollers, which are set closer together. The pressure at
the back (delivery) roller is much higher than that at the front roller.

Originally, the three rollers were fixed relative to each other, so that the pressure between rollers
was determined by the thickness of the layer of bagasse. It increased when the feed was
increased and decreased when the feed was thinner. Thus, the milling result varied according to
the layer of feed. Later most mills are provided with hydraulic loading to the top roller. This
enable the roller to lift with increasing feed so that a constant pressure is maintained independent
of the lift of the roller and the thickness of the feed.
The Cane Mill
A standard mill consists of three-rollers supported in metal housings. So–called four or six roller
mills are actually three-roller mills with additional rollers arranged as feeding devices. Mills are
driven individually or in pairs. Independent drives present the great advantage of allowing
variable speeds of the different mills.
In order to understand the working of mills and their operation, it is essential to briefly describe
the main components of a mill. Theses comprise: mill rollers, mill housings, the trash plate and
the feeding devices. Subsequently we shall look at the settings, which are specific for mills, trash
plates and feeders.
1.5 Mill Rollers

These consist of cylindrical cast iron shells heat-shrunk onto steel shafts (See Figs.1.2 (a – e)).
The shells can be also keyed to the shafts. The shells vary in diameter from 711 mm in older
mills to 1,168 mm in modern units. Lengths are from 1,371 mm to 2,134 mm. In Australia,
rollers of 1,375 mm in diameter and 2,750 mm long weighing 42 tonnes have been installed.

Figure 1.2 (a): Standard Housing (Mill Rollers)
Figure 1.2 (b): Squire Housing (Mill Rollers)

Figure 1.2 (c): Standard Inclined Housing (Mill Rollers)
Figure 1.2 (d): Five Housing Model C46 (Mill Rollers)

Figure 1.2 (e): Constant-Ratio Housing (Fives Lille-Cail F63) (Mill Rollers)
Multi-roller mills may have one to three additional rolls depending on their feeding
arrangements. The Australian Walker-Mill has a two–roller pressure feeding systems and is
classified as a five-roller mill. Most mills have one under feed roller as a normal feed
arrangement and are known as four–roller mills.
The roller shells are usually of high–grade open–grained cast iron, which gives them the rough
surface required to prevent slipping.
1.5.1 Roller Grooving
There are three types of grooving:
Circumferential Grooves,
Juice Drainage Grooves and
Chevron Grooves.

1.5.1.1 Circumferential Grooves
Circumferential grooves are cut in “V”– sections along the roller surface, perpendicular to the
roller axis. The grooving of the three rollers is arranged in such a way that the teeth of the top
roller mesh with the grooves of the two bottom rollers. The angle at which the grooves are cut
varies from 35 to 550, while the pitch varies between 25 mm and 75 mm, 45 mm to 50 mm being
more common.
In certain countries, there is a variation of grooving along the tandem, the size of the grooves
diminishing from the first to the last mill. The main reasons for this are:
a) Since the bagasse finer and finer as it proceeds down the tandem, it is logical to have
smaller grooves.
b) The disintegrating effect of the grooves on the coarse bagasse has been achieved in the
early mills. The later mills benefit most from it to have a better juice extraction with finer
grooves.
c) Coarse grooving cannot accomplish satisfactory work when the grooves are worn out,
especially at the later mills.
This variation in grooving along the tandem has the disadvantage of having rollers different
surfaces, which therefore cannot be interchanged in case of necessity. Hence, spare rollers of
different surfaces, which therefore cannot be interchanged in case of necessity. Hence, spare
rollers of different size grooving have to be kept.
Advantages of Circumferential Grooves
Due to the triangular shape of the grooves, the surface area is increased, thus providing the
rollers with a better grip on the bagasse. There is also a shearing action on the bagasse caused by
the difference in peripheral speed between the base and the apex of the grooves.

1.5.1.2 Juice Drainage Grooves
These are better known as MESSCHAERT grooves, which are cut at the bottom of the
circumferential grooves at regular spacing to promote drainage; this is a design feature of the
feed rollers.
When the cane mat is being compressed by the top and feed roller, the expressed juice has only
two ways out:
a) Forward with the roller, beyond the trash plate.

b) Backward, against the direction of the bagasse.
But in either direction, the already compressed thick layer of bagasse prevents the juice flow.
This is where the messchaert grooves help to allow this expressed juice out. Messchaerts can be
provided in two ways:
a) By eliminating a tooth and locating the Messchaert in the position of the missing tooth.
b) By leaving all the teeth, and cutting the Messchaert between two teeth
In this last system, the loss of a tooth is avoided.
Dimension of Messchaerts
Messchaerts are from 5 to 20 mm wide with a depth of between 20 to 50 mm, depending on the
volume of juice to be handled. The pitch varies with that of the circumferential grooves and also
with the amount of juice to be handled (See Figs.1.3 (a – d)).
.
In order to prevent bagasse filling the grooves and impairing drainage, it is necessary to install
scrapers.
These are made of flat iron bars mounted on a steel bar opposite each Messchaert. They are
positioned so that the scraping edge is at an angle of about 300 with the roller surface and secured
to the supporting bar so as to reach the centre of the groove without rubbing against the sides.

Figure 1.3 (a): Dimensions of Messchaerts
Figure 1.3 (b): Roller Shaft and Shell, Top Roller, 84 in. × 42 in. (Walker Ltd.)

Figure 1.3 (c): Formation of a Messchaert Groove by Elimination of a Tooth
Figure 1.3 (d): Formation of a Messchaert without Eliminating a Tooth
Advantages of Messchaerts
a) They increase milling capacity by improved drainage of the juice.
b) They improve the extraction by allowing a higher amount of juice to be removed by the
front roller. They also allow higher imbibitions rates in some cases.
Disadvantages of Messchaerts
If used on delivery rollers in the case of grooves cut by the elimination of one tooth,
uncompressed bagasse with a higher Pol and moisture would be delivered with the bagasse. This
is NOT acceptable at the last mil.

1.5.1.3 The PERFORMAX TH Drainage
The PERFORMAX TH Drainage collect extra via hundred of surface perforations and connecting
drainage channels inside the shell body (See Fig .1.4).
Through-the shell drainage avenues never available with conventional rolls
Figure 1.4: The PERFORMAX TH Drainage
1.5.1.4 Chevron Grooves (See Fig.1.5)
These are longitudinal grooves cut along the length of a roller. They are spaced about 200 mm
apart and are inclined between 160 and 250 from the horizontal, cut from the centre line of the
roller to each end; they are about half the depth of the “V”-grooves. They are installed mainly on
the feed roller to improve feeding and never on the delivery roller. However, they have the
disadvantage of reducing the effective surface pressure of the roller and allowing bagasse to drop

into the juice tray of the mill. They are not indispensable, according to Hugot, and following the
development of feeding devices and the introduction of roller arcing, they are rarely in use today.
Figure 1.5: Chevrons Feeder Roller, Messchaert Scraper (Hydraulic Plungers Removed)
1.6 Roller Scrapers

Scrapers are made of cast iron or special alloy steels and are fitted to the top and delivery rollers.
Their purpose is to scratch off the baggasse caught in the circumferential grooves (See Fig .1.6).
They are made of a thick steel plate attached to a square shaft and having a removable cast iron
or special alloy scraper tip, which comes into contact with the roller surface. The tips are
machine-cut to match the grooving on the rollers. The scrapers have adjusting levers, which
allow their correct setting against the rollers.

Figure 1.6: Position of Scrapers
1.7 Arcing of Rollers

This is the practice of applying, by arc welding, granules of metal from specific electrodes to the
roller surface to increase its grip on the bagasse and reduce or eliminate slippage (See Fig.1.7).
Arc welding has completely replaced carbon arcing in South Africa; whereas carbon arcing
removes material from the roller surface, arc welding adds material to the latter. This method
results in less roller wear and a longer life.
Figure 1.7: Arcing of Rollers

1.7.1 Description
Welding rods consists of a mild steel core, while various additives are contained in the coating or
flux. The electrodes currently used in South Africa are chromium based (e.g.: CR70, CRM70 and
SA 100).
1.7.2 Effectiveness of Roller Arcing
It is not easy to find a measure of the effectiveness of roller arcing. Extraction certainly does not
qualify as being particularly affected by the level of imbibition. The moisture % bagasse is also
not ideal since it depends on a combination of factors but it is the best measure available. Fig. 1.8
shows the final bagasse moistures for the industry from 1969 until 1991.
Figure 1.8: Final Bagasse Moisture
The effect of arcing on bagasse moistures is particularly prominent from 1975 to 1978 when the
industry changed from the old carbon arcing to arc welding and the moisture dropped by almost
two points from 53.5 % to 51.6 %. In the latter roughening of the rolls is done by adding material
to the rollers rather than removing material from them. The new method has the additional

advantage of less roll wear and therefore a longer life. The high bagasse moisture of 53.2 % in
the 1983 season coincides with a severe drought and must be attributed to that.
1.7.3 Arcing Procedure
Arc welding with hard facing rods is applied to tips and flanks of the roller circumferential
grooves, while the mills are in operation. Workers are specially trained in this field. They have to
use special equipment to protect their eyes from the brightness of the arc, as well as to protect
exposed parts of their bodies.
Conclusions
Since their introduction in the mid seventies, the chromium based hard facing electrodes have
served the industry well. It is however remarkable that after more than 15 years the use of these
rods does not show any uniformity or standard. The consumption of arcing rods per ton of cane,
per ton of fiber and per man-hour varies enormously. On the electrical side it is particularly the
arcing current that shows vast differences from factory to factory. It appears that there is a
relationship between electrode consumption and the current on the one hand and bagasse
moistures on the other; This means that there is room for improvement resulting not only in
lower bagasse moistures but also in a higher extraction and the better utilization of consumables
and manpower.
1.7.4 Electric Power for Arc Welding
Arc welding can be done using alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). For the hard
facing of mill rollers made of cast iron with the above named electrodes, suppliers have a
preference for DC+ (electrode + Ve), or AC and a current between 140 and 190 amps, with a
minimum open circuit voltage of 70 volts.
Costs
Costs can only be given here in comparing the Kg of rod per 1,000 tonnes of fiber, versus
moisture % of bagasse. A survey done at all mills in South Africa shows the following:

Mills Moisture % Bagasse Rod (Kg) 100 Tonnes Fiber

PG (PONGOLA) 45.00 49.00
SZ (SEZELA) 48.50 25.00
GH (GLEDHOW) 50.00 15.00
FX (FELIXTON) 51.80 15.00
MS (MADISTONE) 54.00 9.00
From the above data, it appears that the higher moisture % bagasse corresponds to the lowest
consumption of electrodes. For the same factors, the amount of rods used per man-hour of labor
is as follows:
Mills Moisture % Bagasse Rod (Kg) Man-Hour (Labour)

PG (PONGOLA) 44.92 1.07
SZ (SEZELA) 48.74 0.25
GH (GLEDHOW) 50.23 1.82
FX (FELIXTON) 51.87 1.90
MS (MADISTONE) 54.00 0.35
These values are for diffuser de-watering mills. It can be seen that consumption of rods varies
enormously.
1.8 Wear of Rollers

According to Hougot, the causes of roller wear are:
a) Corrosion of the metal due to the low pH of the juice.
b) The friction of the cane and the bagasse.
c) The friction caused by scrapers on the top and delivery rollers.
d) The breakage of teeth by tramp iron, etc.
e) The necessity to re-shapes the rollers drown to its proper cylindrical form after two or
three campaigns (mainly in the tropics).

The useful life of rollers depends, therefore, on the amount of wear sustained during crushing i.e.
6.5 - 13 mm per 100,000 tonnes of cane according to Tromp and 4 to 5 % of its original
diameter.
1.9 Re-Shelling of Rollers

A worn roller may be given a new life by replacing the worn shell by a new shell. This practice
is called re-shelling and is very often carried out by large industrial workshops equipped for the
purpose. Re-shelling of a worn roller depends also on the condition of the shaft on which the
shell is fitted. Ultrasonic tests are generally made to detect cracks in the shaft prior to re-shelling.
A South African organization has been conducting such tests in Mauritius, Reunion and other
countries in Africa for many years.

Self Check Exercises
1. What are the different types of grooving that can be seen on the top, feed and delivery
roller? (Stress on their importance).
2. Explain the importance of drainage and how it can be improved.
3. Give the advantage and disadvantage of Messchaert grooving.
4. Describe briefly the main causes of wear of a roller in a mill.
5. Give the advantage and disadvantage of chevron grooving.
6. Describe the important measures and precaution to be taken with the setting of scraper
(Top and Discharge) roller setting.
7. Give the advantage and disadvantage of Arcing.
8. Describe the important measures and precaution to be taken with the setting of Messhaert
knives settings.
9. Explain some of the parameters that influence the performance of milling plant.
10. Discuss the multi-roller in compare to the conventional three roller mills.
11. Explain the importance of scraper and where they are fitted.
12. Describe the position of scraper on the mill rollers.
13. Explain the working procedure for arcing.
14. Discuss the effectiveness of arcing.
15. Describe the re-shelling process and the precaution to be taken.

Unit Two
Construction of Mills
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit training the trainees will be able to:
Differentiate the different types of mill housing.
Explain the working principles of the roller bearing and its advantage. .
Discuss the purpose and uses of the trash plate.
Describe briefly the steps to follow for the trash plate setting.
Discuss the different types the feeding devices that are used for sugar cane mill.
Elaborate and explain the working principles of the two mill drives and discuss the
advantage and disadvantages of each system.
Explain briefly the uses of mill gearing and hydraulic pressure.
2.1 Mill Housing

The side frames of mills are called “Milling Housings or Mill Cheeks”. The classical type of
housing has two long bolts set near the vertical called “king bolts”. These bolts opposed the
lifting force of the top roller, transmitted to the mill “caps” by the hydraulic plunger and the oil
pressure. But in more recent mill housing designs, the king bolts have been eliminated and are
replaced by two gudgeons with secure the main sections of the housing to the base, e.g. “Squire
Housing” (See Fig. 1.2 (a – e) and Fig. 2.1)
.
Another modern trend is to incline the planes of adjustment of the lower rollers in such a way
that the setting of front and back roller openings and the take up of roller wear may be effected
without altering the top angle of the mill.

The standard housing is symmetrical. If it fractures it is merely always on the delivery side.
Certain designers take into account, the difference b/n the reaction at the delivery and feed rollers
by constructing housings with inclined mountings for the top rollers.
Figure 2.1: Continuous Pressure Feeder (Walkers Ltd)
2.2. Mill with Fixed Ratio

Instead of letting the plunger to rise or fall in a straight line, the top roller is loaded by means of a
cap which pivots about the axis situated, that the feed opening opens or closes by an amount
approximately double the change in the delivery opening, since the ratio “M” is 2 or about that
figure. It does not vary much less than with classical housings, where the displacements of the
two rollers are equal or with inclined housing displacements are in the ratio of 0.7.

The hydraulic plunger is at the same time located on the feed side of the housing. The benefit of
the rever arm permits a reduction of its cross-section by half, but its movement is doubled.
This type of design offers the advantage that the power absorbed is reduced, due to the
movement of top roller and friction on the side of the mill cap is replaced by rotation on the axis
with a hinge movement.
In recent model, the feed roller is placed lower than the delivery roller; which facilitates the flow
of juice extracted by the two lower rollers.
2.3. Roller Shell Fitting

A mill roller consists of a hollow cylindrical shell of cast iron containing some steel placed while
hot on a shaft of forged steel. The shrinkage allowed is generally 1/1000 or sometimes 0.0008
mm. The roller is placed on the shell by heating it to a dull red hot and lowering it into the
shaft, which is cooled with water. Precise uniformity and control of the temperature of heating
are very essential to the success of this fixing process.
2.4 Roller Diameter Differences

Many designers give the delivery roller a larger diameter than the other two rollers. The
difference being 4.5 %. The feed opening being greater than the delivery opening, this permits
retaining of eccentrics to adjust the bearings of the feed and delivery rollers. The delivery roller
wear age is high, more rapidly than the feed roller.
2.5 Roller Bearings

Roller bearings are generally of bronze, or white metal/gun metal. The composition of bronze is
rather variable, typical example is Cu 84 %, Sn 10 %, Zn 3 %, Pb 3 % and brinell hardness
about 85.

These are expensive items, since they are provided with passages for the circulation of cooling
water, and designed grooves for oil lubrication of the bearing surfaces.
Antifriction bearings of white metal have the advantage that they can be easily re-metalled/
casted at the factory cite. On the other side they never heat up, they fail without warning, ever if
the cooling water fails.
Roller shafts are supported at both ends by bearings encased in the mill housing. (See Fig. 2.2 (a
– c)). Most mills use bronze bearings with a white metal bearing surface. The white metal is
GM120 and is composed of:
Tin: 10 – 13 %
Antimony: 13 – 15 %
Lead: 75 %
For ease of operation and lower operating costs, use is now made of replacement liners. Care
must be taken to efficiently lubricate and cool these bearing. Roller bearings are installed in
some modern mills. They consume less power (lower friction) and they do not cause wear on
shafts. As they are packed in grease, they afford great saving in lubricating oil and its distribution
system. Water-cooling is not required. Initial costs are high.
Figure 2.2 (a): Sliding Bearing of Top Roller

Figure 2.2 (b): Lower Roller Brass (Shell Slightly Displaced to Show Water Circulation
Passage)
Figure 2.2 (c): Lubrication of a Mill Bearing

2.5.1 Roller Bearings Advantage
Lubrication should be effected by a groove placed alone the surface at about 450 a head of the
max. Pressure zone beveled on the side towards the shaft rotation. It’s wider at the center than at
the extremities. It’s important to feed more lubricant to the center, since the pressure forces it
towards the ends.
Oil consumption varies between 0.06 to 0.1 L/B/hr. The oil should have certain viscosity at
certain temperature 40 0C. It should contain additives (Sulphur/Phosphorus 4.5 %, antifoaming
agent 0.5 %).
It’s important that the top bearings should have long guides. They must not bind when top roller
tends to lift. It’s good to lubricate surfaces by special oil inlet or provide inserted plates of
special material, going low friction coefficient.
Roller bearings have got the following:
Large Reduction in Power Consumption (1/6)
Elimination of Cooling System
Elimination of Control Lubrication (Packed with Grease)
Reduction in Consumption of Lubricants
2.5.2 Roller Flanges
The flanges are always fixed to the top roller. Generally 12 – 18 studs are used to fix the flange
to the roller. The flanges become worn and it is necessary to re-machine their inner faces at the
end of the season.
The clearance maintained between the flanges of top roller and lateral faces of the bottom two
rollers, is about 1.5 mm. The purpose of the clearance is to permit unequal lift of the top roller,
without the risk of jamming, when a foreign material passes toward one end of the rollers.

2.6. The Trash Plate

The purpose of the trash plate is to act as a bridge between the front and delivery rollers. It
conducts the bagasse from the front roller to the rear mill opening in a continuous flow, with as
little friction as possible. It is supported by the trash bar. The trash plate has to be of specific
design and its correct setting will ensure smooth and continuous operation of a mill. The setting
of the trash plate will be discussed in a subsequent section. Trash plates are made of cast steel,
cast iron or malleable iron. Cast steel is more common due to a longer life and less friction.
Trash plates have teeth cut in front to match the grooving in the feed rollers. The top of the teeth
as well as the surface of the plate are hard faced. Trash plates wear mainly at the front, at the
teeth and on the surface. The wear on the surface of the trash plate in contact with the feed roller
surface needs to be adjusted regularly by “pulling in” the trash plate (See Fig. 2.2 (a) and Fig. 2.2
(b)). When the wear causes a big gap between the trash plate and back roll resulting in bagasse
droppings, packing plates are sometimes bolted to the back of the trash plate.

Figure 2.2 (a): Trash Plate
Figure 2.2 (b): Setting Trash Plate Profile

2.6.1 Trash Plate Setting
The determination of the trash plate profile is another important component of the settings in a
mill (See Fig .3.1 (b)). The method given here for this determination is based on a paper by Van
Hangel and Dowes Dekker entitled “Some Notes on the Setting and Operation of Mills”.
Proc.S.A.S.T.A.1958. The profile of the trash plate is arrived as follows:
1. Draw to scale the 3 rollers of the mill, the top roller being in its lowest position, so that
the radical distance between the top and the back roll is the discharge set opening (“Ds”)
and the distance between the top and front roller is the feed set opening (“Fs”).
2. Draw the vertical through centre (“A”) of the top roller and set the new centre (“A1”) of
the top roller in the working position i.e. by adding 30 % of the maximum lift of the top
roller.
3. Draw a line connecting centre (“A1”) of the top roller to (“B”), the centre of the feed
roller. Draw an angle of 130 with line (“A”, “B”) to intersect the mean radius of the feed
roller at point (“E”).
4. Establish (“D”) by calculation and measure back from top roller centre line.
D = 0.05 (R + Fs), Where/ “R” = Mean Radius of the Roller.
5. Draw a horizontal line through (“A1”) and measure distance “D” on it to give point
(“C”), which is the centre of a circle with radius (“C E”).
6. Draw the arc of circle from (“E”) to the end of the trash plate, which is 12 mm from the
lip of the back roller. This establishes the divergent sweep of the trash plate.
7. Round off trash plate nose to root of feed roll grooves by taking radius (“X Y”) and
tracing are (“E X”).
8. Draw in trash plate nose bottom to be at a tangent with the feed roll at (“X”).
9. Finish off the underside of the trash plate to fit the dumb turner or trash bar.

2.7 Feeding Devices

Feeding devices have been developed over the years to ensure continuous feeding of cane and
bagasse to the mills (See Fig. 2.1). With increasing though puts and higher imbibitions rates,
forced feeding of mills is essential. The most used feeding devices are:
The DONELLY Chute
The Underfeed Roller
The Walker Type Pressure Feeder
a) The DONNELY Chutes: They are fitted to most mills. They are 3 to 6 m tall and allow
the bagasse to be forced into the mill under its own weight. They are also used in
conjunction with feeder rollers.
b) The Underfeed Roller: is often smaller diameter than the mill rollers and is positioned
above the feed roll. They are grooved as the mill and are driven from either the feed roll
by chain and sprockets, or from the top roll by gears. Their peripheral speed is equal to
that of the mill rolls. The installation of a feeder roller results in a 4 –roller mill.
c) The Pressure Feeder: It was designed in Australia where it is used throughout the
industry. Its purpose is to improve the feeing of finely prepared bagasse with high levels
of hot imbibitions. Pressure feeders are mostly used on the last mill especially on the
diffuser dewatering mills.
A pressure feeder consists of two feeder rolls of the same diameter as mill rolls and provided
with juice grooves. The rollers discharge the bagasse into a reinforced pressure chute connected
to the mill fed opening. The chute is lined with stainless steel to reduce wear.
Juice extracted by the two rollers is collected in a trough and directed to the mill juice tray.
Feeder rollers have resulted in a 5 roller mill but when an underfeed roll is installed a 6-roller
mill is obtained.

2.8 Drivers and Gears

The steam engines have given way to more efficient and powerful systems, namely steam
turbines and electric motors: In some mills hydraulic drivers are also used. (See Figs 2.3 (a – c))
2.8.1. Mill Drives
Mill drives consist of two parts, the prime mover (turbine, electric motor, etc.) and reduction
gearing. Although much work has been done in the past to ensure that mills are provided with the
most efficient and economical prime movers, there has been a tendency to follow the turbine
route, with scant attention being paid to the advantages of electrical and hydraulic drives.
Turbines seem to have all the advantages for operation on sugar mills such as variable speed,
quick response and constant torque. However installation cost and maintenance tend to be high.
There is a variety of electrical drives in the industry. They are much more efficient and lower in
maintenance but quite costly and less flexible. The prime mover normally drives the top roll of
the mill via a reduction gearbox. The top roll, in turn, drives the feed and discharge rolls using
heavy pinions. Some experiments were done to operate the mill without a discharge pinion and
let the bagasse do the driving. This was however never pursued.
2.8.1.1.1 Turbine Drives
Turbine drives are most in use today. They have the following advantages:
a) Reduced space required for installations
b) Variable speed possibility down to 25 % of full speed
c) Good starting torque and constant torque when operating
d) Avoid the double transformation and transmission of energy as for electrical motor.

Figure 2.3 (a): Ordinary Spur Gearing (BMA)
Figure 2.3 (b): Double Helical Gearing (Fives Cail – Babcock)

Figure 2.3 (c): Helicoidal Gearing (Fives Cail – Babcock)
2.8.1.2 Electric Drives
Electric motors are sometimes used as prime movers (See Fig.2.4). They are not widely used in
Australia and South Africa. Nowadays, however, as a result of a project for the increased supply
of power to the National Grid, other factories are replacing steam driven turbines by electric
motors. These have the following advantages:
a) Steam piping to turbines is eliminated

b) Lower operational and maintenance costs.
c) Central control panel, ease of control.
Some of their disadvantages are:
a) High cost of installation.
b) Loss of energy through double transformation of energy (steam to mechanical in the

turbo set; mechanical into electrical in the alternator; electrical into mechanical by the
mill motor).
c) Necessity for specialized personnel.

Figure 2.4: Mill Tandem with Electric Drive
2.8.1.3 Mill Gearing
Gears are necessary to reduce the speed of prime movers to that of the mill rollers. A steam
turbine runs between 4,500 and 5,000 rpm and requires several stages of speed reduction to the
mill roller speeds of between 3 – 6 rpm. The first stage of gearing is incorporated with the
turbine; the second stage is an enclosed separate unit, the output of which drives one or two
stages of spur gearing. Double helical gearing is used for high speeds (1st and 2nd stages). They
are of high quality steel machined to very precise tolerances and require special lubricating
systems.

2.9 Hydraulic Pressure

Originally, the rollers of a mill were fixed and the pressure exerted on the bagasse depended on
the thickness of the bagasse mat. The pressure then varied with the crushing rate and the
extraction of the juice varied accordingly (See Figs. 2.5, 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8).
With the introduction of hydraulic pressure, a constant pressure is always applied to the bagasse
independent of lift of the top roller and variations in feed. Today hydraulic pressure is
universally applied thought the world.
Modern mills have the top roller hydraulic loaded. This requires the roller and its bearings to lift
or float in the housing; the upper bearings receive the pressure exerted by the hydraulic pistons
sliding in the cylinders. Pressure is supplied by an accumulator containing oil under pressure.
The most common type today is the Edwards accumulator installed for each ram, allowing easy
individual pressure adjustments. In some designs hydraulic pressure is applied to the roller
instead.
Figure 2.5 (a): Edwards Accumulator with Rubber Bladder (Edwards Eng. Corp.)

Figure 2.5 (a): Air – Oil Accumulator Sectional View (Fives Lille – Cail)
Figure 2.5 (b): Section of a Hydraulic Cup

Figure 2.6: Resolution of Forces in a Mill
Figure 2.7: Pressure Volume Graph (Shannon)

Graph 1, 2 and 3 are for different degrees of preparation
Graph 4 is for Rapid Application of Pressure

Figure 2.8: Pictorial Representation of Bagasse Extruded from a Mill

1. With the help of sketch explain the position of the trash plate and explain how it
influence the milling performance.
2. Elaborate briefly on the factor contributing in power consumption in a mill train.
3. Draw and explain the lay out position of trash plate in conventional standard vertical
mill housing fitting with three rollers. Indicate also the height of the trash plate that is
recommended at work and at rest.
4. Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of steam turbine and electrical motor to
drive a mill.
5. How can the position of trash plate influence the performance of a mill?
6. Discuss the important measures of precaution to be taken with the setting of trash
plate.
7. Discuss the important measures of precaution to be taken with the setting of mill
bearing.
8. Explain the reason for the roller diameter difference.
9. Explain the working principle of the hydraulic pressure.
10. What are the precautions taken while roller shells are fitted?
11. Describe the three types of feeding devices.
12. Explain the working principle of mill gearing.
13. Discuss the advantage or disadvantages of the electrical drives of mills
14. Explain the materials out of which the trash plates are made of.
15. Explain the materials out of which the roller bearings are made of.

Unit Three
Settings in the Mill
Unit Objectives
Explain the factors that influence a mill setting or mill setting depends on.
Discuss the steps to flow to calculate the mill settings. .
Calculate based on the steps, the mill setting of a given mill.
Define terms like Fibre Loading, Delivery Set Opening, Delivery Work Opening,
Feed Set Opening, Feed Work Opening.
Describe the influence of cane quality in mill extraction.
Define terms like Fibre Index, Work Ratio, Escribed Volume and Escribed Area.
Compare the mill extraction of different mills performance.
Describe the influence of cane quality in mills extraction.
Explain the different performance indicator of a mill.
3.1 Mill Settings

The mill settings consist more generally of the settings of the three main rolls, the Donnelly
chute, the underfeed roll, the pressure feeder and the trash plate.
Both discharge and feed work openings are calculated using "fiber fills". Whichever method one
chooses the most important point is that the mill lifts, after which the only parameter that can be
manipulated and therefore has an effect on milling performance is the ratio between the
discharge and feed work openings, this ratio which is normally around two. At present smaller
ratios are found where engineers are experimenting with Sullivan's theory that extraction should
be done more on the front rolls leaving the back rolls to counteract the reabsorption. The opening

of a Donnelly chute at the exit is normally between 8 arid 10 times the discharge roll work
opening for the last mill. The settings for underfeed rolls and pressure feeders are usually 6 and 3
times the discharge work opening respectively. Although there appears to be as many ways of
setting trash plates as there are mills, the differences are not great. The most important features
are the height of the trash plate and the percentage drop over the length of the trash plate called
the sweep. Recognizing the fact that the actual pressing should be left to the rolls rather than to
the trash plate, the present tendency is to put for lower settings. The sweep is of the order of 4 to
5 %.
To obtain the best performance from mills not only do their have to be set properly but also the
vertical chutes, the underfeed rolls, the pressure feeders and the trash plates.
3.2. Peripheral Speed
3.2.1 Hydraulic Loading
Originally the three rollers of a mill were fixed relative to each other. The pressure was then
determined by the layer of bagasse passing through the mill. It increased with increasing
throughput and decreased when the throughput dropped. The milling results varied accordingly.
The greatest disadvantage of this system was associated with the passage of foreign bodies such
as tramp iron or rocks. This led to the introduction of a floating top roll held under pressure by
oil acting on hydraulic rams. This enables the top roll to lift with increasing feed while
maintaining a constant pressure independent of lift and/or feed. Some mills also have, apart from
this floating top roll, a floating discharge roll. The oil pressure is maintained by means of an
accumulator of which the most common one to date is the Edwards accumulator. The average
hydraulic system for a mill is designed for oil pressures between 25 and 35 MPa. The normal
operating pressure is somewhat lower and is governed by:
Available power to drive the mill

Strength of the mill and mill rollers
Feeding of the mill
Maximum permissible bearing pressure (12 MPa)

The oil pressure results in a force on the mill roll. This force is often kept greater on the gear side
than on the pintle side to compensate for pinion reaction. Excluded from these forces are the
forces due to the weight of the top roll and any accessories which is in the order of 0.25 MN.
3.2.2 Mill Speed
The mill speed depends mainly on the fiber throughput. An increase in this throughput requires
an increase in speed and vise versa. In the South African sugar industry the circumferential speed
for the last mill varies between 5 and 10 meters per minute. An increase in this speed usually
goes together with a decrease in lift or with a thinner bagasse blanket. This phenomenon is due to
a combination of factors and is known as re-absorption. The re-absorption factor which is
defined as the volume of bagasse divided by the escribed volume varies between 1.1 and 1.3.
Although a thin bagasse blanket in itself is an advantage, South African engineers favor low mill
speeds when possible, because of the negative effect of re-absorption.
3.2.3 Control
The control strategy amongst the various factories is very similar. In the case of a milling tandem
the first mill runs at a constant speed. The bagasse level in the chute controls the speed of the
main carrier. In the subsequent mills the speed for each mill is controlled by the chute level of
that mill. The same is the case for the dewatering mills. Some factories control the mill lift by
changing the amount of imbibitions and/or maceration juice. The latter is done by the recycling
or by-passing of that juice. The speed of the feeder roller should be calculated so that there is no
shear in the bagasse mat which should move at the speed as the top roller.
Assume the following:
N = Peripheral Speed of Top Roll (m/min)

S = Rational Speed of Feeder Roller (rpm)
R = Rotational Speed of Top Roller (rpm)
d = Diameter of Feeder Roller (m)
D = Diameter of Top Roll (m)
x = Opening between Top and Feed Rolls (mm)

2( D + x) × R × 115
Then, S = 2
d
The circumferential speed of the feeder roller should be about 15 % in excess of the top roller
speed.
Example:
Let the Delivery Work Opening (D.W.O) = 40.3 mm

The Ratio; Feeder Roller Opening /D.W.O = 6
Setting Feeder Roller Opening (F.R.O) = 242 mm(x)
Rotational Speed Top Roller = 3.5 rpm
Then, if “D” = 1m and “d” = 0.914 m
“N” (Per Speed) = 2 (0.5 + 0.242) × 35
And “N” = 5.19 π
5.19 × π × 1.15
Therefore S =
0.914 π
S = 6.5
3.3 Setting the Feeder Roller

The setting ‘x’ i.e. the opening between the top roll and the feeder roller is obtained by using a
ratio:
Setting ‘x’ = Delivery Work Opening (D.W.O) * Ratio
This ratio in South Africa varies between 6.0 for a first mill to 4.0 for the last mill

For Example
Mill No W.D.O (k.d) Ratio ‘x’ mm

1 40.3 6.0 242
3 33.6 5.5 185
5 28.8 5.0 144
7 26.3 4.0 105
3.3.1 The Vertical or Donnelly Chute
The setting of vertical chutes is obtained by multiplying the D.W.O of a mill by ratios as:
Mill No W.D.O (k.d) Ratio Vertical Chute Setting “mm”

1 40.3 11.0 443
3 33.6 10.0 336
5 28.8 9.0 259
7 26.3 8.0 210
The ratios for the setting of the vertical chutes are between 11.0 for the first mill and 8.0 for the
last mill. (Values can be interpolated for shorter tandems).
Compare: E. Hugot, 3rd Edition, and Page 87 – 88 (Revised Edition)
3.4 Other Method of Mill Settings

There are different methods for the calculation of mill settings, but for the sake of simplicity, we
shall consider only one based on fiber loading (See Fig. 2.7 on Page and Fig.3.1)
.
Calculations are essential for the initial settings of mills, but in most circumstance, these need to
be adjusted to cope with varying working conditions, and this has led Mr Hugot to quote in his
“Hand Book of Cane Sugar Engineering “ that mill settings is “More an art than as science!!”

You will find hereunder certain definition and ratios which will be useful in the calculations of
mill settings.
Delivery Set Opening (D.S.O) also known as “k.d”.
Delivery Work Opening (D.W.O)
Feed Set Opening (F.S.O)
Feed Work Opening (F.W.O)
Mill Ratio = F.W.O /D.W.O
Fiber Loading (“q”): – It is the ratio of the weight of fiber passing through the mill in a given
time and the area described in the sane time by one of the rollers. It is expressed in Kg per square
meter.
TCH × F%C
Fiber Loading (" q" ) =
60 η n D L
Where/ TCH = Tonnes Cane per Hour

F%C = Fiber % Cane
TCH × F%C = Tones of Fiber per Hour
n = Speed of Mill Roller in rpm
D = Mean Diameter of Roller (in meters)
L = Length of Roller (in meters)
Delivery Opening ( At Work )

Ratio =
Fiber Loading
Delivery Opening ( At Re st )
Ratio =
Feed Opening ( At Work )

Ratio =

Table I: Shows normal values of the ratio:
Mill Tandem, 12 Rollers 14 Rollers 15 Rollers 17 Rollers 18 Rollers

Crusher 2.3 2.3
1st Mill 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.5 1.9
2nd Mill 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.5
rd
3 Mill 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4
4th Mill 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.3
5th Mill 1.2 1.2 1.3
6th Mill 1.2
Table II: Shows normal values of the ratio: “Z”:
Delivery Opening ( At Re st )
Ratio ( Z ) =
Crusher :Z = 0.6
st
1 Crusher / Mill :Z = 0.5
1st Mill after a Crusher :Z = -4
Intermediate Mills :Z = 0.3
Mill before Last for Tandems of 15 or more Rollers :Z = 0.2
Last Mill :Z = 0.1
Table III: Shows normal values of the ratio:
Feed Opening ( At Work )

Ratio ( R ) =
Crusher Mill : R = 2.5

1st Mill after Crusher /Shredder : R = 2.2
2nd Mill : R = 1.9
3rd Mill : R = 1.8
4th Mill and Others : R = 1.7

Figure 3.1: Effect of Top Roller Lift on Mill Opening

3.5 Steps to Follow To Calculate Mill Settings
Step I
Calculate fibre loading of the mill.
Step II
Calculate delivery opening (at work) of the mill, using Table 1: Figures.
Step III
Calculate delivery opening (at rest) of the mill, using Table II: Figures.
Step IV
Calculate feed opening (at work) of the mill, using Table III: Figures.
Step V
Calculate feed opening (at rest) of the mill by deducting “difference between openings at work
and at rest –due to top roller lift.”
The influence of the lift on the openings is different in case of straight mill housings, inclined
mill housings and self–setting mills.
Example
Let us consider the case of a 1st crusher mill of a 15 - roller tandem:

Roller Length (L) = 2 meter
Diameter of Roller (D) = 0.9 meter
Speed of Roller in rpm = 3 rpm
Factory Crushing = 85 TCH
Fiber % Cane = 12 %
Step I
TCH × F% C
60 η n D L

85 × 0.12 × 1,000
60 × π × 3 × 0.9 × 2
10,200 Kg
=
1,018 m 2
= ± 10 Kg / m 2
Step II
Delivery Opening (At Work) of the Mill - From Table I, Ratio to be 1.9, so:

= 1.9
Fibre Loading
If Fiber Loading = 10
Delivery Opening (At Work) = 19 mm
Step III
Delivery Opening (At Rest), From Table II, Ratio to be 0.5, so:
Delivery Opening (At Rest) = 19 × 0.5 = 9.5, Say 10 mm
Step IV
Feed Opening (At Work) – From Table III, Ratio = 2.5, so:
Feed Opening (At Work) = Delivery Opening (At Work) × 2.5

= 19 × 2.5 = 47.5, Say 48 mm.
Step V
Feed Opening (At Rest) –Considering case of a straight mill housing –difference delivery
Opening at Work (At Rest) = 19 – 10 = 9 mm.
So, same difference must apply for feed opening (At Work) and (At Rest). Therefore, feed
opening (At Rest) = 48 – 9 = 39 mm.

3.5 Mill Extraction

In order to allow different mills to compare their performances, the use of a common fiber
content of the cane is used. This common fiber content is 12.5 fiber % canes. This is termed the
RME: Reduced Mill Extraction.
100 − (100 − E ) (100 − F)

RME =
7F
Where/ E = Actual Mill Extraction

F = Actual Fiber Content % Cane
In certain countries, the base fiber is varied according to the average fiber in the country. In
South Africa, 15 % fiber is used in place of 12.5. In addition, the formula for Corrected Reduced
Extraction (CRE) applies corrections for insoluble solids in a mixed juice, as well as for Pol %
cane. It is the formula used in the South Africa Sugar Industry.
3.7 Influence of Cane Quality in Extraction

3.7.1 Sucrose Content
Hugot comments on varying sucrose contents of cane, saying that: “other things being equal
(same fiber, same imbibitions, same TCH) a cane of 15 % sucrose will result in a higher
extraction than a cane with 13 % sucrose”.
3.7.2 Fiber and Extraneous Matter
The term fiber applies to the natural fiber of the cane determined in the laboratory by drying.
Extraneous matter refers to anything which is not fiber as described above, in particular, soil,
trash (dead leaves), and tops.
When clean cane (no trash, tops and sand) is crushed, not only is sucrose extraction higher, but
the throughput cane increase. With “dirty “cane the amounts of Pol/hour can be reduced by as
much as 46 % and throughput by 30 %.

Apart from its effect on mills, diffusers suffer greatly from high levels of soil in cane.
Bad effects of high levels of extraneous matter in cane, measured by the ash % cane and the
insoluble solids % in mixed juice, have led to a great number of factories to embark on clean
cane quality programmes.
3.8 Mill Setting By Various Methods
The factors influencing a mill setting are many folds. For any mill installation, it depends on
factors such as:
i) Cane throughput
ii) Fiber % Cane
iii) Fiber % Bagasse (or Cane ) entering and leaving the particular mill
iv) The Re-absorption Factor, i.e. actual no void volume of bagasse leaving the mill per unit
time, calculated in the axial plane of the top and delivery rolls (or top and feed rolls)
divided by the volume of bagasse as developed per unit time by these rolls i.e.
= π D L n e,
Where/ “D” = Diameter,

“L” = Length of Rolls,
“n” = r.p.m,
“e” = Mill Work Opening
v) The feeding device of the mill – (Donnelly chute, feeder roller, pressure feeders etc).
vi) The roughness of the rolls (arcing)
vii) Facilities for drainage
viii) Limitations if any as to rpm, hydraulic load.
ix) Cane or bagasse preparation
x) Imbibition fiber, etc.

According to various authors, the fiber % bagasse leaving the various mills in a mill tandem
should more or less have the following values as per table below.
In practice, the fiber % bagasse should be determined by analysis, i.e.
Fiber % Bagasse = 100 – Brix % Bagasse – Moisture % Bagasse.
Brix % Bagasse = Soluble Solids % Bagasse
The Brix % Bagasse is calculate by the formula:
Pol % Bagasse
Brix % Bagasse = × 100
Purity of Juice Expressed Between Top and Delivery Roll
It is assumed that the purity of the juice left in the bagasse is the same as the purity of the last
expressed juice (juice extracted between top and delivery roll, not the combined front and back
roller juice). This assumption though not correct, the residual juice having a lower purity does
not affect the mill setting calculations by more than 1 %.
Number of Rolls 2 - Roller Mill Mill Mill Mill Mill Mill

(Excluding Feeder Rollers) Crusher No.1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6
11 28 40 46 51
12 33 42 47 51
14 28 40 44 48 51
15 33 42 46 48 51
17 28 40 44 47 50 52
18 30 39 43 46 48 52
The calculation of the No-Void volume of any bagasse leaving a mill is also of interest.
The No-Void Volume is calculated by formula:
f 0.2 f 1 − 1.2 f
No − Void Volume = + +
1.52 1 d

Where/ (i) “f” is Fiber % Unit of Bagasse.
(ii) “d” is Density of Juice Left in the Bagasse × 1.01 to account for variation of
juice density due to pressure.
(iii) The term “0.2 f” is used to account the Brix free water associat4ed with the fiber
(just like water % crystallization of a chemical compound) estimated to be around
20 % of the fiber)
(iv) “1.52” is the density of cane fiber under compression as determined by various
authors.
Let’s Take an Example:
Say a factory crushing 175 tones of cane /hour with a fiber % cane of 13.5 % and for a last mill
of 1.8 long × 0.855 m of mean diameter at a rpm of 3.8 with bagasse analysis of:
Pol % = 1.2
Moisture % = 46.0
Purity of Last Expressed Juice = 67 %
1.2
Calculated Brix of Bagasse = × 100 = 1.79
67
Fiber % Bagasse = 100 − 1.79 − 46.0 = 52.21
The density of the juice contained in the bagasse is calculated as follows:
Bagasse – Fibre % Bagasse = Juice in Bagasse
100 – 52.21 = 47.79

100 bagasse contains 1.79 of Brix is contained in 47.79 of juice (by weight basis), i.e. Brix % of
juice in the bagasse is:
1.79
× 100 = 3.746
47.49

From Tables of Brix/Density, at 20 0C / 20 0C, a Brix of 3.746 = 1.0147 of Density.

Hence, The No-Void Volume of the bagasse for that particular mill is:
0.5221 0.2 × 0.5221 1 − (0.5221 + 0.2 + 0.5221)

+ + = 0.8123 mL / g Or m 3 / metric Tonne
1.52 1 1.01 × 1.0147
The volume of bagasse leaving this last mill per hour is accordingly:
Weight of Bagasse /Hour:
Total Weight of Fibre / Hour

Weight of Bagasse / Hour = × 100
Fibre % Bagasse
175 × 0.135
= × 100
52.21
= 45.25 Tonnes / Hour
Volume of Bagasse /Hour = 45.25 × 0.8123 = 36.76 M/h
These calculations may used to calculate the mill setting of any mill.
E.g. in the above case considered;
If there was not any re absorption, the volume developed per hour will be equal to the calculated
No-void volume.
i.e. π × 0.855 × 1.8 × 60 × 3.8 × e = 36.76

Where/ “e” is the work delivery opening to be found:
i.e. e = 0.0333 meters
= 33.3 mm.
Now, if we assume a re-absorption coefficient of 1.3, the work opening will be:
33.3
= = 25.6 mm
1.3

We agree that the value of 1.3 for the re-absorption coefficient is arbitrary, but we must start
somewhere for this value.
Inversely, we can calculate the re absorption value by comparing for any mill, the theoretical
work opening with the actual opening using physical set openings, lift of top roll and, using the
above calculations.
A formula proposed by E. Hugot for reabsorption read as follows:
R = 0.60 + 0.017V + 0.65W
Where/ “R” = Re-absorption

“V” = Peripheral Speed of Rollers in meters/minute
“W” = Tonnes of Fibre/M3 of Developed Volume
“0.60” is a constant (0.75 for a first mill, 0.6 for a last mill, intermediate mills
to be interpolated between these extreme values)
In the case considered, “R” = 0.60 + 0.017 × π × 0.855 × 3.8 + W
= 0.773 + W
175 × 0.135
= 0.773 +
π × 1.8 × 0.855 × 3.8 × 60 × e
175 × 0.135
= 0.773 +
π × 1.8 × 0.855 × 3.8 × 60 × 0.0256
= 0.773 + 0.544
= 1.32
The value found using Hugot formulas is close to value of 1 - 3 we have assumed.

Another formula for mill setting proposed by Dowes Dekker and Van Hengel (South Africa)
read as follows:
TCH × Fibre % Cane

e =
330 n . D . L f 1 × 100
Where/ “e” = Delivery Work Opening in meters

“n” = Revolution per Minutes in r.p.m
“D” = Roll’s Diameter in meters
“L” = Roll’s Length in meters
“f 1” = Fiber per Unit of Bagasse Leaving the Mill.
In case considered:
175 × 13.5
e =
330 × 0.855 × 1.8 × 3.8 × 0.5221 × 100
= 0.0234
= 23.4 mm
If we use formulate and method proposed from notes given in course of sugar manufacture we
have:
175,000 × 0.135
Fibre Loading =
π × 0.855 × 1.8 × 3.8 × 60
= 21.43 Kg of Fiber per M 2 of Developed Surface per Hour

From Table 1:
Delivery Work Opening ( For V th Mill )
= 12
Fiber Loading
e
= 12
21.43
∴ e = 12
Comparing the three methods studied, we have

a) Delivery opening using No-Void volume calculations
and assumed coefficient of re absorption 25.6 mm
b) Dowes Dekker /Van Hengel 23.4 mm
c) From motes in course 25.7 mm
Based on No-Void volume calculations , method (a) and (c) are close to each other inferring a re
absorption coefficient of 1.3, whereas D.D/VH gives a re absorption factor of :
33.3
= 1.42
23.4
It is to be noted that D.D/VH formula implies a re absorption factor of 1.42 as compared to the
figure of 1.32 as obtained from formula proposed by E.Hugot.
We should, therefore, aim at improving mill drainage and other related factors so that re
absorption is minimized.
Ratio of Feed Work Opening to Delivery Opening
These ratios are arbitrary and an example is given below:

Mill No.1 = 2.2
Mill No.2 = 1.9
Mill No.3 = 1.8
Mill No.4 = 1.7
Mill No.5 = 1.7

If re-absorption is minimized, lower ratios could be practiced.
Ratios of Set to Work Opening
The flowing is proposed:

Mill No.1 = 0.6
Mill No.2 = 0.5
Mill No.3 = 0.4
Mill No.4 = 0.36
Mill No.5 = 0.32
Opinions also differ as to the quantum of these ratios.
Finally: Not to forget, the mill engineer should take into consideration the mill geometry
and what is more important, he should be aware of any wear in the various parts of
the mill that could bias the set openings, i.e. – e.g. The rollers due to wear in
bearings, or loose parts, will move to a final position other than the measured ones
before the bagasse (or cane) is compressed thus affecting set opening. Careful
measurements and data logging are important factors inter alia to help the engineer
improve mill performance.
3.9 Performance Indicators

For a tandem as a whole the most common performance indicators are traditionally extraction
and moisture % bagasse. The latter may perhaps also be seen as a measure of the performance of
the last mill. With a move towards diffusers it becomes more important to have performance
indicators for the individual mills. These indicators are available in the form of brix extraction,
re-absorption, imbibitions efficiency, juice recycling and separation efficiency. Each of these
indicators emphasizes a specific aspect. Apart from the first two they are hardly used in the
South African sugar industry.

3.9.1 Brix Extraction
Although the sucrose extraction is the most important and most widely used performance
indicator, brix extraction is a more direct measurement of milling performance. This brix
extraction for the first mill in a tandem can be in the eighties. For the other mills this figure
varies widely but should not fall below 30 %. The brix extraction is defined as:
Brix in Expressed Juice

Brix Extraction = 100 ∗
Brix in Bagasse Feed
3.9.2 Re-absorption Coefficient
Re-absorption is defined as the ratio of the no-void bagasse volume to the escribed volume. In
general this factor is different for each mill in the tandem and is mainly a function of speed,
preparation, compression, roll roughness and to a lesser extent imbibitions level. In particular a
decrease in the mill speed and an increase in arcing can lead to substantial improvements in the
re-absorption coefficient. Typical values are somewhere between 1.0 and 1.1 A re-absorption
factor smaller than 1.0 could be an indication of backward slip or an empty running mill. An
alternative definition is:
Fiber % Bagasse in the Mill

Reabsorption Coefficient =
Fiber % Bagasse Disch arg e
3.9.3 Imbibitions Efficiency
The juice feed to a mill will normally not be homogeneous resulting in a decreased brix
extraction. The main reason for this is the incomplete mixing of imbibitions juice with the juice
in the bagasse. To account for this the imbibitions efficiency which is defined as the actual
extraction divided by the theoretical extraction was introduced. For the first mill, not affected by
imbibitions, the imbibitions efficiency can be even greater than 100 %. For the other mills this
factor is normally well below 100 %. In equation form the imbibitions efficiency is:
Brix % Expressed Juice ∗ (100 − Fiber % Bagasse Feed )

Im bibition Efficiency = 100 ∗
Brix % Bagasse Feed ∗ (100 − Fiber % Expressed Juice)

3.9.4 Juice Recycling
Juice recycling is another interesting performance indicator but is not measured in the South
African sugar industry and therefore no real factory data are available. The juice recycling is
defined as:
Liquid in Bagass Disch arg e

Juice Re cycling = 100 ∗
Liquid in Bagasse Feed
Separation Efficiency
The separation efficiency is a direct reflection of the suspended solids in mixed juice and is
mainly a function of cane quality and to a lesser extent of cane preparation. In addition the
setting of the trash plate affects the separation efficiency. This parameter is also not measured in
the South African sugar industry. The definition of the separation efficiency is:
Fiber % Bagasse Feed − Fiber % Expressed Juice

Separation Efficiency = 100 ∗
Fiber % Bagasse Feed
Conclusions
With the increase in diffusers the function of the mill has shifted from an extraction device to a
dewatering unit. This has however little effect on the design and operation of the mill which are
both well established. Some differences in operation are equipment related while others are
indicative that some fine tuning is still required. While the performance of a milling tandem is
usually measured in terms of extraction of the tandem as a whole there seems to be a lack of
performance measurements of the individual mills. This leaves particularly the dewatering mills
without proper assessment.

1. What are the factors on which the mill setting depends on?
2. The data below refers to the conventional first mill of milling tandem of 5 mills.
Cane Crushed Capacity 300 TCH

Fiber % Cane 15 %
Desired Juice Extraction of the First Mill 70 %
Diameter of the First Mill (Rollers) 1m
Length of the Rollers 2m
Density of the Residual Juice 1,105 Kg/m3
Density of Fiber 1,540 Kg/m3
Equivalent Lift for the First Mill 15 mm
Work Ratio for the First Mill 2.0
Assuming Re-absorption Factor 1.3
Rotational Speed of Rollers 4.0 rpm
Calculate: The mill setting at rest for the first mill.
3. The data below refers to the first mill of milling tandem of 5 mills.

Fiber % Cane 13.5 %
Speed of the First Mill 4.5 rpm
Length of the Roller 2,100 mm
Outside Diameter of Top Roller 1,200 mm
Depth of Grooving 47 mm
Density of the Juice 1,060 Kg/m3
First Mill Extraction 72 %
Equivalent Lift 8.5 mm
Work Ratio 1.8

Calculate:
(a) The density of the cane
(b) The escribed volume
(c) Volume of bagasse leaving the mill
(d) Feed setting opening
(e) Delivery setting opening.
4. The data below refers to the conventional first mill of milling tandem of 5 mills.

Fiber % Cane 15 %
Desired Juice Extraction of the First Mill 70 %
Diameter of the First Mill (Rollers) 1m
Length of the Rollers 2m
Density of the Residual Juice 1,105 Kg/m3
Equivalent Lift for the First Mill 15 mm
Rotational Speed of Rollers 4.0 rpm
Calculate: The mill setting at rest for the first mill.
5. The following data refers to the conventional last mill of milling tandem of 4 mills.

Fiber % Cane 15 %
Speed of Motor 1500 rpm
Gear Ratio 300/1
Mean Diameter of Roller 1,150 mm
Length of the Rollers 2,130 mm
Moisture of Bagasse 47 %

Purity of Last Expressed Juice 76

Pol % Bagasse 0.95 %
Equivalent Lift for the First Mill 8.0 mm
Calculate: The mill setting openings.
6. The following data refers to the first mill of milling tandem of 5 mills.

Fiber % Cane 14.5 %
Mill Speed 5.2 rpm
Mean Diameter of Top Roller 1,067 mm
Length of the Rollers 2,134 mm
Type of Milling Housing Inclined
First Mill Extraction 76 %
Equivalent Lift for the Delivery Roller 12 mm
Equivalent Lift for the Feed Roller 8 mm
Work Ratio 2.0
Calculate: (a) The mill setting at rest for the first mill.
(b) The volume of the cane per hour.

7. With the data given below, calculate the last mill setting i.e. DSO and FSO.

Fiber % Cane 13.5 %
Moisture of Fiber 48 %
Diameter of Roller 0.92 m
Length of the Rollers 1.8 m
Purity of Last Expressed Juice 76
Density of the Last Mill Juice 1,020 Kg/m3
Pol % Bagasse 1.37
Speed of Roller 4.5 rpm
Equivalent Lift at Feed Roller 10 mm
Equivalent Lift at Discharge Roller 8 mm
Work Ratio 2.1
Re-absorption Factor (Last Mill) 1.3
8. Discuss how to compare the performance of different mills.
9. Explain the influence of cane quality on mills extraction.
10. Describe the different performance indicators of the mills, control mechanism of the mill
speed and define the Reduced Mill Extraction (RME).

Unit Four
Imbibition
Unit Objectives
Differentiate the different types of imbibition.
Compare and contrast the hot and cold imbibition.
Discuss the point of application of imbibitions in the milling tandems.
Explain the effect of the amount of imbibition water on the bagasse moisture and energy
consumption at the evaporator.
Knows the optimum tonnes imbibitions % fiber range of imbibition water applies.
Knows a good temperature for imbibitions.
Differentiate dry crushing and wet crushing.
4.1 Introduction
Imbibitions is the process where by water is added to the bagasse to dilute the juice present in it.
The water is known as imbibitions water. It is first applied on the bagasse in the inter carrier
before the last mill of a tandem. The diluted juice obtained from the last mill is pumped back and
applied on the bagasse in the carrier of the mill preceding it. This process is repeated with juice
being pumped back along the tandem as shown. (See Figs. 4.1(a) and 4.1(b), 4.2 and 4.3)

Figure 4.1(a): Multiple Compound Imbibitions
The diagram illustrates imbibitions as applied when a shredder precedes a 1st mill and there is no
crusher. This is the normal practice in modern mills. The imbibitions method shown above is
known as Compound Imbibitions and is universally in use today.
Figure 4.1(b): Multiple Compound Imbibitions.

Imbibitions is applied with cold or hot (± 45 OC) water and is measured in tonnes imbibitions %
fiber. Figures of 250 % up to 350 % are normal, the latter being currently used in Australia and
South Africa.
With improved feeding systems and arcing of rollers, hot imbibition is favored. Besides resulting
in improved mill performance, it recovers some of the heat energy in the mixed juice.
Figure 4.2(a): Variation of Extraction as imbibitions (Simple Double Imbibitions)

(Fiber = 15)

4.2 Imbibitions
It is not possible to remove all the juice from the bagasse by pressure. Even after repeated
application of heavy pressures, the bagasse retains a quantity of juice approximately equal to the
weight of fiber. It means that the fiber bagasse reaches a limiting condition where its fiber
content is about 50 %. In order to obtain a satisfactory extraction of sugar, it is necessary to
dilute the juice remaining in the bagasse. Such dilution is done in several stages, so that the 50 %
of juice remaining in the final bagasse is much more dilute than the original juice in the cane.
This procedure is known as imbibitions.
With dry crushing the limit of extraction is soon reached after the 1st mill, the fiber content of
bagasse would be about 30 %. The bagasse leaving the succeeding mills would have fiber
content of the order of 38, 45 and 50 % from 2nd 3rd and 4th mills respectively. Dry crushing in
any succeeding mills will not give an appreciable increase in extraction or in fiber contact of
bagasse. Hence, to achieve any further extraction, it is necessary to dilute the residual juice in the
bagasse before further crushing. In practice, the imbibitions process is commenced after the 1st
mill without waiting to obtain maximum extraction by dry crushing.
Imbibition is the process in which the water or juice is put on the bagasse to mix with and dilute
the juice present in the bagasse. The water so used is termed imbibitions water.
Types of Imbibition: -
1) Simple Imbibition – Where water only is applied to the various mills, simple imbibition
is not practical in modern installations.
2) Double Imbibition – Where water is applied to the bagasse from the next to last two
mills and combined thin juice from the last two mills is returned to the earlier mills in the
train. Now this system is obsolete.
3) Compound Imbibition – Applicable to trains of four or more mills, where water is

applied to bagasse going to last mill. The last mill juice is returned to bagasse going to
the next to last mill. This juice in turn goes back to bagasse from the proceeding mill etc.

Today in modern industries compound imbibition installation is practiced everywhere. Water is

applied to the bagasse from the next to last mill, and then the last mill juice goes to the blanket
emerging from the second to last and so on. The common practice is to send crusher juice, first
mill juice and second mill juice to process.
In the imbibition process, the concentration of sugar in the mill juices decreases from 1st to final
mill and the process becomes a counter current extraction. After each mill the juice in the
bagasse is diluted with a juice of lower concentration. The quantity of juice extracted at each wet
crushing mill is approximately equal to the quantity of imbibition juice applied before it. Thus
the quantity of imbibition fluid in circulation is, in the case of quadruple imbibition
approximately 4 times the quantity of water used as simple imbibition.
In practice, it is difficult to ensure that imbibition fluid is distributed well enough over and
through the bagasse. Because bagasse has a capacity for absorbing enormous quantity of liquid
(about 7 to 10 time its fiber content) and the top portion of the bagasse blanket is likely to absorb
the whole quantity of applied imbibition, leaving the rest of the blanket practically dry.
4.3 Method of Applying Imbibition
4.3.1 Imbibition Water
It is generally applied by a perforated pipe, which adds the water in the form of jets at higher
velocity and gives a reasonable penetration of the bagasse blanket.
4.3.2 Unstrained Juice
With return of unstrained juices, an overflow from a trough or some such devices must be
adopted and this doesn’t penetrate so well. With any quantity of imbibition, the main difficulty is
to distribute it adequately over the bagasse, since the bagasse readily absorbs a large quantity of
liquid and this will only saturate the outer surface layers leaving a rather dry layer below.

4.4 Point of Application of Imbibition

It is considered that the dilution is more complete when the bagasse having more time to absorb
the water to juice received actually the bagasse has a very great affinity for water, and dilution is
very rapid and almost instantaneous. But some experiments has shown that imbibition applied
just at the entry of the bagasse to the mill has even shown a slight gain relative to that applied at
the delivery from the preceding mill, although the intermediate carriers were 8 meter in length.
Thus, numerous experiments have given results scarcely convincing, some time contradictory.
On the other hand, it seems that there is some advantage in direction the jet of the imbibition
water spray in the plane tangential to the delivery rollers. This will allow the water to reach the
middle of the bagasse layer and to spray during its fall, the bagasse dropping in a finely divided
state from the top roller scraper.
Thus, care should be taken to distribute the imbibition. But the best distribution is still that
operating in the nip of the feed rollers, immediately pressure is applied, the excess liquid is
expressed and from the stream passing through the bagasse layer and wetting the zone which
previously had remained dry. Today most new factories apply imbibition at the top of the
Donnelly chute as of 1981.
4.5 Hot and Cold Imbibition

Whether to use hot or cold imbibition water is a matter of some controversy. The arguments for
hot water are as follows.
1) There are some slight fuel economy
2) Hot imbibition ruptures some cells by heat above 70o.
3) A slight evaporation from the bagasse in transit
4) The use of return condensate from evaporator bodies
5) A slight gain of extraction.

On the other hand, those who do not favor hot imbibition reason out as follows.
1) a slight gain in extraction obtained by hot imbibition is sometimes difficult to

detect and often negligible
2) The mills do not take the feed as well with hot imbibition as with cold.
3) Hot imbibition melts waxes in cane (at 60 – 80 0C) and increase proportion of
waxes in mixed juice.
However, e. Hugot conclude that if it is considered that there is any advantage in using hot water
as imbibition, there is no objection. A good temperature for imbibition wins hot water is 80 –
85 0C.
4.6 Influence of Imbibition on Bagasse Moisture

The quantity of water introduced to bagasse would facilitate rather than hinder the extraction of
juice by the following mill. Actually, experience shows that the moisture of the final bagasse
increases slightly with the quantity of imbibition. In Australia, a case has been found where the
moisture increased from 47.4 to 50 % when imbibition per unit fiber was increased from 200 to
285 %. It is suggested that the last mill does not succeed in removing completely from the
bagasse all the excess of water, which has been added to it.
4.6.1 Optimum Quantity of Imbibition
Optimum imbibition is governed by two factors.
a) The increase in extraction obtained
b) The cost of evaporating the added water.
The higher, the imbibition water, the higher is extraction obtained. However, the gain of
extraction is beyond a certain limit of imbibition is less marked. Small quantities of imbibition
do not completely saturate the bagasse. A very high quantity of imbibition makes the bagasse
very wet as it approaches the following mill, and difficulty is experienced in feeding. Thus, these

are a practical limit to the quantity of imbibition water to be used. Additional fuel is to be
purchased for additional imbibition water added, to evaporate it. The value of sugar recovered is
to be balanced against the cost of fuel involves.
However, in modern factories, very rarely the evaporation capacities limit the quantity of
imbibition. Most often, it is chocking at the mills that govern the imbibition and practical limit is
reached below optimal quantity.
Figure 4.2(b): Variation of Lost Juice % Fibre as Function of Imbibition (Compound

Imbibition) (“B” = 0.6)

Figure 4.2(c): Lost Undiluted Juice % Fibre as a Function of Number of Rollers in the
Tendom. (Imbibition: “λ” = 2, Efficiency: “β” = 0.6)

1. Explain the concept of imbibitions and discuss its working principle.
2. Discuss the advantage and disadvantages of hot and cold imbibitions.
3. Give the advantage and disadvantages of imbibition.
4. What is the most type of imbibitions used in modern sugar industry?
5. Discuss fully all the factors to be taken into consideration when choosing an
imbibition system.
6. Describe the practical limits to the quantities of imbibition of water to be used.
7. Compare and contrast the dry crushing with wet crushing.
8. Describe the point of application of imbibition.
9.
10.

Chapter Five
Composition of Mill Juice
Unit Objectives
Discuss the degree of extraction of all soluble constituents of cane.
Describe the influence of the fibre content of cane on milling.
Explain the role of mill sanitation to conserve the juice and prevent losses due to
inversion or purity drop.
Discuss the methods of keeping mill sanitation.
Elaborate factors that facilitate fermentation in sugar factory.
Explain the different forms of fermentation occur in sugar factory.
Know the process of juice screening and equipments used for screening.
Discuss the measures of the efficiency of milling work.
Describe the basic equation of milling control.
5.1 Introduction
The juice from the crusher and each of the succeeding mills differ according to the pressure and
extent of saturation. With continued crushing a reduction occurs in the brix, pol and purity such
reduction is due to increase is the non-sugars both organic and inorganic. In general, the juice
from the back roll (delivery roll) is higher brix and greater purity than that from the front (feed)
roll. Because feed roll extracts the superficial imbibition water on the exterior of the bagasse
particles, whereas the back roll extracts part of the juice in the inner cells. Hugot adds that the
feed roller of the later mills with wet crushing should furnish about three-fourths of the juice and
the back roller only one-fourth. The more sucrose extracted, the greater the proportion of non

sugars (impurity) that will accompany the sucrose. The characters of impurities reduce the purity
of the juice.
Not all soluble constituents in the cane are extracted to the same extent during milling.
Sugars, Potash and Phosphates are extracted to approximately the same extent.
Calcium, Magnesium and Sodium are also largely extracted. Though not to the
extent of sucrose.
Silica, Iron, Aluminum, Nitrogenous Compounds and Waxes, a greater proportion

remains, in the bagasse than goes into the juice.
Extraction of non sugars cane is grouped as follows:
♦ Potash, Phosphates and Organic Acids about 80 % is extracted.
♦ Lime, Magnesia and Sulphats about 70 %.
♦ Nitrogen – About 48 %
♦ Iron – 38 %
♦ Silica – 8 %
There can be considerable difference on the extractability of constituents in different varieties of

cane.
5.2 Influence of Structure of Cane on Milling

The fiber content of cane has a marked effect on the extraction. The greater the amount of fiber
is the less the extraction for the same milling efficiency. The fiber content in cane varies from 9
to 16 % on cane depending on the variety of cane. For example, average extraction figure for 9
roller mills with knives and crusher.
10 % Fiber, Extraction = 93.76 %
16 % Fiber, Extraction = 89.17 %

5.3 Mills Sanitation

To conserve the juice and prevent losses due to inversion or purity drop, it is best to reduce
retention to a minimum and keep the mills as clean as possible. Other wise, the freshly extracted
mill juice is infected with large number of microorganisms, which begin to multiply soon under
favorable conditions. The juice surrounding the mill tandem has a temperature that favors
bacterial growth and even small quantities of infected juice or bagasse bring about disastrous
infection. The infection of juice results a rapid decrease of juice purity from first mill to last mill.
The deterioration of juice in the 1st mill is slower than in last mill because of its large quantity,
higher density and higher velocity through the tandem. However, last mill juice, travels through
all mills, has a lower brix, which is favorable for bacterial action and its quantity is less with
longer retention. It is therefore highly essential to keep the mills cleaned. This can be achieved
by:
a) Frequent washing, cleaning and steaming of the mills at short intervals.
b) The use of disinfectants.
Disinfectants usually used are formaldehyde, sodium fluoride, calcium chloride etc that prevents
the growth of leuconostoc bacteria.
5.3.1 Fermentation in Sugar Factory
Fermentation is the process of chemical decomposition resulting from the vital functioning of
living microorganisms on sugar solutions. This occurs throughout the manufacturing process
from the stage of cane crushed to sugar dried in centrifugals though in decreasing proportion.
The rate of fermentation depends chiefly on the temperature, oxygen supply, concentration and
pH of the liquid in which the microorganisms develop and multiply.
Temperature: - Usually, microorganisms develop most rapidly between 30 to 45 0C and most of

them killed at 80 0C.
Concentration: - The microorganisms develop favorably in dilute liquids than in concentrated.

Medium of Reaction (pH): - The favorable medium of reaction is a neutral or slightly acid one.
An alkaline reaction is generally unfavorable with one exception, i.e. dextran fermentation.
Different organisms ferment different sugars. For example, the enzyme “Invertase” present in
yeast cells converts sucrose into glucose and fructose and the enzyme “zymase” inverts reducing
sugars into alcohol. Fermentation of sugar juices involves sugar loss. The products of
fermentation so formed have deleterious effect on the quality and brightness of the juice and the
sugars obtained from it. Hence, absolute cleanliness is essential in sugar factories of all stations
to control bacterial growth. Forms of fermentation occur in the sugar factory are:
Dextran Fermentation: - This occurs by an infectious organism “Leconostoe Mesenteriodes”

(L.M) in mill juices and dilute liquors forming a large mass of gummy substance consisting
chiefly dextran. L.M bacteria growth is slow in acid or neutral solutions and propagates in
slightly alkaline solution. However, in strong alkaline solution Dextron fermentation soon
ceases.
L.M + Sucrose Dextran + Acids.
The acids produced are lactic and acetic acid, prevention: - Heating the juice to boiling
point as well as disinfecting it with 1 % ammonium.
Bifluoride or sodiumfluoride solution kills the L.M bacteria.
Levan Fermentation: - This occurs by an organism called bacillus leavaniformans (B.L), which
is present, is cane juice attacks sugars.
B..L + Sugar Levan + Succinic and Acetic Acid.
The Levan fermentation promotes within the acid rage pH 6.7 – 7.0.
Thermophilic Bacteria: - This develop at higher temperatures between 46 0C – 73 0C
In addition, deteriorate hot clarified juice and often develop in the filter presses and in juice
settlers. The most important species is microspira Northii.

Lactic Fermentation: - The lactic acid bacteria transform sucrose (in presence of lime) into
lactic acid by which process carbonic acid and hydrogen are formed.
Yeast Fermentation: - The yeast cells find an excellent media for their development in the acid
and warm cane juice expressed from the mills. They readily decompose cane juice at the
temperature between 30 – 45 0C.
Sucrose + Yeast → Glucose + Fructose → Alcohol + CO2
Yeast contains two enzymes. Invertase and zymase. The enzyme invertase attaches sucrose and
converts into reducing sugars while the enzyme zymase converts the reducing sugars into
alcohol.
Froth Fermentation: - This kind of fermentation is not the result of microbiological action but
is a spontaneous decomposition of complex non- sugars at moderate temperature with the
evolution of large quantity of carbon dioxide that makes the concentrated massecute, molasses,
etc. Froth fermentation doesn’t decompose sugar, but mechanical losses may occur.
5.4 Juice Screening

Mixed juice from the milling tandem contains a large amount of cane fiber that falls out with the
juice between the rollers of the mills. The process in which the fiber is separated from the juice is
called juice screening.
5.4.1 Juice Screening Equipments
♦ A stationary and vibrating or rotating wire mesh screen.
♦ An inclined wedge-wire screen (DSM)
♦ A rubber-lined Dorr clone (cyclone) system.

The fiber particles are trapped on the screen and returned to the mills while the screened juice is
sent to process.
The insoluble solid content of mill juice varies in different mills. In Hawaii, even after cane
cleaning operations, juices may average 2 – 4 % insoluble solids, and in wet weather, 6 – 7 % is
common. The insoluble material is mostly soil, sand; fiber etc. fiber in mixed juice is refereed to
as insoluble solids. Generally, the insoluble solid content of mill mixed juice is about 1 %.
DSM Screen: - The DSM screen is widely used in sugar mills for screening fiber particles. The
DSM screens developed by Dorr-Oliver consist of a feedbox, a feed spout distributor and a
screen deck of wedge-shaped bars at right angle to the juice flow.
The size separation depends on the opening between the bars. The mixed juice going to the
boiling house flows down the concave surface tangentially, passing through the 1.0 mm opening
between the bars. The fiber particles are forced down the screen surface by the juice flow and
discharge at the overflow spout.
The DSM screen has three applications.
a) As 1st screening, with 1 mm. Spacing
b) As a 2nd screening, with 0.7 mm spacing
c) As a clarified juice screen, with 0.35 mm spacing between bars.
5.5 Measure of Efficiency of Milling Work
5.5.1 Extraction
The term extraction is generally used to mean total sugar extracted by the milling tandem, as
percent of sugar in cane. The extraction figures express essentially the commercial efficiency,
rather than the technical efficiency of the operation.

Sucrose / Pol in Mixed Juice

Extraction = × 100
Mixed Juice % Cane
Sucrose / Pol in Mixed Juice % Cane

= × 100
Sucrose / Pol in Mixed + Sucrose / Pol in Bagasse
Or
Weight of Sucrose / Pol in Mixed Juice

= × 100
Weight of Sucrose / Pol in Mixed Juice + Weight of Sucrose / Pol in Bagasse
5.5.2 Reduced Mill Extraction
Extraction is affected by the percentage of fiber. The greater the amount of fiber, the less the
extraction for the same milling efficiency. For this reason, mills handling high fiber cane are at
disadvantage. The extraction figure thus doesn’t permit comparison of the work of two different
mills, nor even of the same mill with different canes. To eliminate the influence of fiber Noel
Deer suggested that all extraction for comparative purposes be corrected to standard fiber content
12.5 % and this is adopted by most of sugar authorities.
The reduced mill extraction is extraction obtained by the tandem, modified hypothetically, to that
which it would have been if the fiber in cane had been equal to a standard figure, chosen by
convention as 12.5 %.
Pol in Bagasse % Pol in Cane = 100 – Pol Extraction. …… (1)
Absolute Juice % Cane = 100 – Fiber …….. (2)
Absolute Juice in Bagasse = (100 – Extraction) (100 – Fiber)……. (3)
(100 − E ) (100 − Fiber )

Absolute Juice in Bagasse % Fiber = ...........(4)
Fiber % Cane
Absolute Juice in Bagasse % Fiber × Fiber % Cane

Extraction = 100 − .............(5)
100 − Fiber % Cane

If Fiber % Cane = 12.5
Absolute Juice in Bagasse % Fiber × 12.5

E12.5 = 100 −
100 − 12.5
12.5
= 100 − × Absolute Juice % Fiber
87.5
Absolute Juice in Bagasse % Fiber

E12.5 = 100 −
7
Substitute in Equation No (4)
(100 − E ) (100 − F )
E12.5 = 100 −
7F
Example:
1) Mill Extraction = 92 %
Fiber % Cane = 16 %
Reduced Mill Extraction =?
(100 − 92) (100 − 16)

R12.5 = 100 − = 94 %
7 × 16
2) Mill Extraction = 92
Fiber % Cane = 10
(100 − 92) (100 − 10)

R12.5 = 100 − = 89.71 %
7 × 10
3) Mill Extraction = 92
Fiber % Cane = 12.5
(100 − 92) (100 − 12.5)

R12.5 = 100 − = 92 %
7 × 12.5

5.5.3 Juice Brix Curves
One of the best methods of controlling the milling plant is to construct a graph of the brix of
juices from the successive mills. The graph shows at a glance, the degree of dilution of each of
the wet crushing unit and enables to recognize any departure from normal conditions. The degree
to which the values obtained in the mills approach the theoretical curve indicates how well each
mill is doing its work.
Example: Brix Extraction

Crusher 18.53 69.92
st
1 Mill 17.41 12.58
nd
2 Mill 9.40 7.11
3rd Mill 6.45 3.75
4th Mill 4.16 1.50
Total 94.86
Brix Curve
Number of Mills
The usual practice is to take samples of juice from the discharge rollers throughout the mill train.
Some prefer sample of both the front rollers and discharge rollers making two brix diagrams. In
general, the diagram should show a downward sloping line from crusher to last mill.

Example: Brix Pol Purity
Crusher 17.16 14.50 84.50
1st Mill
Front Roll 17.08 14.12 82.67
Back Roll 16.13 13.06 80.97
2nd Mill
Front Roll 7.63 5.83 76.41
Back Roll 9.37 7.31 78.01
3rd Mill
Front Roll 5.04 3.73 74.01
Back Roll 6.14 4.54 73.94
4th Mill
Front Roll 3.0 2.18 72.67
Back Roll 4.52 3.26 72.12
5th Mill
Front Roll 1.31 0.88 67.18
Back Roll 2.55 1.78 69.80
In general the juice from the back roll is of higher brix and greater purity than that from the front
or feed roll because the feed roll extracts the superficial imbibition water on the exterior of the
bagasse particles, where as the back roll extracts part of the juice in the inner cells. The feed
roller of the later mills with wet crushing should furnish about three fourths of the juice and the
back roller only one fourth.

Brix Curve
Number of Mills
5.6 Basic Equation of Milling Control
The mill control is based on an equation expressing the fact that the weight of the material
entering the milling plant is equal to the weight leaving.
Cane + Imbibition Water = Mixed Juice + Bagasse.
C + W = Q + B
Where/ W = Imbibition Water % Cane.
Q = Weight of Mixed Juice % Cane
B = Weight of Bagasse % Cane
C = Weight of Cane = 100, Relating All Quantities
100 + W = Q + B
The weight of cane is the most important information since other materials are always related to
cane weight. Nearly in all countries cane weighing is compulsory. Juice is normally weighted or
measured, although weighing is more precise. If it is measured (like in Wonji and Shoa) sample
of each measuring tanks should be taken to obtain an average of the density of the measured
juice and find the correct specific gravity, a flow meter can be used for measuring juice only if it
is magnetic. Since otherwise there is interference of insoluble solids present in the juice.

Imbibition water must also be weighed but here a flow meter can be used, as there is no material-
handling problem.
The weight of bagasse should also be determined by weighing. Weighing of bagasse is very
convenient where it is used for purpose other than fuel. Where bagasse is used directly for fuel,
the weight of bagasse is calculated from the basic equation.
Bagasse = Cane + Water – Juice
The basic equation doesn’t work strictly correct in practice due to the following reasons.
1) The cane is weighed some time before it enters the mills. In this interval the cane remains
in the sun at cane yard and it loses weight.
2) During the crushing, the surface of juice is exposed to evaporation. Further, if the
imbibition water is hot, evaporation takes place at the spray pipes or the distributing
plates, which are always covered, in a cloud of steam.
3) Assuming a mean period of 4 - 8 hrs at the cane yard and a normal time of passage
through the mills, a rough estimation of weight loss is mad by e. hugot.
a) Loss of weight of cane at cane yard < 1%
b) Loss of weight of juice at mills 2 – 3%
In general, various experiments in different countries show that from 2 – 4% loss of weight in
cane is resulted.
Therefore: Cane + Water > Juice + Bagasse.
The weight of bagesse varies between 25 and 30 an error in 1 – 3 % in the basic equation would
lead to an error of about 10 % of bagasse weight. However, the general practice is not to make
any correction to take into account this losses, and the weight of bagasse obtained is thus in
error, being too high.
Such error in bagasse weight directly reflects on the fiber figure when obtained by calculation. If
also reflects slightly on the sugar content of cane.

1. Explain the degree of extraction of all soluble constituents of cane.
2. Describe the influences of the fibre content of cane on milling.
3. Describe the mill sanitation.
4. Explain the different methods used to keep the mill clean and reduce the inversion
and purity drop.
5. Differentiate and describe briefly the different types of fermentation occurs in a sugar
factory.
6. Discuss all the different methods and equipments used in juice screening.
7. Explain the DSM screen application based on screen spacing.
8. Briefly explain the basic equation of mill control.
9. Explain the Brix curve of front roller and delivery roller.
10. Explain the factors that have great contribution for fermentation in sugar industry.

Unit Six
Start-Up and Shutdown Procedures of Mill
Unit Objectives
Describe briefly how to start cane handling equipments during startup of mill.
Explain all the steps to be taken on cane handling equipments during shutdown of the
mill.
Discuss all the necessary steps to follow while start up and shutdown of mill turbine
6.1 Cane Handling Plant, Preparation and Milling Plant

After long service or overhaul to start cane handling equipments the following things must be
done
Communication is the first to all stake holders
Workers must be not inside or in unsafe condition around the machine to be started
No hand tools and other materials inside or around the machine
Any left over materials have to be transported to the appropriate area
All concerned workers have to be on the site from each section
Every thing has to be check from each side for its proper ness
The power plant personnel must be informed
The site control panel must be on for any emergency condition
Operator or the concerned must be assigned on the spot
Then the machine can be started and observation will be carried out.

In case of shutdown
All the cane or bagasse must be processed before stoppage.
Cleaning by rotating the machinery
Stop the machinery.
Disconnect the power supply.
Cover for those machinery which needs it
This is how shutdown was to be conducted.
6.2 Mill Steam Turbines

To start mill turbines:
Get all the systems are intact
Start auxiliary oil pump and adjust the pressure
Open all steam lines drain valves
Open all exhaust valves
Get communicated with the boiler personnel to open the main steam line to the
Plant
Open the live steam by-pass valve very slowly and with higher attention
After sufficient heat up and water removal open main valve slowly
Close the by-pass valve after fully opens the main valve
Assure nothing was not around and inside the area and machinery
Open all turbines steam inlet valve
Start the turbine step by step
Open admission valve step by step
Adjust the turbine speed

Close the drain valves
This is what starts up of steam turbine looks like
Shutdown of the steam turbine:
Process all the things on the line
Give time for cleaning
Stop the entire turbine step by step
Open drain valves of all
Close admission valve
Open main line drain valves
Close main steam line of each turbine
Close main steam supply valve
Close exhaust valves of each turbine
Close main exhaust valves
Give time to cool
Stop auxiliary oil pump after the turbine gets cool
Clean the turbine and its surrounding
In short the shutdown procedure looks like this.
6.3 Usual Communication with Other Stations

During start up and shutdown the communications between plants were in the normal situation
priority shutdown and start up procedure or guide line will be issued by the concerned before the
date. Then during in action parallel communications were made to lead the work in a steady
flow. If there is abnormal conditions on the process the concerned will be communicated to get
decision.

1. Write all the necessary steps to start cane handling equipments during startup of mill.
2. Write all the necessary steps to shutdown cane handling equipments during shutdown
of mill.
3. Write all the necessary steps to start cane mill turbine during startup of mill.
4. Write all the necessary steps to shutdown cane mill turbine during shutdown of mill.
5. Explain the important sections which one do while starting and shutting of mill.

Unit Seven
Diffusion
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit training the trainees will be able to:
Describe the two physical processes which occur simultaneously during diffusion in
sugar industry.
Define terms used in cane diffuser which comes from the beet industry. .
Briefly explain the flow and schematic diagram of a cane diffuser.
Differentiate the two types of diffuser namely cane and bagasse diffuser.
Discuss the main parts of a horizontal bed diffuser.
Compare and contrast the two different types of cane diffuser layout.
Describe the factors which influence the operational performance of a diffuser.
Discuss the average operational condition of a horizontal bed diffuser.
Describe the effect of diffusion on other factory operation.
Compare and contrast the cost of installation and extraction efficiency of a diffuser and
mills,
7.1 Principles of Operation and Definition of Terms

Diffusion as applied in the cane sugar industry consists of two physical processes which occur
simultaneously. They are:
i) Leaching of juice from the broken cells of the sugar cane.
ii) Diffusion of sugar by osmosis across the wall of the cane cells.

The combination of these two processes in cane diffusion is sometimes referred to as

LIXIVIATION.
Extraction of cane juice by leaching and liquid/liquid transfer of sugar between the juice and the
leaching fluid (maceration juice) is almost instantaneous, while true diffusion is a very slow
process. Most of the sugar extracted in a commercial cane diffuser is the result of leaching, while
diffusion is responsible for the marginal increase in extraction, which occurs towards the
discharge end of the diffuser (See Fig. 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Typical Brix Curve for a Cane Diffuser
The terms used in cane diffusion come from the beet industry. They are:
Scalding Juice: It is the juice re-circulated on the prepared cane at the feed end of the diffuser to
bring the cane mass to the operating temperature. The scalding juice leaches out a large
proportion of the juice in the cells broken open during cane preparation.
Draft Juice: It is the juice drawn off the diffuser and sent to process. In the case of cane
diffusion, it is the same as mixed juice.

Press Water: It is the thin juice extracted by the dewatering mills and re-circulated to the
diffuser.
The principle underlying cane diffusion is counter current extraction of sugar in fibrated cane by
imbibition water. Various types of diffusers have to be preceded by preparation equipment to
fibrate the cane and to break open about 90 % of the juice cells.
The fiber mass discharges from a diffuser is saturated with thin juice and must be dewatered in
mills to obtain bagasse of about 50 % moisture. The press water extracted by the dewatering
mills is re-circulated to the diffuser as part of the counter current extraction process (See Fig.
7.2).
Figure 7.2: Flow Diagram of a Cane Diffuser and Auxiliary Equipment
7.2 Cane and Bagasse Diffusers

Diffusers can be divided into two groups: The cane diffuser which process cane prepared by
knifing and shredding, and the bagasse diffuser which are preceded by one or more pre-
extraction mills. Bagasses diffusers are shorter and cheaper than cane diffusers, but the combined
capital and operating costs of a mill and of a bagasee diffuser exceed by far those of a cane
diffuser. In addition, the attrition of the fiber caused by the pre-extraction mill reduces the
efficiency of bagasse diffusers.

Figure 7.3: Schematic Diagram of a Cane Diffuser
7.3 Types of Diffusers

Cane diffusers of every conceivable shape and type have been patented. However, the only types
which have been widely adopted are the HORIZONTAL BED diffusers. These diffusers are long
conveyors on which prepared cane is move in a mat, 1 to 2 meters thick, at a speed of 0.5 to 1 m
min-1 while being subjected to counter current washing by a series of sprays of juice of
decreasing concentration and a final washing by water. Juice re-circulation along the diffuser is
by a series of centrifugal pumps.
7.4 Construction of a Diffuser

The main parts of horizontal bed diffusers are described below:
The Conveyor: The Conveyor is either a drag conveyor on a fixed screen or an apron type
conveyor made up of screens supported by beams running on rails. The screens are made of
stainless steel with perforations of 6 to 12 mm. Screen supports can be subject to corrosion if

made of mild steel. Lubrication of the outboard chains of the diffuser carrier is required in apron
type. Wear of the pins of the carrier chains which are in the juice is one of the most important
factors in the maintenance of fixed screen diffusers.
The Drive: The drive of the main diffuser conveyor is by speed electric motors with speed
reduction by means of epicyclic gear or by reducing gear and chain drive. The power taken by
the main conveyor drive is lower in the moving screen (30 KW for 325 TCH) than in the fixed
screen (100 KW). Ingress of juice into the main shaft bearings of the diffusers conveyor has been
reported in some cases.
The Body: The body of the diffuser is a rectangular welded steel tunnel with the bottom
consisting of 10 to16 hoppers to collect the percolating juice at each washing stage. Corrosion of
the wetted parts of the diffuser can be important and has led to their fabrications in either
stainless steel or 3CR12 steel. The roof of the diffuser can be of mild steel, but it should be
protected by epoxy pant to reduce corrosion by condensing steam. In some diffusers, the whole
body is of 3CR12.
The feed hopper and the discharge chute of diffuser are subjected to erosion by the fiber and by
sand introduced with the cane and should be made of erosion resistant steel (3CR12 or stainless).
Unless thermal efficiency is not required, the top and sides of diffuses are insulated.
The Circulations Pumps: The circulating pumps which transfer juice from one stage to the next
are centrifugal pumps generally with brass casings and stainless or Ni-hard impellers. Because of
the sand content of diffusion juice, excessive wear has been reported at high speeds and the
pumps should be driven at about 750 rpm.
Juice Distributors: The juice is sprayed on the cane bed by Juice Distributors which are either
troughs or sprayers. The troughs, from which juice overflows on one or both sides are on rails
inside the diffuser body and cane be moved for about 500 mm in both directions. An ingenious
installations at uniform in South Africa enables the troughs to be moved from outside while the
diffuser is working. The troughs must be level to allow for an even discharge of juice along the

whole width of the diffuser. They must be fitted with drain plugs. The troughs have been
replaced by adjustable jets and baffle plates in some diffusers. The flow of circulations juice is
controlled by butterfly valves, which should be placed near the sight glasses to enable the
amount of wash at each stage to be controlled.
Dewatering Rolls: One or more Dewatering Rolls are placed on the bed near the discharge end
of the diffuser. They are large diameter fabrications drums with lugs or chevrons welded on the
surface to enable the rolls to be driven by the forward movements of the cane bed. The amount
of dewatering which they can do is limited by difficulties in draining the juice through the thick
mat of cane, but they serve a useful purpose by restricting the flow of juice from the discharge
end of the diffuser in case of flooding . These drums are adjustable in high and can be filled with
water to increase the pressure on the bed. Perforations in the diffuser side plates under the
dewatering roll improve drainage.
A Kicker: A kicker is placed at the tail end of moving screen diffuser to even out the discharge
of bagasse which has a tendency to slide off the plates of the conveyor in large lumps.
Lifting Screws: Percolation of press water returned to the diffuser from the dewatering mills is
difficult because of its high content in suspended solids. It is facilitated by a bank of Lifting
Screws across the diffuser. These screws are top driven by electric motors (7.5 to 10 KW)
through reduction gears. They are spaced about one meter apart and extend to about 200 mm
from the screen of the diffuser.
The screws wear rapidly. They should be made of a wear resistant material (3CR12) and welding
should protect the cutting edge of the screws. The direction of rotation of adjacent screws should
be an alternated to reduce localized accumulation of cane, which affects bed level. Motors and
gear boxes should be protected against entry of steam from the diffuser. Ball bearings with nylon
cages should not be used because of warping by heat.
An additional bank of screw to improve percolation in the front end is often installed.

7.5 Capacity of Diffusers

The capacity of diffuser is roughly proportional to their width and their efficiency to their length.
Capacity is affected by the percolation rate, which varies appreciably with the field soil content
of the cane.
The capacity of diffuser can be expressed in m2/TCH and values found in South Africa for cane
diffuser operating at 97 to 98 extractions are listed in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Gross Screen Area of some Cane Diffusers in Southern Africa (2004)
Screen Area Bed

Mill Type TFH Stages Length (m) Width(m) (m2) (m2/TCH) Thickness(m)
ML(1) BMA 27 14 59.0 5.9 348 1.9 1.3
Ml (2) BMA 27 16 59.0 5.9 348 1.9 1.3
2 × Km TH 29 12 57.5 6.5 374 1.9 1.4
PG BMA 35 12 57.5 6.0 345 1.5 1.4
UF DES 40 16 49.5 7.5 371 1.4 1.5
2 × FX TH 52 14 64.7 12.0 776 2.6 1.6
AX TH 54 16 57.5 11.0 633 1.6 1.4
GH BMA 19 12 52.3 4.0 209 1.7 1.2
UC BMA 22.5 15 59.8 4.0 239 1.6 1.3
MS (1) BMA 30 16 59.0 6.4 360 1.6 1.4
MS (2) TH 45 12 64.0 9.0 515 1.7 1.8
ES BMA 39 13 54.0 6.0 384 1.5 1.3
2 × SZ BMA 30 12 54.0 7.5 405 1.8 1.6
UK BMA 34 12 54.0 7.5 405 1.7 1.6
MH BMA 21 15 57.9 3.9 226 1.5 1.5
UB DES 26 15 43.0 5,0 215 1.2 1.7
2 × HV BMA 43.5 12 56.2 5.9 332 1.1 1.3
DW DES 25.5 14 48.3 5.2 251 1.5 1.7
NH DES 47.0 14 49.5 7.5 371 1.2 1.4

* Gross screen area includes chain support area, etc. Effective screen area is about 75 % of gross
area.
Average values for design purpose would be 1.5 m2 /TCH for clean cane and 1.75 m2/TCH for
dirty cane.
7.6 The Layout of Diffusers

The length and width of rectangular diffusers present layout problems which are compounded by
the fact that the cane inlet is at 10.5 m above ground level and the bagasse discharge at only 0.5
m. the conveying of shredded cane to the diffuser and that of diffuser bagasse to the dewatering
mill has often proved, in practice, to be more troublesome than the operations of the diffusers.
Diffusers should preferably be placed out door and two layouts are shown in Fig. 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Layout of a Cane Diffuser
Layout (b) is preferred for a new factory
Because of the high moisture content of the bagasse discharged from a diffuser (about 80 %), the
inclined part of the conveyor between the diffuser and the dewatering mill should be a drag
conveyor with a screen bottom and with facilities for returning juice to the diffuser.

7.7 The Power and Steam Consumption of Diffusers

The installed power values for some diffusers installations are listed in Table 7.2. They include
the diffuser drive, circulations pumps and auxiliaries, such as lifting screws and kickers. The
feed and discharge conveyor drives and the mixed juice pump have not been included.
Table 7.2: Installed Power –Cane Diffusers
Diffuser Type TFH Diffuser Type Power Power Total Extraction

KW/TFH Plant KW/TFH
ML 35 BMA 26.9 129.9
PG 30 BMA 27.5 143.7
UF 45 De Smet 13.3 144.7
FX 52 T-H 20.8 144.2
AK 54 T-H 17.8 144.3
IL 31 BMA 26.6 178,0
MH 21 BMA 23.8 172.7
UR 26 De Smet 25.0 122.5
It is probably more relevant to compare the installed power of the complete extraction plant,
including the preparation equipment and the dewatering mills, which ranged from 123 KW/TFH
to 178 KW/TFH in Southern Africa. For design purposes, 130 to 140 KW/TFH should be
sufficient.
The relatively high pressure steam requirements of diffuser compared to mills is an advantage for
factories which sell surplus electricity. It can also be used to avoid the necessity for more high
pressure steam to power additional mills when considering an increase in extraction efficiency.
A diffuser also requires low pressure steam or preferably first or second effect vapour to heat the
shredded cane to the operating temperature of about 80 0C. Part of this heat is recovered in mixed
juice, but a large proportion is loss in bagasse. The heat lost in bagasse and the heat required to
bring the cane to operating temperature can be determined using specific heat values calculated
by means of the following formula:

SH = 3,433 M + 105
Where/ “SH” = Specific Heat (KJ Kg -1 0C -1)

“M” = Fractional Moisture Content of Prepared Cane or Bagasse.
Measurements carried out in South Africa have shown that the effect of the heat loss on the
overall steam requirements of a raw sugar factory would be to increase the steam demand by 30
Kg per tonne of cane.
7.8 The Operation of Diffusers

A formula derived experimentally in Australia for bagasse diffusers summarizes the effect of
some of the factors, which influence diffusers performance. The factors are indicative only and
may not be the same for cane diffusers.
E = 91.2 – 3S + 0.1 t + 0.19 T
Where/ “E” = Extraction % Pol in First Mill Bagasse

“S” = Average Thickness of Cane Particles (mm)
“t” = Diffuser Temperature (0C)
‘T’ = Retention Time (min)
These factors and three others which have not been included in the equation (concentration
gradient, pH and percolation rate) are discussed below:
7.8.1 Particle Size
The positive effect of improving cane preparation to reduce particle size is to increase extraction.
It has been found experimentally that a reduction in average particle thickness from 6 to 4 mm
would increase overall extraction by about 2 %. If the cane is reduced to powder, total extraction
can be achieved in only 4 minutes.
However, over preparation reduces the percolation rate and will, therefore, adversely affect
extraction by reducing the rate of leaching and diffusion.

The optimum particle size has to be found by trial and error and controlled by measurements of
the preparation index (P.I.) and by inspection of the Brix curve. An increase in Brix at the
dewatering mills is an indication of insufficient preparation.
Ideally, the prepared cane should consist of long fiber with a minimum of fines. This type of
preparation can be obtained with a shredder fed with cane having been subjected to a minimum
of knifing. Mills cause attrition of the fiber and adversely affect percolation.
7.8.2 Temperature
A temperature of at least 75 0C is required to kill the cell walls and to increase their permeability,
and also to prevent microbiological destruction of sugar by thermophilic bacteria.
Extraction is h her as the temperature increases and diffusers have been operated successfully at
90 0C.
However, the rate of extraction of impurities, in particular color, also increases with temperature,
and it is especially high where processing cane containing trash and tops.
Temperature along the diffuser is controlled by insulation and vapour injection under the bed of
cane. The temperature at the feed end and at the discharge end are controlled by the scalding
juice and the press water heaters respectively with normal operating temperatures between 80 0C
and 90 0C.

7.8.2 Retention Time
Experimental work in Australia and South Africa has shown an increase in extraction of about
0.6 for a 5- minute increase in fiber retention time (45 to 50 minutes). Juice retention time can be
appreciably higher because of the retention of juice in the fiber bed and because of recirculation.
In practice, no harmful effect has been found with fiber retention times of up to 90 minutes, and
tracer tests have shown that most of the sugar in the cane is extracted in the first 20 minutes.
Sugar destruction in the diffuser is indicated by a mixed juice purity which is lower than the cane
purity obtained by direct cane analysis.
7.8.3 Imbibition
The Brix gradient is the driving force for diffusion to take place across the cell wall. Very high
extraction of 98 and above has been obtained with diffusers at imbibitions rates of over 400 %
fiber.
Apart from the extra load which high levels of imbibitions place on the evaporators and on the
boilers, they may also adversely affect diffuser operation because of juice by-passing and
flooding. An imbibitions % fiber of between 250 and 300 can give a very good extraction.
7.8.4 pH
The juice pH in the diffuser should be controlled by addition of milk of lime at several points to
obtain a recirculation juice pH of between 6.0 and 6.5. It should never be higher than 6.5 at any
point in the diffuser to prevent precipitation of impurities in the cane bed.
7.8.5 Percolation Rate
This is the most important factor in diffuser operation, but it is a factor over which the operator
has no direct control. It can, however, be influenced indirectly by acting on cane preparation,
temperature and pH. Typical percolation rates are 13 to 14 mm min-1 in the central part of the
diffuse, and percolation angles with the horizontal measured in diffusers are:

1st Stage : 570
2nd Stage : 380
Other Stages : 140
Lifting screws have no lasting effect on the percolation angle which returns to approximately
140, about one meter downstream from the screws.
Dry feeding of the diffuser reduces compactions and improves percolation.
Average Operating Conditions of a horizontal bed diffuser are summarized below:
Cane Preparation Index : 90 – 92
Cane Bed Depth : 1.5 m
Conveyore Speed : 1 m/min
Temperature : 80 0C
pH : 6.0
Imbibition % Fiber : 250 – 350
7.9 Press Water Treatment

The thin juice (about 20 Brix) extracted by the dewatering, mills has a high suspended solids
content and will clog the bagasse bed if returned to the diffuser without treatment. In addition,
this juice is at about 60 0C, and it has to be reheated to diffuser operating temperature.
Press water can be treated by heating to about 100 0C, adding flocculants and milk of lime to
obtain a pH of about 6.5 in the clarifier overflow and setting in short retention time (about 20
minutes) clarifiers. The overflow is dark in color, but it has a higher percolation rate than
unclarified press water. The underflow is mixed with defecation mud and filtered. It should be
weighted or measured volumetrically before mixing, and a correction should be applied to the

mass balance of the extraction plant for a cane diffuser, the press water clarification underflow is
about 3 % on cane.
Press water clarification has been replaced by screws in most recent diffusers. When processing
cane with high field soil content, both clarification and screws may be needed.
The cost of the equipment and the additional retention time in the clarifier are obvious
disadvantages of press water treatment. These disadvantages are compensated to a certain extent
by a reduction in the sand content of bagasse going to the boilers when processing dirty cane.
7.10 The Effect of Diffusion on Other Factory Operations

A reduction of 50 to 70 % in the volume of defecation mud and consequently in the weight of
filter cake. The possibility of recycling defecation mud to the diffuser without filtration
An increase of about 20 % in the ash content of bagasse if press water is snot clarified.
An increase in vapour requirement (V1 or V2) of 30 kilos per tonne of cane and a corresponding
increase in evaporator capacity.
A decrease in the power requirement of the extraction plant of about 35 KW/TFH.
An increase in the color of the juice when cane containing trash and tops is processed.
7.11 Moving Screen and Fixed Screen Diffusers

A comparison of the moving screen and fixed screen diffusers leads to the following
considerations.
• Chains dragging cane across the fixed screen generally result in the formation of a more
compact cane layer at the screen, which affects percolation.

• The moving screen diffuser requires double the screen area, as half the screen is inoperative
on the return strand.
• Fixed screen diffusers have a heavy press roller riding on the cane which leads to a lower
moisture content of diffuser discharge bagasse.
• Because of reduced friction, the drive power required on a moving screen diffuser is
generally lower, typically 30 Kw for a 300 ton/hr diffuser compared to 100 Kw for a fixed
screen diffuser. However most of the power used by diffusers is on stage juice pumps.
• Because moving screen diffusers cannot seal the top surface with a heavy press roller,
discharge of cane from moving screen diffusers is by lifting screws (Silver Ring) or lifting
drum (De Smet). Discharge from fixed screen diffusers is simpler, by gravity with a kicker to
smooth out the flow.
• Perhaps because of the difficulty of sealing between the moving screen and the stationary
side walls, moving screen diffusers lead to higher levels of suspended solids in juice
(typically 0.6 % compared with 0.1 % on diffuser juice), requiring draft juice screens and a
press water clarifier.
In general then it can be said that the moving bed type diffuser has captured the cane diffusion
market to the exclusion of other types of diffuser, due to their relatively low cost, simplicity of
operation and ability to achieve very high extractions. For this reason the comparison with
milling will be restricted to this type of cane diffuser.
7.12 Cane Preparation

While good cane preparation assists in getting good milling results, it is even more important
with diffusion. Cane preparation is the most important variable affecting extraction in diffusers.
If high extractions are to be achieved it is essential that the cane is prepared in a heavy duty
shredder so that most of the sugar containing cells of the cane stalk is ruptured. Laboratory and
pilot plant work showed very clearly that more intensive preparation of cane makes more of the

sucrose containing juice readily accessible to the extracting liquid, minimizing the amount of
sucrose which has to be extracted by a much slower diffusional mechanism.
Not only is it important to rupture a large proportion of the juice containing cells, but the way in
which the cane is prepared is also important. Ideally the type of preparation should result in
material where all the cells are ruptured but where long fibers are still evident, which will result
in a cane bed which is stable and open enough to allow high percolation rates to be achieved. In
practice it has been found that this is best achieved in heavy duty shredders with a minimum of
knifing, since intensive knifing reduces the average fiber length.
The measurement of the degree of cane preparation is difficult and existing measures are not
always reliable. The most common measure used in South Africa is the preparation Index (PI),
which attempts to assess the degree of preparation by measuring how much of the sugar in cane
is easily washed out of the prepared cane sample. This is a useful approach since it assesses the
preparation in terms of how readily extractable the sugar is. Unfortunately it is not a reproducible
measurement since it is affected by cane variety and the amount of extraneous matter in cane. In
South Africa it is considered that a PI of at least 92 is required if an extraction of over 97 % is to
be achieved in a diffuser.
Payne (1968) in Hawaii suggested that a Diplaceability Index of at least 94 is required in order to
achieve an extraction of 97 % or more.
In South Africa, the cane preparation methods and the power required are similar for both
milling and diffusion. It has been found that power absorbed in a heavy duty shredder for good
preparation in relation to cane crushing rate (tch) or fiber rate (tfh) lies in the range of 4.5 – 6
Kw/tch or 30 - 40 Kw/tfh (Marson 1980). Lamusse (1980) considers installed power of 70
Kw/tfh to be adequate for good preparation, including knifing and shredding.
7.13 Effect on Operations

Because of the long residence time of cane in the diffuser, start up and liquidation operations are
rather more prolonged with a diffuser. It is common practice to fill all the stages of the diffuser
with water before starting up so an adequate supply of water is necessary during the maintenance

shutdown. Then there is a period of about an hour before bagasse gets through to the boilers.
This means that an adequate bagasse store and system of reclaiming bagasse to the boilers is
necessary.
Likewise on shutting down, liquidation of the diffuser takes a much longer time and the clarifiers
generally have to handle a reducing brix juice during the liquidation.
In operation, diffusers are more flexible than mills in coping with a wider range of throughput
rates. The diffuser speed can be run as slow as the drive will allow, i.e. the turndown is very
good, and may be extended even further by changes in bed height. The maximum diffuser bed
speed will be set by the ability of the dewatering mills to handle the quantity of diffuser bagasse.
If long stops are encountered due to mechanical breakdowns, it is generally advisable to empty
the diffuser if the stop is to last more than about six hours. If this is not done, significant
deterioration of the sugar in the diffuser can occur. This is not normally a concern with a milling
tandem.
There is no maximum or minimum imbibition rate for diffusion. Since high imbibition rates will
enable a smaller diffuser to be utilized to achieve a given extraction, the reduction in the cost of
the diffuser would have to be balanced against the cost of additional evaporator capacity and the
cost of steam. The optimum imbibition rate for any mill therefore is dependent on the local
factors at that mill.
There is however a limit in a milling tandem. Very high imbibition rates are not possible as they
jeopardize feeding of the mills and lead to high moisture in bagasse. Experience in South Africa
has shown that very high imbibition rates of over 400 % on fiber can be handled in diffusers,
with consequent extraction benefits providing the inter stage juice system is adjusted. Rein and
Ingham (1992) give details of a system which will accommodate all levels of imbibition in
diffusers, optimizing extraction and eliminating flooding.
Comparison of the quality of raw juice from diffusion and milling (average of 10 years data from
Maidstone mill)

Diffusion Milling
Gas Chromatograph Sucrose Purity 84.1 84.9
Raw Juice Purity – Cane Purity 0.12 0.67
Pol/Sucrose Ratio 0.988 0.985
Suspended Solids % Juice 0.16 0.64
Lactic Acid (ppm on Brix) 210 560
Extraction % 97.7 97.2
Juice from the diffuser has a lower purity, but this may be partly due to the higher extraction.
Experience with different diffuser temperatures has confirmed that higher temperature lead to
higher juice colours. Measurements at AK shower that a reduction in temperature of about 10 0C
resulted in a drop of 25 % in colour. Lionner (1988 however showed that a 10 0C change in
temperature changes the colour of juices by 10 % but this applies to hand cleaned cane. The
presence of tops and trash has a significant effect on the colour of diffuser juice.
7.13 Microbiological Losses in Mills and Diffusers

Low brix raw juices degrade readily as a result of microorganism activity. At room temperature a
large rang of organisms will ferment sugar juices. Perhaps the most evident micro organism
activity is shown by Leuconmostoc spp which are slime forming bacteria. Such slime is
commonly observed in milling tandems where insufficient attention is given to cleanliness of the
mills.
In diffuser where temperatures are considerably higher, mesophilic organism are rendered
inactive but hypethermophile can be active. These are generally lactic acid producing bacteria
and are active at temperature up to 70 0C. The pH range from 5 to 6.5 found in mills and
diffusers does not have a significant effect on micro organism activity.
Control of such losses in milling tandems involves keeping the mills are clean as possible at all
times. Particularly where bagasse is allowed to accumulate, micro organism activity can be very
high ideally mills should be steamed at regular intervals and on mill stops or shut down the mill
should be properly cleaned down.

In diffusers, losses of sugar can be very high if temperature is not kept well above 70 0C. It is not
considered feasible to operate diffusers at lower temperature as losses under these conditions can
be server. It is common practice to control diffusers at an average of about 85 0C. This ensures
that the temperature at no stage drops below 75 0C, which is considered to be the minimum
operating temperature. Sufficient heater capacity must be installed on scalding juice duty at the
feed end of the diffuser, in order to achieve a bed temperature at least 75 0C within one sage.
Scalding juice is circulated through the heater at the feed end of the diffuser at a rate of about
300 % on cane. Under these condition raw juice leaving the diffuser is at a temper ere of about
65 0C.
7.13.1 Measurement of Microbiological Losses
Measurement of microbiological losses in milling tandems has not received much attention,
particularly as they are very difficult to measure. Even when extensive losses occur, no
significant reduction in apparent juice purity is evident. This is partly due to the fact that dextran
produced in large quantities by mesophiles is strongly dextro rotatory, artificially inflating the
pol measurement. In general the extent of losses in milling tandems is unknown, since a means
of measuring such losses routinely is not available.
In diffusers, the situation is different since the major degradation product of hyperthermophiles is
lactic acid which can be routinely measured. In addition, significant cases of microbiological
losses will be evident by an accompanying drop in juice purity.
Experiments in the laboratory have established approximate conversion equivalence between
lactic acid formed and sucrose lost (Mackrory et al., 1984). Each part of lactic acid formed in
diffuser corresponds to two parts of sucrose loss. A different equivalence was found at
temperatures corresponding to milling tandem operation; in this case, each part of lactic acid
formed means a loss of about eight parts of sucrose. However this relationship is considered to
be less reliable.
The routine measurement of lactic acid in juice is recommended as a control measure. Average
values of 300 ppm lactic acid on brix represent a realistic target for both mills and diffusers. Data

from MS in Table 1 show that the lactic acid content in mill raw juice can easily be twice that in
diffuser juice. Based on the equivalence ratios between lactic acid and sucrose established by
Mackrory et al. (1984), the loss in mills is about 16 times that in diffusers, and is close to 0.5 %.
They concluded that with good diffuser temperature control, microbial sucrose losses are
significantly lower in diffusers than in milling tandems.
7.13.2 Effect on Steam Balance and Power Requirements
Additional heat is required in the diffusion system, generally obtained from either Vapour I or
vapours II bled from evaporators at an amount of about 11 % on cane. The mixed juice leaving
the diffuser is at a higher temperature and so roughly half of this heat is recovered, but the rest of
the energy is lost in the final bagasse. The net effect after evaporation is to increase the total
amount of steam required in a conventional sugar mill by about 3 % on cane.
A disadvantage of diffusion is the fact that more of the sand coming in with the cane ends up in
the final bagasse and less in the mixed juice. Typically for cane diffuser (Lamusse 1984). The
effect of this is to reduce the calorific value of the bagasse marginally, but a more severe
disadvantage is the fact that additional sane in bagasse leads to considerable wear in boilers. The
effect of this cane is minimized by changes to the design of the boiler generating tube banks. On
the other hand, less sand in draft juice leads to less mud and a lower loss in cake.
Diffusion is of considerable advantage to a factory which exports power and this aspect is likely
to become increasingly important in future as power generation from renewable resources
becomes more popular. Typically installed power values (excluding cane preparation) are 90 -
100 Kw/ tfh for a milling tandem and 45- 50 Kw/tfh for a diffusion plant, i.e. roughly half to the
power required in milling. More comprehensive details are given elsewhere (Rein and Hoekstra,
1994)
7.14 Conclusions of a Comparison of Milling and Diffusion
A comparison of milling and diffusion shows the major advantages of diffusions to be lower
capital and operating costs, and the ability to achieve a very high sucrose extraction. Pre-

requisites are and adequate preparation, achieved through a heavy duty shredder and steady
operation incorporating adequate temperature control.
Disadvantage of diffusion are higher level of sand in bagasses and colour in juice, and longer
start up and shutdown procedures because of the larger cane holdup in the system. The
advantages of cane diffusion have led to a market swing to extraction by cane diffusion in the
Southern African cane sugar mills.
7.15 Comparative Cost of Diffusers and Mills
In Southern Africa, the capital cost of the diffusion process, including the dewatering mills was
found to be about 65 % of the cost of a milling tandem of the same efficiency. In both cases, the
coast of the preparation equipment was excluded because it was the same for the two processes.
Labour costs for a diffusion plant varied from 33 to 50 % of those of a milling plat and
maintenance costs were between 60 to 70 % of those of mills of the same capacity.
In Fiji, the breakdown of operating costs in a diffusion plant (stores and labour) with two
dewatering mills was:
Conveyors : 10 %
Diffusers Body Including Chains and Pumps : 16 %
Dewatering Mills : 65 %
Instruments : 2%
Buildings : 2%
Breakdown : 2%
Others : 3%

1. Give the factors that can influence a diffuser.
2. Give range of values of the parameters for an efficient running of a diffuser.
3. Provide a flow diagram of cane diffuser and its auxiliary equipment as well as the
process products of the latter
4. Give the advantage and disadvantage of the diffusion in relation to milling.
5. How would a diffusion tandem and a milling tandem having the same capacity and the
same mill extraction compare with respect to:
a) Maintenance Cost b) Preparation Equipments

c) High Pressure Steam Requirement d) Filter Cake Production
e) Calorific Value of Bagasse
6. An existing factory with four mills and limited boiler capacity has to increase its mill
extraction. What would be the main advantage of replacing three mills by a diffuser
over the addition of a fifth mill?
7. In a design of a new factory what would motivate the choice of a diffuser instead of
mill? What types of preparation equipments would you use? Would you choose a
cane or bagasse diffuser?
8. Define the following:

a) Scalding Juice b) Draft Juice c) Press Water
9. Explain all the main parts of the horizontal bed diffuser.
10. Discuss the effect of diffusion on the other factory operation.

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Module 2

Unit Two: Construction of Mills................................................................................................ 28

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 2

2.7 Feeding Devices .............................................................................................................. 37

Unit Three: Settings in the Mills............................................................................................... 47

Unit Four: Imbibition ............................................................................................................... 72

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 3

4.4 Point of Application of Imbibition................................................................................. 77

Chapter Five: Compostion of Mill Juice ................................................................................... 82

Unit Six: Start – Up and Shut – Down Procedures of Mill ................................................... 95

Unit Seven: Diffusion ................................................................................................................ 99

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 4

7.8.3 Retention Time........................................................................................................ 110

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 5

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 6

The Milling Plant

Describe briefly the importance of milling in sugar industry.

and delivery roller.

Discuss the three major types of grooves on milling rollers

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type of grooving.

Explain briefly the importance of arcing and its draw back.

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 7

1.2 Separation of Juice from Cane

1.3 Milling Process Development

1.3.1 The Mill Tandem

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 8

1.3.2 Development of the Milling Tandem

The two best known of these two-roller crushers were:

b) The FULTON (See Fig. 1.1 (b)), with circular grooving.

Figure 1.1 (a): KRAJEWSKI Crusher Roller

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 9

Figure 1.1 (b): FULTON Crusher Roller (Fives Lille – Cail)

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 10

1.4 The Three - Roller Mill

The three rolls are known as:-

Feed Roll, Cane Roll, Entering Roll, Front Roll

Delivery Roll, Discharge Roll, Bagasse Roll, Back Roll.

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 11

The Cane Mill

1.5 Mill Rollers

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 12

Figure 1.2 (a): Standard Housing (Mill Rollers)

Figure 1.2 (b): Squire Housing (Mill Rollers)

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 13

Figure 1.2 (c): Standard Inclined Housing (Mill Rollers)

Figure 1.2 (d): Five Housing Model C46 (Mill Rollers)

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 14

1.5.1 Roller Grooving

There are three types of grooving:

Juice Drainage Grooves and

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 15

1.5.1.1 Circumferential Grooves

Advantages of Circumferential Grooves

Sugar Engineering and Manufacturing Training Team 16

1.5.1.2 Juice Drainage Grooves

a) Forward with the roller, beyond the trash plate.

In this last system, the loss of a tooth is avoided.