sketeh out only the beginnings of the rethink rethinking that is required {0 move on feo multicultural. Some ofthe co ‘hat are requited have already begun total ca initiatives that have emerged cohesion’ and integration’ p cra of mone ae poly malig tse ‘ raking bate on piso a Imerehrlwiih dans rer ect dn interaction tha aes aha baen eed yt ns ‘noulticulturalism. " Senos brmsot Atthe same time, as my dis al . iseussion also emphasizes, policies for reducing ethnic disadvantage need to become more effective than hitherto, Encouragement ‘eign in wider inequal Catia elation: fe sre ore canto pre rk ogee harshest of conditions, “— Chapter 1 What is multiculturalism? Perhaps what is clearest in recent public debates about ‘been notoriously elusive. In turn, proposed alter “integeation’ have also remained vague. Tis best, Cultural diversity and multiculturalism. ‘Mlticulturalism’ entered publi diseourses in the late 1960s and ‘multiculturalism provide ‘meaning and significance ofthese terms. Asians and Jews were regard ‘was an official recognition of‘multicultural’ society, paving the way for a complete abolition of, ‘racial qualifications in 1973. {arly and with the recognition thatthe desire of immigrants and minorities to retain aspects of ‘cultural diversity is itself desirable and benefits the nation in a variety of ways, Also, as we 1as an equal opportunities and anti-iseriminatory strand that is often ignored in debates ‘about the meaning and effectiveness of multiculturalism, In Canada, the debate began with troubled relations between dhe nglish- and French-speaking regions inthe 1960s. A Royal ‘Commission on Bilingual: and Biel {hat English and French be regarded as oficial languages. 1969 Biealtura and Bilingual Act also op ‘other minorities in Canada, and the Royal Coxsmission’ recommendation that wider cultural pluralism be aed to ‘Canadian identity be initially accepted within a bilingual English and French ‘framework, but by 1988 there was Multicultural Aet that widened ‘he tems of inelson, Similary, the arrival of immigrant populations from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Caribbean islands into Britain and the growing numbers of North African migrant workers in France ‘and elsewhere in Western Europe after the Second World War placed ‘multicultural’ questions on their publie agenda as the jmuigrant communities began to establish a permanent or semi-permanent presence. While France in particula poliey that gave official recognition to the new i Britain 2 1966 statement by the then Home Seeretar set outa general framework for the: i ‘of the new immigrant communitis into the Brit cultural ancl polity Integration ie peehops sath loase word. do not rear it as easing the los, by immigean characterises and elture, 140 ‘eling por which wl turn eveyone out in a commen mould, ‘of carbon copies of someones misplaced vison of lene tegration, therefine, 08 5 ot cut ders, coupled [Note the emphasis on both cultural diversity and equal ‘opportunities. is jority white fmumiggants as racially distinct from the majority ; ‘populations, although by then the legitimacy of the idea of ee rn seriously challenged The issue of populations that bad previously " ‘which lad by and large been regarded as innately inferior races, °Britain especially, to use interchangeable descriptions, ightmare ofthe Nazi period hal in terms of the ‘forcigner’(Ausliide. In most debates on multiculturalism, in Europe especially, the elephant in the room, soto speak, Racism is more often than, rot the unmentioned ané, for many, the wnmentionable dark shadow haunting attacks on popular media and eulture anetion as a euphemism for bos and ‘coloured immigrants’ of Sout 5 ‘North African, and Turkish descent. The strongly entrenched structure of global inequality may be regurded asthe second tephant in the room. I is this inequality that bas been the driver for the migrations to Western Europe. Secondly, and partly because of raciclization, the origins of the ‘multicultural dcbate lien the perceived difficulties of assimilating these newer communities to the host national enftures. *Assimilation’ came tobe regarded as difficult, i nat impossible on three grounds: supposed racial istinetv in practice, ‘elated to superficial physiological differences such as skin colour ‘an insuperable biologial and ccaltural barrier whic changing the nations exhibited by the ost‘! finally, the unvillingness of the migrant communities themselves to simply give up al facts of their cultural distinetiveness ~ for ‘example, language and religion ~ and somehow become the same as the host poptlations in al cultural respects. mn, the obvious hostility “There has also beem another poitieal and ealtural trend that has assisted the development of multiculturalism: the growing w eceptance within Wester liberal democrat states that ewig ‘minorities have the Hight asywe shall fan international human rights agenda. sn the United States, the African Americans fight aginst act? (crimination transformed itself into cultural struggle as wel. bs i ealtural blackness and sense of self-respect {nigenows population of Americ ‘pocause Columbus thought he had demanded publie eultural recognition as distin ‘Avg i t i i by these non-white Ths insues of race have always becn significant, and sometimes paramount, in US debates about multiculturalism The meaning of multiculturalism: a first approxim ris not surprising then that th dominant meaning that rie ej” had oie bythe 1980s ae 1990 et atin the Farperolna Detionary of Sole ‘example, referred to the acknowledgement and promotion of eakural paralis vpaleoaltoratism eslbrates and seeks to promote cakural vanity, languages. At the sae ime hip of minority to mainstream elton "‘Thus we also have other important paints to note in addition issues of racialization and assimil are aso to do with a ealebration pluralism, and redressing the in ‘minorities. And tese are questions ofr ‘ethnic groups within modern nation states. ‘Multiculturalism thus usually refers to policies by central it Jhave been putin place to manage groups whose existence, growth, and, in most eases, claims and demands hae Jed to the emergence of multiculturalism in modern ‘Western nation states, So far, Thave referred primarily to immigrant minorities, which would include yroups stich as the ‘Turks in Germany and South Asians UK, as well as what has heen called a substate national minority such as the Québéc 2h Canadians, and also Afvican birth ofthe American nation state and therefore alo quite distinet immigrants into Western Europe or North are also relevant tothe general turn to multiculturalism, most ‘especially indigenous peoples such as the Maori in New Zealand, wv the Inuit and First Nations in Canada, the Aboriginal peoples of ‘Australia, and the First Nations in the United States. “Thus, while the most resent debates about multiculturalism ‘have primarily concerned recent immigrants into Western Europe ‘and the USA, and to some degree African Americans the fact ‘that indigenous peoples and substate minorities have also been, ‘relevant means that the deseription of multicufturalista involving majority and minority relations must be elaborated to refloct its true complessty. ‘The point is that the histories and demands of diferent types of ‘edinie minority groupe vary quite considerably. Substate ‘national minorities suchas the Québécois in Canada, the Scots and the as Pakistanis and Bangladeshis in the UK, Me ‘Netherlands, or the Turks in Germany. The national settlements that have been made regarding teritoria! autonomy, land rights, separate egal and educational systems, and so ‘to substate minorities ute distinct in many respects from ‘ways in wih resent immigrant minorities have boen ‘accommodated in Western Burope, Australia, and Canada Given the constraints of space, and the very dif Western Europe and North Ameries, Iam primarily going t0 be concerned with the issues and debates concerning, the imuigrants ho have migrated to Western Bnrope in the second hatf of the Doth century: The terms of settlement whereby older religious and ethnic populations were incorporated ‘meant that different national entural, frameworks were created for minorit influences on the reception, treatment, and necommodation of telatively recent immigeants, And these different national ‘rajectories have led to somewhat different versions of, 2“The list has been compiled on the be policies incorporate two bi ethnic entities. These principles yield eight mi policies that have been adopted to varying deg 7) The funding of bilingual edueation or mother-tongue instruction. Afirmative setion for disadvantaged groups. restaurants, and other resourees and amenities. 16 “Nevertheless, the list allows a reasonable comparison of the “strength of commitment to multcultaralist polices n different countries. On this basis, Kymlicka and his eo-anthors argue that ‘those adopting 6 out ofthe 8 should be categorized as ing more tokeniste poliey adoption and in hold be regarded as ‘modest {sove seoring under are ‘weak’ adopters of STRONG: Australia, nada [MODEST Relginm, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, UK, USA WEAK: Austra, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Treland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland However the list gives only the briefest indication ofthe rspouses of different nation states to their newer ethnic minorities E ‘cbscurcs important institutional differences between the policis of countries in any one category and between ‘alegories, does not huminate the different historical paths of multiculturalism, and therefore also cannot form the basis for any’ ‘explanation for the dlferences, And the differences, and reasons for these divergences, are significant. Key influences in the nation states have been have been called ‘citizenship regimes’, as we shall se. “The more widespread adoption of and Canada has been attributed to called a founding myth’ of the kind that is for exarsple, by the US$ self- conception asa nation of or the ethnie and religious deniities that make up a significant part of the national narrative of other states sueh asthe UK, the w‘etheflands and Sweden This has slo mcsnt hat in Cana ) | amd Asai the oneepton of positively mit | Some cal mone “mathe mene ‘n Britain and the Netherlands, for example, in 1e immigration ofthe second |) as well as Turkey and Morocco, were give anomomy and resourves with which to retain their cultural tongues and their cultures via support for their own newspapers | 1" ‘and separate channels on television. In doing s0, the Dutch were {allowing a well-worn national path in the governance of different cultural group ‘the nation. They had an already institutional sre of pilarization, involving separate ‘cltural spheres, which from the 19th century onwards had allowed Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and different politically inlined groups ~ Liberals and Socialists ~ to live peacenbly together, but with the minimum of cantaet between them. By the 4060s, pillaizatio had Tos: much of its relevance, as Entzinger thas pointed out, because of the forees of secularization, especial, ‘but ako general individualization. But the effect remained particularly strong in education. Even in recent times, only ‘Durch primary schools are tate sclools, the rest being der by religious groups or those having particular ‘eclucational perspectives. The move explicit policy towands the newer ethnic minorities from 1988 onvvards had as its objective ‘achieving a society in “which all members of minority groups in the Netherlands, {individually and in groups, are in a situation of equality and have {all opportunities for their development, or what commonly ‘pecane known as integration with retention of entity’. However, the particular history of pillarization’ in the Netherlands ‘meant thatthe minorities policy did indeed lend to more formal institutional separation than in other countries, with the minorities being given greater fredom and resources to develop theit own schools, newspapers, broadcasting feilities, and cultural asiociations Han Eatzinger, Even in the 1980s, encouragement of pluralism forthe new initiatives were called ‘ethnie minority polici retrospect, and often from outside the Netherlands, 9 aasemyeoReL RIEpolicies were refered to as ‘ulteulturals Ironically, the Duteh ‘version, hesvily influenced isto consociational democracy 0 all he European multiculur ‘with fostering separation hetween ethnie groups, row habitually levelled at all forms of muticultoraiss, “The shape of te backlash in the 1990s against the ethinie minowity policies in the Netherlands prefgured the form it has taken in ‘other European countries, Overall, failing to integrate the etlnie mino ‘calturally. 1: was felt that insufficient proficieney in the Dutch language and lack of fail particularly strong obstacles. ‘required to altend nev language ar ‘contitions for which became more: je the courses at their om ‘As Prins and Saharso have pointed out, the erities also initiated ‘hat eame tobe regarded as a timely ‘new realism. This was framed in a perspective that posited an absolute difference ‘boiween Western liberalism, ‘sith its principles of free speech and secularism, and the repressiveness of, especially Islami minority ccltures. In part, this was informed by events outside the ‘Netherlands, especially the Salman Rushdie affair in Britain. This ‘polarization was allied to the charge that permissiveness towards Trinotity cultures had allowed them to separate themselves off from mainstream Dutch society ~ a lament echoed subsequently in ‘much of Europe ~ an had also made them more welfare- dependent. “The reaction against the ethnic minorities policy gathered frees a= Uewbere fier 9/1. 1n the Netherlands, his was given special pets lly by the eof Pi Forty’ Leger Neder pany and is attacks onthe welfare state, Buropeanuniaton, Bhan eral toleration, the Weralism of the Church, and the ronal arrival of other fmunigrants andl assumes. The ‘pular interventions was Tater een fer fl bythe ssassnaton in Noversber 2008, PS tim. ofthe Skn-amaker Theo van Gogh more on this ter) and nit his co-docamentay-maker and member of Ayaan [its Al, herself Mastin immigrant amd anti-immigrant and ant-Islamie rhetoric has een a more the Neth ‘Rights Watch for violations of sm aockers and immigrants: However, the rise of the viru amie Freedom Party has now introduced & farther destabilizing dynamic into Dutek polties. recognition In the ease of Britain, there is an of-tepeated shorthand bistory that suggests thatthe country treated its post-1945 im “aatives’ in the eolontes. That is, as Favel pats it: ‘iain ruled by tng the natives be os they were, cilia Ise} fen mafcaions ofthere sceptical commentators have also added that the i learned mach about divide and rule policies in conquering ‘and Africa, and the advantages of eo-opting local lenderships ‘hjugate colonial populations, and then domestica the and p al irumigrans it imported to augment the war force in post-war reconstruction, Moreover, the British particular as they boarded ‘other ships to fill the unskilled jobs, especi jndustses, that white Britons had begun tos ‘better paying, less onerous, and more skilled er ‘The idea of Britain as a mother welcoming her overseas children seemed to be borne out hy the 1948 Nationality Act whic had ‘granted citizenship and free entry to al from the colonies and the elf governing white Dominions of Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, ‘But as Ihave also recounted in so ny Racin: A Very which guarantees jlace to allow whites from the Dominions to come and settle or travel to and fro as they wished. There was little inkling that those ‘who Would take the opportunity would be ‘eoloureds rom the ‘West Indies, India, and Pakistan. The British Labour Government itied to prevent the SS Windrush from sating beeause the preferred policy was t revuit white Polish and other displaced East Buropeans. When the ship sailed anyway, Colonial Office civil servants were sent to the West Indies and India to prevent any farther migrations, and every atempL was made to convince ‘rould-be migrants that there were no jobs in Britain ‘Bat the growing National Health Service and a desperate London “Transport soon began recruiting drives in the West Indjes and 2 4. West indian immigrants acriving at Vieloria Station, London, 1956 industries in the North, nai. Eager employers ia mant nigrant workers, leading ads, and London also si ies, India, and Pal ‘End post-colonial migrations into the Nether lan Ted workers were forced to take the uns Gangerous jobs, and those involving night shis whic white sere workers were abo sprm in ahooming economy. And he ‘coloured immigrants found cheap Housing in poorer ve ghbourhonds thir choies not only constrained by neo an aesie to send money hore, but also by dest Aseriminaton against them by private landlords and publie authorities “the common usage of coloured’ and ‘lack’ in the UK, not ‘more explicit ‘which the newer minorities have beer govern “Suowere in Europe, While tbe Netherlands es always had an 2 suena EMethnic minorities policy, the British have framed issues in terms of “race relationy. A key 1969 report by Rose was uncontentiously ‘entitled Colour and Citizenship: A Repost on Brith Race Relations ‘Multiracial’ and ‘rulticultural’ continu to be used synonymous. “However, this racialization of public discourse, which has the immigration and service provision that were of more specific concern to them. Long-discussed plans for restricting ‘coloured’ inumigration were {finally implemented from 1962 onsards with Cor Dominions of Australia, New: [Nationality Act was also signficam sols, or the automatic granting of citizenship to ebildren born in, ‘the UK of non-citizen parents, ™ ‘british multiculturalism, then, Dis aways had a self-consciously ‘ovin-pronged approach which has married ‘integration’ of the Jmumigrants already in the country with strict restrictions on further ‘coloured immigration, ‘That Britishness has a white racial connotation hes been hotly disputed by the misinstream media, already hostile to ism, and even by Centre-Left politicians generally itiatives, Tis beeame elearin the genuine belonging by people of Asian or conflation of multiracia and ‘multicultural means that in Britain, ‘opposition to immigrants and immigration is often expressed ‘trough opposition to ‘multiculturalism Deginning to take root. Nationally, what began as the Rampton ‘Report inta West Indian under-achievement in schools beeame the 1952 Swann Report which recommended the implementation of ‘multicultural schooling for all, Urban disorders snvolving black asouth in London and the Midlands in the 1980s put black urban Gisadvantage, under-acnievement, and unemployment squarely on ‘the public agenda, especially us the Searman Report into the Brixton disorders in London blamed general disadvantage and ‘inequalities, rather than institutional racism amongst tbe police and other agencies, for the frustration and anger amongst black youth. “Hopes of serious multicultural progress suffered serious blows under the Thatcher government elected in 1979. The recommendations of the Swann Report wi CCurriculun with a strong emphasis on whi Christian ethos was imposed. Repeated central government and media attacks on Labour-controlled local authoritios with a strong, public eommitment to multicule fand whieh usually had Leftsh lea militant egalitarianism in relation to elass inequalities. ‘The more radical anti-racism of the GLC variety also began to alienate liberals. A division opened up between self-styled ‘anti- racists’ and those derided hy them as‘multieulturalists, again particularly evident in conflicting perspectives on interventions in fats often identified with the Institute of sned whether the liberal multiclteralist policy of teaching at cr eves’ could ever effectively Trount a ditect challenge to racist attitudes and practices, pointing did not address the ay case, asthe nity eltures was trite and id on giving white children exposure Jne, musi, and forms of dest ~ “samosas, and stool drums! = rn etc minor ures dando Tesg sal number of wncangng ky charac a bused cates whidrbar xe led the bie reyes Arend er een wre qui rit 12 vata deen. Conte rs win ane MN 8 er maimlaions viewpoint on te ah eto yeon of the rhe i eared tbr minim ie that weed mul neater “Ata national level, multiculturalist and anticracist initiatives ‘continued to be rebuffed throughout the 1990 when the a‘Conservatives were in power in Britain. To take just one instance, {in January 1997 the John Major government vetoed European, Union plans to set up a European Monitaring Centre on “Xenophobia and Racism which was going to mark the launch of te European Year Against Racism. Tt was with the artival ofa Labour Government later that year that progress was made on such issues. The new government also allowed Britain to have Buropean-agreed human rights legislation and an eop-seated cultures and practic ‘Metropolitan Police that had all However, the situation was different at many local levels. While ‘many cities in the North of England usod the Conservat do litle in terms of multiculturalism, a negligence that was becoming more entrenched, and gave exeessive powers of patronage to those who, fora variety of as ‘community leaders’. Critics of multicull such as Malik and Hasan, have highlighted ‘an attempt to discredit the whole of multiculturalism as a distraction from genuine struggles to redress ethnie and wider inequalities. But it is elso clear that there was a genuine, although ‘variable, commitment to ensuring that ethnie disadvantage wis ‘uckled ancl that there was an integration of ethnic minorities vit thriving Ioeal associations and other forms of what the distinguished Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor was to call the ‘polities of recognition’ in 1992. ‘Misgivings about essentialism amongst many radical anti-racsts ‘and general egalitarians were often allied tothe perhaps most eloquently Gitlin ~ that the drive to establish muticult feminism, way rights, ights, and environmentalism, hal Jed to a form of ident je which distracted attention and ‘energy away from the teal’ struggle to reduce class inequalities, Sometimes the debate was played out in slighty different terms via the accusation, most famously made by another American, Nancy -racsm wore primarily material resources fears echoed in Britain by commentators sue as Malik, Bot ebarges were misleading. The Gitlin-type critique not only failed to understand that even cass conflict involved social identities, but also that there had previously been tan over-emphasis on class at the expense of inequal gender, sexuality, and ethnicity, and that these were {sues but required urgent redress and which in the pr “youl produce a deepening of democracy and more eglitarian social relations generally. Meanvbile, as many commentators ~ Parekh perhaps most succinelly ~ pointed out, redistribution and recognition are not opposed but inherently intertwined, requiring each other in strengtbening the averall goals of greater ‘economic equality and wider cultural expression and diversity. ‘The slfstyled British amti-racists, as shin an essay in the early 1990s, also relied on reducing inoqualities and racism too much to class in various forms. This meant that, »although thei critique of the essentialism of the ‘multiculturalists was wel taken, a move away from their elass reductionism was also necessary if more sophisticated strategies were to he putin place ofthe damaging divisions that hae opened up between the antiracist and multicalturaist camps, I also angued that questions of gender, ier paternalism that has often four ——— and 4 failure to addvess the widespread mascutinist culture of violence, all of which had contedbuted toa situation that led to the rather than as an attempt o combat etinie socioeconomic disadvantage as well as cultural exclusion from the nation’s self ‘The outbreak of widespread violence in ites in the Now of England in 2001 marked a watershed and had a age influence ‘on suocessive Labour governments, ist elected in 1957. The "multiculturalism had begun to take shape. I discuss this in some For the present, it worth noting that both in the Netherlands and in Britain the forms of multiculturalism that developed were very much pragisati, top-down ercations with litle gemuine public the minorities, a rudderioss and Jpnicked in th face of explosions of popu resentment or senses Ptinjustice from below. There is considerable truth in Yasmin ‘Alibhai-Brown’ sareastic jibe: debate and involvement from the majority or ‘White Britons were fie nistorcally by the pital elite who di not prepare them fr the changes tat came afer he wot — and vans el give out mised messages abou whether migration has for this nation. One eement people in Rain were being ta ‘they were the imperial masters who ad the ‘God-ven responsi ove the baxbasians they controled ~ thenedt minut thse black and Asian people were i the work ‘canteen demanding toe rated equals. White Britons were tle ‘hat back and Asan immigration was a threat butat the sume time they were instruc to reat those already hore ns equals France: secularism, immigration, and de facto ‘multiculturalism snyoramoins en approach, supporedly ‘spi recognition of ethnic minorities, a comunitment o the ‘of minority cultures, andthe general eslebration of cultural diversity and multiethnieity. “The French approach ixparticlarly influenced by its conception of sceularism, French secularism, oF formal separation of €ausch and state, received the famous Separation Law of 1908, after the liciation process which guaranteed freedom of religio. ‘worship but banned the placing of any religious ‘sign or emblem” don public monuments, although the state agreed to fond ‘schools and prisons. French facie ike alt as always been open to different interpretations and ainstitional expressions, Fetzcr and Soper distinguish between ‘strict’ and ‘oft versions which have held sway in different periods schools as long as they respect religions phuralism, They also argue Uiat the strict version of laictté violates international law ‘and human rights covenants, In recent years the different versio France experienced, and indeed encouraged, high rates of {immigration from other European countrics such as Poland, ‘aly, Spain, and Portugal throughout the period before the end of the Second World War. These waves of immigration had two features that distinguished them from the ows that started from ‘the European immigrants were not racial ‘not regarded es posing any problems of as ‘ens, has also continued allowed France to continue regarding ise Telkom hm he Me wring int tems ty nlp The reach = tion of ambivalence: encouraged the formation of separate ethnic eol ethnic political machines which endured for a considerable period ‘even afer the Second World War. »In practice, the French state has also practised a form of de _fasto ‘multiculturalism’, however abhorrent the term lias been. "A 1981 Taw lifted the restrictions on North African hhad provented them from creating ethnle assoc sant lines as European immigrants. Such organizations ‘mushrvomed, and by the end of the 1980s there were at least 3,000 af them, acting as inicrmediaries with trade unions, local authorities, and political partis. Atleast 1,000 were overtly Islamic, while others, such as SOS-Racisme, were more broad based. The state also set up zones of educational priority (ZEP) in ‘poorer urban areas which, asin the Netherlands, Britain and elsewhere, were also where immigrants had been forced to settle, ‘and where there lad been a series of disorders in the 19808 and 1990s involving immigrant youth, ‘The contradiction between the public rhetorie of universalism and opposition to multiculturalism and the actual practice of the “tate is nowhere more clearly illustrated than in the 1990 invitation to representatiy im organizations to form a Deliberative Council on the Future of Islam in France, Subsequently, the government has funded training institutes for imams in an attempt to ervate a Frenel Islam free of foreign influences, Ia 2003 & nationally representative central Musim ‘council was st up, the Consell Frengais de Culte Musulman. ‘The continuing controversies over the fjjab point tension in French public culture between pragma ethnicity and public religiosity and the desire to maintain the ‘uadition of Jaccbin Republicanism. The rise of militant Islam, widespread urban disorders in the 21st ving the young descendants of North African immigrants, mory Muslim, in protest at unemployment and ied policing discussed in more detail lator ~ and the i Jing ethnie associations, have all kept various forms of de facto multiculturalism alive. ‘it ocems lear that governments of bot Left and Right have lone to the conclusion thatthe best eourse of action for France is mn of cultural difference ‘compromise {nthe census. The actual numbers of ethnic min: sill matter of informed ak, Whether tl isis for social policy remains divisive public life. Novenber 2010 sina potenti ional: sétizens with immigrant p French men with parents from the Maghreb had an employment ate of 65% compared with 56% for those with French parents; nmen were 96% and 7% The ‘intellectuals, and from the suggesting that citizens with ‘deat to the nation. This move ‘been passed banning the pparemts were somehow a soom ater legislation had from all public places. Germany: an ‘ethnic’ nation comes to terms with the demands of citizenship ‘Germany had inherited fom the ety 1th century and even more from the draconian Voll-natonslism of the Nazi period Conception of formal etizenship as well as a more general ates! sense that only those of proven Geran descent could ‘fats belong to te nation, "hroughont the period rom the 29508 8 seman ento the early 1970s, whilst millions of forcign workers from Italy, tn Stuttgart which have large populations of immigrant origin. Greece, Portugal, Turkey, and ¥ Firankfurt has had an Offiee for Multicultural Affairs since 1989. citienship policy vemalued one of strict tus semeu “eas acted 28 an advocate for anti-diserimination measures Amongst lel authorities, xmas for tolerance and eooeptanee mother-tongue teaching ‘education system. The constitutional guarantee of religious cours woreableto bring their families to “ So Es as has some 75 lion redone of Irearing ot headscarves by Musi women continue to provoke population, nd some estimates " Tony and oppoton. The growth af marsages between | Germans and those wth foreign eiensip, eahing2 ire . {6 16% in 2000 compared %9 4% in 1960, are aken by | tormmentatrs such as Karen Sender ae generally hope Signs ofa moe borton-up acceptance of eltral versity. by the citizenship legislation of 2000 and the Immigration Act of 2008, marking an ever mone explicit “The notion of nterculturalism has acquired some currency in acceptance of gust workers as German, Germany and mae meso ban meatin wh tempts at encouraging interaction and dialogue between ‘Not surprisingly in a nation with such a powerful ethnic self ‘minorities and the majority. This is a development about which ‘conception, multiculturalism hes never had wholehearted official 1 wl have more wo say in the conclusion to this book, ‘endorsement and has never aequited 1 do not have the space here to provide comparative material on celebration of divesity, bt even the ‘Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, and Spain. Vertovee and sympathetic, appear to have turned Wessendort’s collection The Multicntturaliom Backlash is ‘particularly useful in praviding information on these countries, Conclusions ‘Severel conclusions stand out from any informed survey of {immigration and multiculturalism in Western Europe in the second half ofthe 20th century. stark and, for many, an “uncomfortable truth is that non-white immigrants from the poorer 36 7African immigrants as guest workers, it lini etitveetzenship las already in pls poeetutst-worker stem which th French, Beith and bey sereaments would probably have liked to establish "The tradition of z Hungry for labour, th Europe and the publi ‘ore important was the deeply embeded racializaion that ‘Westen European soci had inherit ts part of imperial 8 legacy. ‘This meant thatthe ‘coloured workers were trated quite Ulifferenty from the European migrants from Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Poland who had previously fed the labour teralism has been largely a top-down project, le unions, politcal party activists, and anti= racist organizations have !mobilize on a popular evel and +have kept up the pressure for far treatment and awareness of the benefits ofthe nev cultural diversity, The top-down Approach bas ereated resentment, which in turn has led to a “white backlash, ctlnic essentiaism and ‘have failed to combine appropriately with general egalitarian struggles to fight socioeconomic inequality. ‘And official and popula: opposition in countries such as France, Germany, 1ty, Austria, and Denmark has meant that ‘multiculturalism is stil very unevenly developed in Western urope. The 2st century has seen the emergence ofa backlash ‘against multiculturalism. Note, though, that despite many popular 323 i z E f a iintegration. Multiculturalism has now to cope of the new knowledge a mos, Greece, August 2009, Greck coastguards scokers, most of whom come from Aly cntions in the Mi coining period of ac resources for public services, i that wee necessary.