Proe. Indian Acad. Sci., Vol. 1 C, No. 1, July 1978, pp. 73-92. 9 Printed in India.

Development of a hypersonic shock tunnel

N M REDDY
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560 012
MS received 12 October 1977; revised 12 January 1978
Abstract. The design, development and calibration of a shock tube/tunnel is des-
cribed in this paper. Its main features are: (1) test section size: 30 cm dia jet enclosed
in a 30 cm • 30 cm square test section; (2) diameter and overall length of shock
tube: 50 mm and 5.63 m respectively; (3) test section Math number range: 4 to 13;
(4) stagnation temperature simulation: upto 8000~ This facility has been operated
in a 'straight-through' as well as "reflected' mode. Instrumentation like piezo-
electric pressure gauges, thin film heat transfer gauges along with electric analogue net
works have been used extensively to calibrate the facility as well as to measure the
flow variables inside the shock tube and in the test section. Re-entry heating has
also been simulated.
Keywords. Shock tube; shock waves; high speed flows; heat transfer; re-entry heating.

1. Introduction

We have witnessect a vastly accelerated increase in the speeds of both manned and
unmanned space vehicles in the past two decades. This fact is aptly illustrated by
the increasing frequency with which such terms as ' supersonic ', ' hypersonic ', and
' hypervelocity ' are appearing in the literature. These words have specific meanings
even though there is still some uncertainty about where exactly one speed range ends
and another begins. Usually Mach 4 has been arbitrarily chosen as the threshold
between supersonic and hypersonic and Mach 8 the threshold between hypersonic
and hypervelocity. Within the supersonic speed range (upto about Mach 4) one can
assume air to behave like a perfect gas and the enthalpy of the gas to increase linearly
with temperature. At hypersonic speeds (Mach 4 to 10) however, the p e r f e c t gas
equations do not hold rigorously; the physical state o f air begins to change and its
chemistry must be considered. In hypervelocity regions (over Mach 8), not only must
the chemistry of air be considered but also its thermodynamic qualities. At these
speeds the air flowing over a body loses its identity and becomes a mixed stream of air
and atomic particles.
Man's ability to simulate flight conditions on the ground in a laboratory has been
mainly responsible for the m a n y advances that have been made in the aeronautical
sciences. The wind tunnel is undoubtedly the most important laboratory tool
that has been employed to determine the best design f o r any airborne vehicle.
The ideal wind tunnel is one that can accommodate a fullscale vehicle and run
continuously, varying the M a t h number and density (altitude simulation) throughout
the vehicle's flight spectrum. Such a tunnel is of course impractical and various
A list of symbols appears at the end of the paper.

73
P.(c)--5
74 N M Red@

compromises have to be made and partial simulation has to be accepted. One

important compromise results from having to use a model rather than the fuUscale
object, in which case, the primary scaling parameter, known as the Reynolds number,
has to be matched as closely as possible between model and fullscale object.
The ability to run continuously is generally found only in low-speed tunnel s. When
test speeds began to exceed Mach l, the power requirements for a continuously
running wind tunnel were found to be prohibitive. Consequently most tunnels that
operate at a speed higher than Mach 1 have short run-times and are of what is known
as the intermittent type. As test speeds increased beyond Mach 4, the run-times
of even intermittent tunnels were restricted further by the material and structural
limitations of the tunnel and model so that the test times in most high-energy tunnels
are generally limited to only a few milliseconds. Despite these extremely short
test-times, considerable basic test data are obtained from these facilities.
Hypersonic tunnels can generally be assumed to be an extension of supersonic
tunnels in theory and technique. Increasing the Mach number in a supersonic
tunnel is limited by the problems arising from the condensation or liquefaction of the
oxygen and nitrogen molecules. In conventional intermittent type hypersonic wind
tunnels, the air is preheated to avoid this liquefaction, and it is this preheating that
generally limits the performance and adds to the complexity of hypersonic tunnels.
The hypersonic Mach number range is obtained, not by an increase in flow velocity,
but by a decrease in the speed of sound. In fact the flow velocity tends to remain
constant for all Mach numbers except the lowest, as the useful energy namely enthalp~
of the air is almost completely converted to kinetic energy in the flow. In hypersonic
tunnels the heating capability dictates the enthalpy level, which in turn limits the
velocity simulation and the Mach number range.
Hypervelocity tunnels are a new generation of test devices developed to provide
more realistic flight velocity and enthalpy. Hence heat transfer measurements can be
made under realistic simulation of gas chemistry. Their range overlaps with those of
hypersonic tunnels even though they are normally used for testing at speeds in excess
of Mach 8. In these tunnels, the gas velocity can range approximately from 3000 to
to 10,000 m/s. There are several types of hypervelocity tunnels but the two most
common are the shock tunnel and the hot-shot tunnel. Other facilities which are in
limited use are: light gas-gun, hyperballistic range and the magneto-hydrodynamic
tunnel.
The shock tunnel works on the principle of using a high pressure gas to set up a
~shock wave which compresses and heats a low-pressure gas, in a shock tube, to high
pressures and temperatures. This gas is then bled through a nozzle that accelerates
it to the high velocities required in the test-section. The basic shock tube consists of
a constant area duct separated by a diaphragm into regions of high and low pressures
(figure 1). A shock wave begins propagating into the low pressure region at the
instant the diaphragm is ruptured. The gas in the low pressure chamber is compressed
by this shock wave which ideally travels through the driven section at a constant
velocity. There exists a region o f steady flow of high temperature and pressure
between the gas interface and the shock wave. The use of this region for aerodynamic
testing is limited to a certain maximum flow Mach number that can be attained between
theshock and the interface. For example, this maximum flow Mach number in an
ideal diatomic gas is 1.89. Sucli a shock tube is thus n0t capable of simulating
hypersonic flow Mach numbers; but the ability of the shock tube to heat gases to
 Hypersoni~ shock tunnel 75

(3) Gd~/'
~ (2 ) MS
,,,s/
t,, ,

9 ~ ( I )
0 -.,,.
er Oiophrogrn

Ex/l~nsionf= Coreoosurfoce /
/ 9

~ ~ii::r =g~ g'-=rThrog;riven i eCI ton. . _ . ~

Figure 1. Wavediagram in a reflectedtype shock tube/tunnel.

i

the conditions encountered in hypersonic flight makes the shock tube an attractive
tool for hypersonic flow research.
It was observed by Hertzberg et al (1955) that if a diverging nozzle is placed at the
end of a shock tube, the high stagnation temperature flow behind the shock wave can,
in principle, be expanded to the desired test section Mach number. In this case, the
flow in the nozzle is not established instantly and the motion of the primary shock
wave passing through the nozzle sets up a system of waves that delays the establish-
ment of steady flow in the nozzle. The system of waves that are generated tend
to move upstream against the flow and reduce the available testing time. By
properly lowering the initial pressure in the nozzle, only weak disturbances will be
generated. Therefore, at the end of the low pressure section, it is necessary to insert
a weak secondary diaphragm between the end of the shock tube and the nozzle, which
opens up on impact by the shock wave. However, in this type of modification the
testing time is very short, limited by the arrival of the interface in the test section.
A further modification by Wittliff et al (1959) called the reflected shock tunnel
offers the possibility of increasing the testing time at least by an order of magnitude.
Here the downstream end of the shock tube is not opened directly, but instead termi-
nated by a conventional converging-diverging hypersonic nozzle. The ratio of the
nozzle throat area to the shock tube cross-section area is such that the primary shock
wave is nearly completely reflected, creating a region of stagnant compressed air at
the end of the low pressure section in the shock tube. This air is then allowed to
expand through the hypersonic nozzle to the desired test section flow Mach number.
The flow entering the nozzle may be considered to be steady until the shock wave
reflected from the gas interface returns and strikes the nozzle entrance.
The testing time of the 'reflected shock tunnel' is limited to thotime interval between
the arrival of the incident shock wave at the nozzle and the arrival of the wave generated
by the interaction of the reflected shock wave with the gas interface, provided all the
76 N M Reddy

air between the nozzle and the interface is not devoured by the nozzle during the test
interval (figure 1).
The short testing time, of the order of a few milliseconds, makes the problem of
instrumentation difficult (Keddy et al 1965). Shock tunnel measurements demand
rise times of the order of a few microseconds, in addition to the high sensitivity
normally required in the hypersonic nozzle testing at rather low densities.

2. General description of the shock tube/tunnel

The hypersonic shock tunnel at the Indian Institute of Science consists of two main
parts: the shock tube and the wind tunnel section. The general operating principle
is shown in figure 1 and the layout of the tunnel is shown in figure 2. The driver
section of the shock tube is 1.83 m long and the driven section (channel) is 3.8 m long.
The wind tunnel consists of nozzle, test section, receiving tank and a vacuum system.

2.1. Shock tube driver and driven sections

The driver and driven sections have an outer diameter of 101 mm and an inner dia-
meter of 50.7 mm (figure 2). There is one port in the driver section to let the high
pressure gas in and another in the driven section to facilitate the shock tube to
be operated at different channel pressures by evacuating the driven section to the
desired pressure levels. Towards the end of the driven section there is a provision
for installing two pressure transducers 30 cm apart which are used to measure the
shock speed. A third transducer is installed in the driven tube wall about 5 cm
from the nozzle entrance to measure pressure behind the moving shock wave. The
tunnel section, separated from the driven section by means of a thin paper dia-
phragm, may be evacuated to pressures as low as 10 to 20 microns of Hg.

2.2. Nozzle system

A nozzle system is employed in order to expand the gas at the end of the shock tube
to the high Math numbers required in the test section. The tunnel is operated in
' reflected mode' (figure 2) as well as i n ' straight through' mode. In the former mode
of operation a convergent-divergent nozzle with an exit diameter of 30 cm at the test
section and throat diameter ranging from 25 mm to 7 mm is used to obtain test section

~f830 =!= 3800 =!: 8 3 0 ~ 4 5 0 ~ J 2 2 0 - - - - ~

-o.,.,
/
=,= o~ ,.b~
II" No..,~-ff.
/Test ~'Ournp
tank~
~;~',o.~./T-----Q-'T
_L_
~0 Iln- " - inl~ooo Ilff(,~)..)Ill
(
I
l"
I
a
9,5
T

All d~men$ions ore in ram.

Figure 2. Layout of reflected type shock tunnel.

 Hypersonic shock tunnel 77

flow Mach numbers between 7 and 13. In the latter mode of operation a truncated
conical nozzle with an entrance diameter of 5 cm and exit diameters ranging from
30 cm to 15 cm are used to obtain flow Math numbers between 4 and 6 respectively.

2.3. Test section and receiving tanks

The test section (45 cm long), which is in between the nozzle and the receiving tank,
is a square cross section of 30 cm • 30 em and has circular glass windows for visual
observation. The circular jet from the conical nozzle is allowed to expand in this
square shaped test section. A large tank (0.72 ms) attached to the end of the test
section collects all the test gas in every run. T h i s t a n k also 'swallows' all the
shocks and compression waves that are created during the starting process in the
nozzle, preventing their propagation into the test section during the useful running
period of the tunnel.

2.4. Vacuum system

In order to minimise the nozzle starting time, the tunnel section (downstream from
the second diaphragm) is evacuated to very low pressures. The vacuum system consists
of two rotary vacuum pumps of capacity 500 litres/min made by Hind High Vacuum
Company Private Limited and a diffusion pump made by the same company. The
test section can be evacuated to about 200/zHg in about 30 min without the diffusion
pump and to about 10 to 20/LHg with the diffusion pump.

3. Shock tube/~mnel instrumentation

3.1. Shock speed measurement

To detect the arrival of the shock front at a given station in the driven tube, micro-
second response time pressure transducers along with pulse amplifiers and an electro-
nic counter were used. The piezo-electric pressure transducers (Atlantic Research
Corporation, type LD 25) are directly connected to wide band pulse amplifiers (Philips
type PM 5170), and the signals are amplified about 200 times before they are used
to start and stop an electronic counter (Monsanto Model 100B). The minimum
resolution of this counter is A: lt~ see. For detailed shock tube instrumentation refer
to Mathur (1972).
The pressure transducers which were used to measure shock speed were sometimes
sensitive to vibration and elastic wave propagation in the shock tube. In order to
overcome this difficulty they were replaced by thin film gauges. The basic principle
of operation of these gauges is given in section 3.2.

3.2. Thin film heat transfer gauges

A thin film heat transfer gauge records the transient surface temperature history
of the backing material on wheh the film is fired. This is accomplished by using, as
the sensing element, a narrow thin metallic film (platinum) of negligible mass fired
over a low thermal conductivity type of backing material such as pyrex. Because of
78 N M Red@

large thermal capacity, the film has a negligible effect on the surface temperature of
the backing material. When the shock wave strikes the backing material of the gauge,
the surface temperature of the backing material on which the film is mounted, initially
undergoes a step increase in temperature and the film resistance is accordingly
increased giving an initial step increase in voltage across the film. It is neces-
sary to pass a constant 'current through the film and measure the change in
potential drop across it when subjected to a change in temperature. The increase
in the resistance of the film with step increase in temperature is given by
ARj. -----%. Rj, AT,. Also, change in voltage due to change in gauge resistance
is given by ug = u, (AR~, / Rt) since current is constant. From the preceding
equations, we get A T, -----uo/(u, at). For details refer to Reddy and Diwakar
(1974).
From the knowledge of the surface temperature history recorded by thin films,
either one has to solve the heat conduction problem through the backing material
(Vidal 1956) or analogue networks have to be used in order to obtain heating rates
directly (Meyer 1960).

3.3. Analogue network for direct measurement of heat transfer rates

It was realised by Skinner (1962) and Meyer (1960) that electrical analogues of heat
conducting slab could be constructed which, if driven by a voltage proportional to
surface temperature, would yield a signal proportional to the heat transfer rate.

3.3a. Analogy between heat and current conduction

The basis for constructing an electrical analogue of a heat conducting system arises
from the similar forms of the equations for heat conduction and diffusion of electrical
charge in a system in which there is uniformly distributed resistance and capacitance.
Because of the diificulty of constructing an electrical model with continuous variations
of capacitance and resistance, it is usual to approximate this by employing a network
of lumped constants. The heat transfer gauge, which is assumed to be semi-infinite
may be considered to be consisting of a number of small strips of slabs of backing

J,e---- Uo i[
t"~'/R/2 I R R R

ug ~c ~c ;c .T-c ..~XI
..! 1 I I
"~ Anologue network
~feot conduction equation Electrical conduction equ,,afion
OU~ / I ~/02U~
8T - k 02"F (
Heat transfer Current
r OT(X't)l _ I [aU(X't' h
qit)= kb L" - ~ J X =0 i i t ) - ~ ~~"T~;X'=O
[(t)= U_.__a
2
R

Figure 3. Analogy between heat and current conduction.

 Hypersonic shock tunnel 79

material. Each slab may be considered to be a capacitor and a resistor. Surface

temperature change corresponds to the voltage applied to the network, the correspond-
ing change of current in the network corresponds to the heat transfer rate. The
commonly used T section network and the analogy between heat and current
conduction are shown in figure 3. The current through the network is measured
as a voltage drop across the first resistance of the network. Then using the
relation between the heat transfer and the current, an expression for heat transfer
rate can be derived as

(1)
q ( t ) -- u ; -a~ "D L -R-C 'J "

For a given q(t), the analogue output voltage u, is proportional to (RC) x/~, whereas
the response time of the system is given by RC, so that in general it is necessary
to make a compromise between fast response and adequate output signal level.
The network must be made long enough so that over the time during which
measurements are being made, the system behaves as though it were semi-infinite.
Analogue circuits were built and extensively used in the present shock tube/tunnel
for direct measurements of heat transfer rates. It consists of a constant current
source to energise the thin-film gauge and a pre-amplifier to amplify the gauge output.
The gauge signal is amplified 10 times and can be directly recorded. The gauge
signal is also amplified 100 times and then fed into the analogue network and
the output from the analogue is recorded separately.

3.4. Fabrication details of thin-film gauges

The primary task in fabricating thin-film gauges is the preparation of the gauge
backing material or the gauge substrate. It is well known that pyrex substrate coated
with platinum film forms a satisfactory gauge. The pyrex substrate has to be shaped
according to the particular requirement and the surface polished before the film is
fabricated on the surface. The various techniques used for preparing different shapes
of backing material are given by Reddy and Diwakar (1974). It was found by experi-
ence that a good platinum film was obtained easily by painting liquid platinum paint*
on a given substrate material and thenbaking it at a preset temperature in contrast to
other methods such as sputtering and vacuum deposition. The former method is
quite simple and it is possible to have control over the film thickness and uniformity.
For detailed fabrication procedure of thin films refer to Reddy and Diwakar (1974).
Depending upon where these films are used, different gauge mountings have to be
designed. Some of them are shown in figure 4.

3.5. Pitot pressure measurements in the test section

Stagnation pressure measurements in the test section are made with the aid of Piezo-
tronics pressure transducers. A high resolution acceleration compensated pressure
transducer (Model No. 112A22) with built-in amplifier is mounted inside a steel

*The platinumpaint used is Hanovia liquid bright platinum paint (05X) manufacturedby Engle-
hard Industries,Cinderford)UK,
80 N M Reddy

Amlditefilling
Brassmounting

F i l m ~ "

Silverleads

Substrata _- l Amlditefifling
Brassmount
Figure 4. Different heat transfer gauge mountings.

tube with a brass cap which has a hole drilled in it in line with the direction of flow.
The cap is provided to prevent the transducer from being exposed to shock heating
during the starting process. This type of transducer needs no additional equipment
like charge amplifier and its output is directly measured on a storage oscilloscope.

4. Calibration techniques

4.1. Diaphragm calibration

The pressure bursting technique was used for opening the main diaphragms in the
shock tube. Strict quality control was observed in the preparation of the diaphragms
so that consistent performance was achieved. Thin aluminium circular discs of
11.25 cm diameter and thicknesses varying between 0"5 and 1 mm were used. The
diaphragms were scribed with two lines at the centre perpendicular to each other to
a length of 5.6 cm by using a milling cutter. The diaphragms were held in a special
fixture so that their surface is fiat during groove cutting; the depth of the groove can
also be controlled accurately between 30 and 50 ~o of the basic thickness to obtain
different bursting pressures. By preparing the diaphragms this way, pressure bursting
was achieved satisfactorily.

4.2. Diaphragm pressure ratio correlation with shock speed

The instrumentation used to measure the shock velocity in the shock tube has already
been described in section 3.1. In each run the initial (absolute) pressure P1 in the
driven tube was measured by using vacuum dial gauges (Edward High Vacuum
Company). The high pressure in the driver (P4) at which the diaphragm breaks was
also measured using indigenous high pressure dial gauges. The measured shock
Mach numbers and the corresponding diaphragm pressure ratios (PJP1) were com..
pared with the theoretical shock tube performance (Reddy 1969). The comparison
between theory and experimental measurements as shown in figure 5 is satisfactory.
 Hypersonic shock tunnel 81

I
" Theory
4

~a
,,J
1

I I .
2 3 4
Ms
F i g u r e 5. Variation of shock Mach number with diaphragm pressure ratio.

4.3. Calibration of thin film gauges

In order to translate the response of thin film gauge into heat transfer rates, as is
evident from (1), it is necessary to know the thermal and physical properties of the
thin film and the backing material. The temperature coefficient of resistivity (as)
of the thin film is determined by measuring the change in resistance of the film over
a ,known range of temperature between 30 to 80~ Details are found in Reddy
(1977).
There are a few direct methods (Skinner 1962) used to determine the backing material
constant (kpCo)ox/~. In the present study, due to lack of some equipment, an indirect
method was used. Thin films were used in the shock tube to measure the stagnation
point heat transfer rates at low shock Mach number (Ms -- 1.5). Then the measured
heating rates were used in the theoretical expression of Fay and Riddell (1958) to
deduce the backing material constant. At this low shock Mach number the
theoretical expression is quite accurate since the real gas effects, if any, are negligible.
For all the thin films with pyrex as the backing material an average value of (kpCo)~1/2
=0.0323=[=7 ~o calis/(cm%ec 1/2 ~ was obtained.

4.4. Wave diagram and testing time in a shock tube~tunnel

A typical wave system associated with the shock tube/tunnel is shown in figure 1.
The testing time in a nonreflected shock tunnel is the time interval during which the
flow is uniform, i.e. before the contact surface comes and hits the model in the test
section. In a reflected shock tunnel the shock which is reflected at the entrance of
the nozzle interacts with the contact surface and creates a wave system as shown in
figure 1. Usually there will be another shock MRR due to this interaction and this
shock eventually reaches the end of the shock tube and disturbs the uniformity of the
flow. The testing time in this case is the time elapsed between the arrival of the
incident shock M s and the reflected shock MRR at the end of the shock tube.

4.5. Performance capabilities of the present facility

The range of free stream Math numbers and Reynolds numbers that can be achieved
in the present facility is shown in figure 6. For a givea nozzle size (hence a fixed free-
stream Mach number) a range of Reynolds numbers can be obtained by suitably
82 N M Reddy

10 7
\
nCh vehicle trojectory

"6
n-

tl.

I I .f I _ I

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Free streom Moch number (Mco)

Figure 6. Performance capability o f the facility.

changing the initial pressures in the shock tube driver (/)4) and driven (/)1) sections.
Correspondingly the shock Math number M, that will be generated in the shock tube
will vary as shown in figure 6. This facility is quite flexible in the sense that the
Reynolds number and Math number can be varied quite easily over a wide range.
The trajectory of a typical satellite launch vehicle is also shown in figure 6. It is
apparent that the Math number range of 6 to 10 of this trajectory can be easily
simulated in this facility. However, in order to simulate a lower Math number range
(4 to 6) the initial pressure in the shock tube has to be more than one atmosphere
(/1>760 mm Hg).
The Reynolds number shown in figure 6 is based on the minimum cross section of
the test section, as a fair indication of the model length that can be used. This gives
only a broad indication of the Reynolds number capability of the facility. In many
cases, however, a detailed examination of the particular problem under investigation
is necessary to decide upon the characteristic length dimension.

5. Stagnation point heat transfer measurements

At hypersonic speeds the kinetic energy of the body is enormous and the fraction of
the total kinetic energy which must be accepted as convected heat to the body is
approximately given by the ratio of friction drag to pressure drag. By making the
friction drag small compared to the total drag, a large fraction of the heat developed
is given to the atmosphere (wasted in shock waves, and radiated away) and the heat
conveeted to the body would be small. Thus, for ballistic missiles as well as for the
re-entry bodies highly blunt-nosed bodies are employed. In the case of these bodies,
 Hypersonie shock tunnel 83

in contrast to sharp-nosed slender bodies, pressure drag would be large and hence the
heat convected into the body would be small. If one considers the heat flux rate to
such blunt bodies in high speed flight, it would be maximum at the forward stagnation
point.
A shock tube/tunnel is highly suited for measuring heating rates since the high
temperatures and speeds encountered in high speed flight can be easily simulated in
this type of facility. In the present study the stagnation point heating rates were
measured in models mounted inside the shock tube, where the flow Math number does
not exceed 1.89 as well as inside the shock tunnel test section where the flow Math
numbers can be varied from 7 to 13. The measured values are compared with
theory (Fay and Riddel 1958).

5.1. Theoretical stagnation point heat transfer rates

The mechanism of heat transfer in a compressible boundary layer around the
stagnation point has been extensively studied (Fay and Riddell 1958) and the
general expression for stagnation point heat transfer rate can be written as

q = fO% pe)l/l(u2/Rb)l/i(R: d-d-d-d~e)

V2 [1 +(Le ~ 1) h~ (Hr--Hw) ]. (2)

The factor f =-0.763 Pr -~ and 0.57 Pr -~ for axisymmetric and two-dimensional

models respectively, Pr--0.71 and Le--1.0 at low temperatures for air. Details for
determining the nondimensional velocity gradient term (Rdu ~) (due/ds) in (2) at
different flow Mach numbers is given in Reddy (1977).

5.2. Heat-transfer models

Cylindrical and hemispherical models were used for the stagnation point heat transfer
measurements in the shock tube. The cylindrical model was a pyrex tube with an
outside diameter of 10 mm and a length of 50 ram. The hemispherical model was a
pyrex cap with a nose radius of 5 mm. The fabrication details of these models are
shown in figure 4. These models were used inside the driven section of shock
tube at a station 1.82 m from the main diaphragm and the output from the analogue
networks was measured at different shock Math numbers ranging from 1.4 to 3.4 with
different initial pressures in the driven tube.

5.3. Experimental results and discussion

Some typical analogue outputs are shown in figure 7 (plate 1). These analogue out-
puts were used in (1) to deduce the stagnation heat transfer rates. The theoretical
heattransfer rates are computed from (2) in the form q(RdPx)ll~ at a given shock
Mach number. The factor (Rb/Px)V~ normalizes the effects of different model radii
and the initial driven tube pressures so that a universal curve applies for different
initial pressures and model radii. The theoretical as well as experimental stagnation
point heat-transfer rates for a hemispherical body are shown in figure 8. The
agreement between the experiment and theory is excellent. There are some measuring
84 N M Reddy

~f MS
2 1.4 1,5 1 B 2.0 2.4 2 8 3.5
I J I I I I I l f I |

Exper,ments ]
101 A Gauge A ?

,o~

I /_ I t+ I f t I
0 4 0 6 0-8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1,6
M2

Figure 8. Stagnation point heat transfer for spherical gauges

( ~ Fay and Riddel's theory)

inaccuracies involved in the measurement of heat transfer rates using the present
technique in addition to the error in the determination of backing material constant
which is ~ 7 %. The oscilloscope accuracy is ! 3 ~oand the error in reading the signals
is approximately • ~o. Since these errors are independent of each other, the over-
all error would be approximately 8.5 ~o.

6. Investigations in the shock tunnel test section at M ---- 10

The shock tunnel was operated in the reflected mode (figure 1). The high pressure
high temperature gas at the end of the shock tube was expanded in a de-Laval type
nozzle to obtain Mach 10 flow in the test section. The nozzle was made in two parts.
One comprises the subsonic section, throat and a little distance downstream of the
throat; its inside surface was machined to fit a hyperbolic curved surface. The
downstream portion of the nozzle was of a conical shape with a half-cone angle of
10% The throat diameter for this nozzle was 12 mm and the exit diameter of the
conical nozzle was 30.5 cm terminating into the square-shaped test section (figure 1).

6.1. Re-entry simulation tests

As mentioned earlier, highly blunt-nosed body shapes are always used in order
to reduce the high heat flux rates during re-entry. Temperatures of S000~ to 10,000~
are of common occurrence in the shock layer around the nose region of the re-
entry body. At these high temperatures, internal energy modes of molecules and
 Hypersonic shock tunnel 85

atoms of the concerned gas play an important role in many Ways. One of the signific-
ant phenomena that occurs due to these high temperatures is the intense light output
(fire ball) due to the energy emission from molecules and atoms brought about by
electronic excitation and ionization (i.e. stripping of electrons from atoms). Since
this intense light interferes with the ordinary communication signals that are trans-
mitted to the re-entering body, this phenomenon is usually called ' communication
blockout '.
The present facility has been used to obtain re-entry flow conditions at M=10.
The shock tube was run using hydrogen as the test gas in order to create high shock
Mach numbers (4~<Ms<~6); consequently high stagnation temperatures in the
reflected region of the shock tube were attained (500 ~T~K~8000). This hot pocket
of gas is expanded in the nozzle to a Mach number of M = 1 0 in the test section.
Different blunt bodies like cylinders and spherical nosed models were mounted in the
test section. The whole light output from the gas near the front portion of the models
during the tunnel run was photographed using an ordinary camera with an open
shutter during the whole duration of the tunnel run, Thus, all the light that was
produced during the entire tunnel run was photographed. A few pictures of this
light output are shown in figure 9 (plate 2). Since the body was not illuminated
with an external light, the body shape is not clearly visible in the photographs. The
significant point is that the re-entry flow which involves extremely high tempera-
tures and speeds can be simulated easily in the present facility.

6.2. Determination of reservoir conditions in the reflected mode of operation

In this mode of operation of the shock tunnel, the test gas that has been compressed
and heated by the reflected shock at the end of the shock tube is stagnated behind the
reflected shock. This hot pocket of high pressure gas serves as a reservoir for the
nozzle. Thus it is important that the conditions ot this gas are known accurately so
that the performance of the tunnel in the nozzle and test section can be estimated
fairly accurately.
Normally the pressure (Ps) in the reflected region is measured by mounting a
pressure transducer on the side wall towards the end of the shock tube. These
measured pressures are correlated with the theoretical values obtained from shock tube
performance charts. If there is a good correlation, then the temperature (T~) in this

- - Theory
50
9 Measured

4O

~ 30

2O

lo

I .I I I I __ I I r ! t.
1.7 '1.9 2-1 2.3 2,. 5 2-7
Ms

Fig~e 10. Comparison of measured pressure in the r o ~ region with theory.

86 N M Reddy

3.0 0t = 200mm Hg
Ms = 1.975
MOO= 1 0 . 0

2.0 ~

o"

'1~

T , _ v, 1" t T
12.0 ~.0 0 6.0 12.0
D~t(l~Ce f~r'@m cenfre o f lest section (r

Figure II. Variation of heat transfer rate across the test section in the horizontal
plane

region will be obtained from the theoretical shock tube performance charts since it is
rather difficult to measure the high temperatures developed in this region. In the
present study, the pressures in the reflected region (Ps) were measured by using a
KJstlcr quartz pressure transducer over a range of shock Mach numbers. A typical
pressure trace is given in figure 7 (plate 1). The measured pressure ratios P~/P1 are
compared with theory in figure 10. The correlation between theory and experiment
is good. Hence, the reservoir temperatures were obtained from shock tube perfor-
mance charts.

6.3. Test section flow calibration at M : 1 0

In order to determine the flow uniformity in the test section, a rake with a number of
stagnation point heat transfer gauges was used. By mounting the rake either in the
horizontal or vertical plane, the stagnation point heat transfer rates to all the five
gauges were measured simultaneously. Since it can be shown that the stagnation
point heating rate is proportional to the square root of the total pressure, the heat
transfer rate variation across the test section can be taken as a good representation of
flow quality. Typical variation of heat transfer rates in the horizontal plane in the
test section is shown in figure 11. This is the usual variation across the test section
that one would expect in the high Mach number, low density flows. Similar heat
transfer rate distributions in the vertical plane were also obtained. For some other
conditions of high pressure and high Mach number (/1=684 mm of Hg and M =
10) or low Mach number and low pressure ( M : 4 and Pt=400 mm of Hg) a fairly
uniform core of nearly 15 to 20 cm in a test section width of 30 cm was observed.

6.4. Measurement of stagnation point heating rates at M : 1 0

As already mentioned in this report~ the main aim of simulating re-entry conditions
in the shock tunnel is to study the severe heat transfer that occurs to the bodies
during re-entry. A n expression for the stagnation heating ]rate is given in (2).
 Hypersonic shock tunnel 87

08
$hoc/~
Theory: ..... ~22=0.1

. ~.~ Stag ~atlon point

~._ measurements Expts. : 9 (Mco-IO)

o~
frchl 9 W - ~ ' ' ' J

0.02 t I , I Ill , , I J I , Ill I ,. I ~ ' ~

20 100 tO00 I0000
Rey.o~s no.,=~'Ue',%

Figure 12. Heat transfer measurements in the shock tunnel test section simulating
re-entry conditions ( M = 10).

Usually the measured heating rates are correlated with theory using the non-
dimensional Stanton number, defined as

St : q (3)

and a Reynolds number defined as

Re -- uop, R_____b. (4)

Fe

Using the expression for the heat transfer given in (2) the Stanton number was
computed and its variation with Re is shown in figure 12. A stagnation point heat
transfer guage made out of platinum thin film was fabricated on a 2"5 cm diameter
hemispherical model and was employed in the shock tunnel to measure the stagnation
heating rates at M=10, using the electric analogue network described earlier. The
measured heating rates are correlated with theory in figure 12. The density ratio
(pz/p=)=0.1 across the bow shock near the stagnation point will effectively take into
account the real gas effects.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the following project assistants who have
contributed significantly towards the successful completion of this project: Mr S K
Ashok Kumar, Mr Venkatesh, Mr V Madhusudan and Mr V B Patel. The held
received from Mr J A Doss in the workshop is acknowledged with thanks.
88 N M Reddy

List of symbols

speed of sound of driven gas

speed of sound of driver gas
C value of capacitance in the analogue network
c, atom mass fraction
D amplification factor
heat of dissociation
/r total enthalpy of gas
Hw enthalpy of gas corresponding to wall conditions
h enthalpy
i current through the thin film
k coefficient of thermal conductivity
gauge backing material constant
shock Math number
Le Lewis number
P1 initial channel pressure in the shock tube
P~ Prandtl number
P,/el diaphragm pressure ratio
pressure behind the reflected shock wave
q heat transfer rate
Re initial resistance of the film
R value of resistance in the analogue network
Re free-stream Reynolds number
Ra radius of blunt nosed body
Stanton number defined in equation (3)
s distance along the surface
Tb temperature of backing material
temperature behind the reflected shock wave
t time
change in voltage across the thin film gauge
initial gauge voltage '
voltage across the first resistance in the analogue network
flow velocity behind bow shock
x distance along the shock tube
ay temperature coefficient of resistance of the film ( ~ / ~ ~
pe viscosity of gas behind the bow shock
pe density of gas behind the bow shock
 Hypersonio shock tunnel 89

References

Fay J A and Riddel F R 1958 d. Aero. Sci. 25 73

Hertzberg A, Smith W E, Gliek H S, Squire W 1955 CAL Rep. No. AD-789-A-2 Cornr Aero Lab.
Buffalo, New York, USA
Mathur N B 1972 ME Proj. Rep. Dept. of Acre. Engg., I.I.Sc.
Meyer R F 1960 LR-279 National Aeronautical EstabLishment, Ottawa, Canada
Reddy N M, Mason R P, Chart Y Y 1965 UTIAS Tech. Note no. 91 University of Toronto
Canada
Reddy N M 1969 NASA TN D-5518
Reddy N M 1977 Pep. No. 77 FM 3 Dept. of Aeronautical Engg. I.I.Sc., Bangalore
Reddy N M and Diwakar R 1974 Rep. No. 74 FM 9 Dept. of Aeronautical Engg., I.I.Sr Bangalore
Skinner G T 1962 CAL Rep. No. 105 Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Buffalo, New York, USA
Vidal R J 1956 Cornell Acre. Lab. Inc. Rep. No. AD-917-A-1
Wittliff C E, Wilson M R, Hextzberg A 1959 J. Aero. Sci. 26 219

P.(C)--6
 Hypersonic shock tunnel 91

Plate 1

(a)

(b)

:)

JFigure 7. Typical oscillos~l ;and pressure in the shock

tube and test sc emperature and end wall

work. (c) Pitol I

pressure in the s
0"5 ms per divisil
traces from analogue net-
Sweep rate for all traces:
92 N M Reddy

Pla, te 2

CYLINDER

SPHERE

Flgurz 9. Light output (self luminosity) from high temperature air around blunt
bodies.