A STUDY OF AGRICULTURA RURAL WOMEN MELAVARAPPANVILLAGE

ARIYALUR DISTRICT

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION:

Agriculture is the mainstay of Ethiopia’s economy, contributing 46 percent of the

country’s gross domestic product (GDP), more than 90 percent of its export, and 83
percent of its employment (USAID, 2010). Both industry and services are dependent on
the performance of agriculture, which provides raw materials, generates foreign
currency for the importation of essential inputs and feeds the fast growing population.
Agriculture is also central to the livelihoods of the rural poor and in the attainment of
the Millennium Development Goals. Therefore, agricultural development is important
for general economic development of the country. Development is a process that
allows people to improve their livelihoods. Agricultural development is therefore
concerned with enabling farmers to use agriculture as a means of improving the well-
being of their families. It is also the base for the country's overall development by
increasing food security and incomes. Every country’s development is focused mainly
on the uplifting of the rural small-holder farming sector. Most people in this group are
women who work day and night to sustain the family’s food supply and provide extra
income to the households. It has often been claimed that women produce 60-80
percent of food in most developing countries.
The international development community has recognized that agriculture is an
engine of growth and poverty reduction in countries where it is the main occupation of
the poor. But the agricultural sector in many developing countries is underperforming,
in part because women, who represent a crucial resource in agriculture and the rural
economy through their roles as farmers, laborers and entrepreneurs, almost
everywhere, face more severe constraints than men in access to productive resources
such as land, credit, assets, labor and inputs. Ethiopian rural women, who comprise
over 85 percent Ethiopian women and 49.4 percent of the rural population make
significant contribution to subsistence agriculture and to ensuring food security and are
the mainstay of the farm labor. They work in all aspects of agriculture. In addition to
their active engagement in agriculture and livestock production, women are responsible
for all household chores, mainly as a result the gender division of labor. As a
consequence of this, rural women in Ethiopia are engaged in laborious tasks for not less
than 15-18 hours a day, often without any cash remuneration, recognition or
appreciation (Deribe, 2007). Despite their considerable involvement and contribution,
women’s role in agriculture and livestock production has often been underestimated or,
worse, ignored (Yisehak, 2008). Hence, this review work was initiated with the
objectives of collecting information on the role of women farmers in agricultural and
rural development of the country and to indicate most important constrains limiting
their participation in the developmentprocess.

WOMEN’S TRIPLE ROLE

Women play a significant role in the agricultural labor force and in agricultural activities
(ESA, 2011). In addition to their active engagement in agriculture and livestock
production, women are responsible for all household chores, mainly as a result the
gender division of labor These roles are broken into three categories. Women’s roles
encompass work in all these categories, and this is referred to as women’s triple role.
Each of women’s three roles viz. productive, reproductive and community roles are
briefly described in the next subsections.

WOMEN IN AGRICULTURE:
The dignity of women is largely depends on the availability of employment for
women. The casual essence of employment, absence of opportunities to progress, lack
of required skills, segregation of work, unequal wages, corrupt surroundings of work,
commercialization and mechanization of agriculture are some of the problems that
have oppressed the female agricultural labourers. Concentration of vast number of
women in this field also reduced the bargaining capacity of laborers. It also affects the
wage pattern of these laborers. Women‟s presence in the labor market is purposeful by
her family situation, education, growth in job opportunities and the normal leveled of
fiscal action. Female work presence in agriculture depends on a severity and related
growth of agriculture.

PRODUCTIVE ROLES:
Productive activities include all tasks which contribute to the income and economic
welfare and advancement of the household and community. Both women and men
perform a range of productive roles, but the types of workthey do are very different
and are often divided according to their gender roles. Rural women’s contribution to
productive activities.

REPRODUCTIVE ROLES:
Reproductive work involves the care and maintenance of the household and its
members. However according to Berhanu et al. reproductive roles are invisible and non-
income generating among household activities. Rural women are responsible for almost
all domestic activities including cooking, firewood collection, family care, cleaning and
washing. They are also responsible for collecting water, shopping, mending and looking
after the disabled, old or sick members of the family. It is almost always the
responsibility of women; however men also play a significant and recognized role in
many cultures. Women’s other reproductive roles include pregnancy, childbirth and
breastfeeding.

COMMUNITY ROLES:
Community work involves the collective organization of social events and services,
ceremonies and celebrations, community improvement activities, participation in
groups and organizations, local political activities and so on. Community management
roles of gender are activities which are related to the welfare of the community
(Berhanu et al., 2006). This author also added that women’s role is still invisible but very
tiresome. The most burdensome activity is preparing food and local drinks during
weeding, mourning, and religious ceremonies. Women also visit and care sick persons
and women at birth in a community which is accompanied by food and drinks.

WOMEN’S CONTRIBUTION TO CROP PRODUCTION:

It has often been claimed that women produce 60-80 percent of food in most
developing countries. However, assigning contributions to agricultural outputs by
gender is problematic because in most agricultural households both men and women
are involved in crop production. It can be attempted to allocate output by gender by
assuming that specific crops are grown by women and others by men and then
aggregating the value of women’s and men’s crops to determine the share grown by
women. In rural areas of Ethiopia, women participate and play a significant role in all
operations related to crop production, although to a varying degree. These includes,
weeding, harvesting, post-harvest handling.

WOMEN’S CONTRIBUTION TO LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION:

Within pastoralist and mixed farming systems, livestock play an important role in
supporting women and in improving their financial situation and women are heavily
engaged in the sector. An estimated two- thirds of poor livestock keepers, totaling
approximately 400 million people, are women. Women are involved in almost all
livestock husbandry activities except in some operations like constructing housing and
herding of grazing animals harvesting natural pasture hay, beehive management and
traditional hide/skin processing. Women are also fully responsible for most laborious
and routine operation such as cleaning cattle barns and preparation of dung cake,
milking and milk processing, fetching water over long distances for livestock managed
around homestead.
WOMEN’S CONTRIBUTION TO AGRICULTURAL TRANSFORMATION:

In order to enable women to actively participate in the sustainable development

process of Ethiopia, there is a great need to promote changes in policies, laws,
structures and attitudes and development programs. In line with this, the Government
of Ethiopia has been launched Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) with regard to
gender development to ensure women’s active participation in the country’s economic
and social development as well as political processes and equal benefits to women from
the resultant outcomes. Economic development in turn has and will continue to
transform the agricultural sector in many developing countries. Food security is a
primary goal of sustainable agricultural development and a cornerstone for economic
and social development. The contribution of women to agriculture (ESA, 2011) and
ensuring food security for their household (FAO/World Bank, 2009) is clearly significant.
Consequently, their contribution to agriculture and food security will bring
agriculturaltransformation.

WOMEN AND UNPAID HOUSEHOLD RESPONSIBILITIES:

Women are generally less able than men to participate in economic opportunities
because they face a work burden that men do not. In most societies, women are
responsible for most of the household and child-rearing activities as well rearing of
small livestock, although norms differ by culture and over time. This additional work
burden is unpaid and limits women’s capacity to engage in income-earning activities,
which often require a minimum fixed time before being profitable. Furthermore, the
nature of tasks, such as caring for children and elderly household members, requires
women to stay near the home, thus limiting options to work for a wage (ESA, 2011). The
labor burden of rural women exceeds that of men, and includes a higher proportion of
unpaid household responsibilities related to preparing food and collecting fuel and
water (ESA, 2011). In rural areas of Ethiopia, women do most of the household and
farm work such as keeping livestock, growing crops, and preparing and cooking food for
family members. Women also carry very heavy loads and complete time-consuming
chores including looking after farm animals, as well as collecting water, fodder for
animals and firewood. Many women suffer greater poverty and hardship when the men
of their household migrate for employment purposes.
The women must bear responsibility for all the farm work, yet rarely receive
remittances from their husbands or recognition for their household contributions.
Women work longer hours than men due to their multiple roles. As a result of time
constraints women are also more likely to work in part time jobs and in informal
arrangements that pay less and/or provide fewer benefits (ESA, 2011). Reports cited in
UNDAF (2011) indicate that, with regards to women’s participation in economic life, 47
percent of the 31 million employed in Ethiopia are women, with highly unequal
participation. About 68.5 percent were unpaid family workers and 24.8 percent were
self-employed in informal jobs.

TIME SPENT IN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES:

Gender differences become clearer when looking at women’s workloads They work
much longer each day than men because they are involved in different agricultural
activities and household tasks Similarly, rural women are the mainstay of small-scale
agriculture, the farm labor force and day-to-day family subsistenc. Women comprise
just over 40 percent of the agricultural labor force in the developing world It is also
estimated that women provide 85 to 90 percent.
RATIONALE OF THE STUDY:

Land stands as the most valued property, which enhances individual’s

socioeconomic status. Land rights, as a set of institutionalized rules and regulations that
are socially recognized and enforced by an external authority, are linked with the notion
of property rights.14 Land rights as property rights generally entail the use, transfer and
control of property. It is challenging when there is disconnect between different social
and Agarwal, Gender and Command Over Property: A Critical Gap in Economic Analysis
and Policy in South Asia. legal settings due to the fact that property rights belong to
more than one legal arena. Property rights are also defined through a mix of customary
and religious laws. The existence of competing legal systems can create contradictions
and confusion in defining and recognizing women’s rights to land. It is widely
recognized that women’s rights to access and control over land are central to the goal
of poverty reduction and rights-based approaches to development. The level of
women’s right to access and control over land determines or greatly influences their
overall living conditions, the question of everyday survival, economic security and
physical safety and has a profound effect on gender relations. The persistence of
discriminatory laws, policies, patriarchal customs, traditions and attitudes in various
countries, including Nepal, is still blocking women from enjoying their rights as State
laws and State institutions compete with informal regulatory systems.

WORKLOAD:
Women are operating under a heavy workload as they are assumed to perform most
of the routine and laborious agricultural activities. This coupled with other regular
housekeeping activities triples the responsibilities by women Although agricultural
development increases yields and cash flows, it also requires better attention and
additional labor in carrying out new tasks. This leaves women with little time to
participate in extension and training to improve their knowledge and skills However in
Tanzania, for example, reducing time burdens of women could increase cash income for
smallholder coffee and banana growers.

LIMITED ACCESS TO LAND:

Limited access to land is still a major constraint to women’s full participation in
agricultural and rural development. Available evidence indicates that the distribution of
land ownership is heavily skewed toward men (FAO/World Bank, 2009) and women
usually do not have ownership of land and assets because traditionally only sons inherit
the family land. Reports cited in UNDAF (2011) shows that, women constitute 19
percent among agriculture land owners in Ethiopia, while men constitute 81 percent.
STATEMENT PROBLEM:
Over time, women have emerged as the main farmers at Tshiombo Irrigation
Scheme, yet at the main study area land is still held mainly by men. The study wants to
find out as to how did this situation arise, and what are the livelihood consequences for
women? The above condition shows that land rights do not affect the participation of
women in agricultural production. One could therefore argue that land ownership in
this scheme does not affect women’s participation in agriculture as they are doing well
in agriculture despite the lack of land rights. However, women could be at risk of losing
their user rights if their husbands die or if they get divorced, as they might be forced to
leave the family or they might decide to leave due to the conditions in that particular
family. Therefore, security of tenure could help in situations like these. It is therefore
important for the researcher to document conditions in which women farmers
participate in agriculture at Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme and to find out what
encourages them to be involved in agriculture under these conditions. 3 At the same
time, the decline of men in farming has been noted. During the focus group discussions
with some women farmers, it was indicated that men’s decline in farming is due to
laziness. It was further explained that some men spend most of their time drinking
alcohol. However, the results of this study do not support this explanation.
OBJECTIVES:

The overall objective of the study is to understand trends in women’s participation in

agriculture, and to find out if their participation in agriculture enhances their
livelihoods.
• To examine the current status of women’s participation in agriculture.
• To establish the main causes for men’s withdrawal from production and women’s
increasing role in production.
• To understand the significance of these trends for women’s livelihoods and
wellbeing.
• To document the challenges that women farmers experience in relation to
agriculture at the Scheme.
METHODOLOGY:
The study adopted a descriptive survey design. As at the time the study was
conducted, it had a population size of 2,416 women that engage in crop farming within
the 7 states found in North Central geo-political zone of Nigeria (FRN Gazette,2009) Due
to the relative large size of the population, the multistage sampling technique was
adopted for sample selection. First, the purposive sampling was used to select 2 states
with relative high number of arable women farmers. Thus, selected states were Benue
state and Nasarawa state. Then, the random sampling technique was used to select
50% of all Local Government Areas found in the study states. This gave a total of 19
Local Government Areas sampled in the study. Finally, based on data gotten Nasarawa
Agricultural Development Program (NADP) and Benue State Agricultural and Rural
Development Authority [BARNADA], the study randomly selected 800 farm women
from the study 19 LGAs. This was done by randomly selecting 30% of rural farm women
found in the sampled LGAs, 300 from 1001 farm women in Nassarawa and 500 from
1677 farm women in Benue state respectively. Consequently, 800 copies of the
validated questionnaire tagged INSQ “Information Need and Sourcing Questionnaire”
was used for data collection. The study had 86% response rate. Data was analyzed using
both descriptive and inferential statistics.

CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, information remains a key component in ensuring agricultural
development and productivity in Nigeria. Since women are seen as major player in this
sector it is important to understand their information need and seeking pattern as this
is expected to influence the sector’s productivity level as well as inform information
service providers on what strategies to adopt for agricultural disseminating information.
Also, in spite of the wide range of sources available to these women to consult and the
observed average access to these sources, farm women still expressed relatively high
need for agricultural information especially those that will enhance income generation
and productivity. Similarly, they still consult more of interpersonal and media sources
with little or no significant exploit of the modern Information and Communication
Technologies with the exception of mobile phones. Finally, it contributes to a growing
body of literature that aims to understand to close gender gaps in agriculture and lead
to more equitable opportunities for farmers.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY:

There are a number of limitations of the study. Firstly, this study is limited to three
selected districts. Therefore, the study findings may not represent all the barriers that
women face throughout the nation as well as the barriers women face in other districts;
rather, findings are more specific to the selected study sites. Second, in the assessed
areas women were largely restricted from participating in private conversations and
public talks. This was challenging when engaging in informal or semi-formal
conversations as well as when conducting FGDs, since women would rely on men to
reply and engage in discussions.
 CHAPTER-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Manigandan (2013) in “An empirical study of agricultural labour in India” states that
almost half of the world‟s agricultural workforce comprises of women. They are
contributing from production to sale as well as preparation of food. Though traditionally
role of women worker in agricultural was under-estimated. Women are working as paid
labour or unpaid family member in agriculture in developing countries but they are still
facing gender inequalities.
Manas Mandal (2013) analysed women participation in agricultural production of Sagar
Island, West Bengal, India. He investigated that women perform range of duties at farm
and home, also they work for longer hours than men and yet they get less wages and
exploited by landlords.
ChandramaGoswami (2013), in “Female agricultural workers in Assam. A case study of
Darrang district” concluded that poor women are contributing more to household
income by working as a labour even under poor working conditions and with lower
wages to improve the economical conditions of the family. There were no land
ownership amongst female and even they do not have any right on their earnings.
Women accept to work in farms because they can get employment without proper
training or education and it is temporary in nature. It was also proved that in spite of
having more shares of females as agricultural labour than men, they get lower wages
than males.
Ghosh (2014) analysed women participation in Agriculture and estimated that 45.3% of
agricultural labour force consists of women but most of them have remained as
invisible workers. Study concluded that participation of women in agriculture increasing
with time and their status as agricultural labour is now acknowledged. However, wage
and working status discrimination.
Kanagarathinam (2014) investigated that around 52% of unorganized workers are
engaged in agriculture and allied sectors. Agricultural workers are disadvantages rural
groups such as small, subsistence farmers, tenants & sharecroppers, the unemployed
and the landless. They get very low and irregular wages, wage discrimination between
male & females, no public holiday and no standard daily working hours.
Jeyalakshmi (2015) study about women labour in Indian agricultural sector and found
that female work participation rate has declined drastically during last few decades,
which shows that female workers are moved from agricultural to non-agricultural
activities because wage differences between male and female workers for the same
type of work discourages female workers.
C. U. Thresia (2004) in his paper “women workers in agriculture: gender discrimination,
working conditions and health status” pointed out some very important issues of
women agricultural workers. The biggest issue was related to physical (abortion,
stillbirths, and premature deliveries) and mental health because of the dual work
burden, economic and social insecurity, poverty. In addition, they have gender
discrimination in terms of proper education, employment and resources, which make
them helpless and powerless with low self-esteem.
Khurana (2011), in their research paper entitled “Gender Issues: The role of women in
agriculture sector” discussed about multidimensional roles and obstacles faced by
women in terms of employment, wages, dual responsibility, education level. Though
women share is very high in agricultural and they are spending more hours for work on
farm than men still they are paid less than males for the same work. Women are
undervalued because of the predetermined notion that women‟s basic role is of
homemaker. Therefore, they finally concluded that because of the lack of knowledge
about their rights, rural agricultural women labors are exploited by their landlords .

Lipishree Das (2015) studies about work participation of women in agriculture in Odisha
and concluded that women are concentrated in the agricultural sector of labour market.
There is discrimination against female labours because women‟slabour power is
considered as unskilled and inferior. Their work is low paid, casual and lacks potential
upward mobility .
Tahir Munir Butt et. al (2010) highlight the role of women in agriculture development
and their constraints in Depalpur, Okara, Pakistan and concluded that male dominance,
traditional belief systems, extension education services, lack of mobility & technical
training, knowledge & skills are the major constraints for female agricultural workers.
Vandana Dave (2012) conducted the study on women workers engaged in unorganized
sector to know about the socio-economic background, working conditions, wage rates,
living conditions of women workers engaged in unorganized sectors like construction,
domestic and agriculture in three districts of Haryana. She concluded that women
laborers face problems like excessive work burden, wage discrimination, exploitation,
untimely wage payment, seasonal unemployment, job insecurity, health problems.
Budech (2014) studied about struggles of female farm workers of California. He
investigates the gender aspects of fieldwork and few specific struggles faced by female
farm workers such as domestic abuse, sexual harassment in the fields, and exposure to
pesticides.
Kumar (2006) has held that economic issues are the most important issues in the
elections and for Himachali voters unemployment is the single most important issue
determining the outcome of the elections.
Saho (2007) reporting about NREGAS in Orissa quoting a study carried out by New
Delhi-based Centre for Environment and Food Security (CEFS), in its recent survey to
evaluate and assess the performance of the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme (NREGS) in 100 Orissa villages, has revealed that there is “participatory loot and
plunder of NREGS fund.” The Survey was conducted during May-June 2007 to assess the
impact of Orissa‟s Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (OREGS), the regional version
of NREGS. It covered six most backward districts of the state – Bolangir, Nuapada,
Kalahandi, Koraput, Nabarangpur and Rayagada.
The preliminary findings of this rapid survey are shocking, scandalous and outrageous.
The NREGS, which is projected as the biggest anti-poverty programme in the history of
Independent India, has been hijacked by officials responsible for implementing this
scheme. “There is open loot of tax-payers‟ money, there is plunder of poor‟s right to
guaranteed employment and there is pillage of every single norm of democratic
governance and administrative accountability,” the survey points out. Ironically, the
surveyors could not find a single case where entries in the job cards are correct and
match with the actual number of workdays physically verified with the villagers. Most of
the job cards are kept in the homes of VLWs against the will of the job card holders, in
many cases job cards are with the VLWs for over 8 -12 months. “We found many
villages where even after the completion of the OREGS work and payment of the work
made long ago, there is no entry in the job cards whatsoever. We found many villages
where OREGS work is going on without any villager having received job card. Most of
the villages where employment has been given, only half or one third of the wage
payment was made and that too after 4-6 months of the work being done”, the survey
says. There are many villages where actual wage has been given at the rate of Rs. 40 to
Rs. 30 or even Rs. 22 per day. In some villages no wage payment has been made even
after 6-8 months of the work. Out of 100 sample villages covered for this survey, 18
villages have not received any job card, 37 villages have not received any job under
OREGS even after 16 months of launch of the scheme, 11 villages have received neither
job cards nor any job, job cards of 21 villages are lying with Village Level Workers
(VLWs) and job cards of 2 villages are lying with junior engineers, in 25 villages only half,
one third or partial payments have been made.
Lal (2007)writing about NREGS in Rajasthan have come to the conclusion that Rajasthan
comes first in terms of employment generation per rural household under the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). In 2006-07, the average rural household in
Rajasthan‟s six “NREGA Districts” worked for as many as 77 days under this
programme, earning nearly Rs.4,000 in the process.

Sharma et al.(2016) In the context of heat wave and high drought probability,
therefore, knowledge-smart CSA technologies, such as contingent crop planning and
ICT-based agro-advisory services seem appropriate to help these women cultivators
deal with income variability as well as information needs related to cultivation and
harvesting practices, along with market knowledge. Similarly, practices related to
livestock management, such as concentrate feeding and fodder management for
livestock can prevent income losses from this source.
Khatri-chhetri et al. (2017) On the other hand, given high dependence on low and
variable wage income along with minimal asset endowments, low-cost interventions,
such as heat tolerant seed varieties may be more relevant for female laborers in the
region. The eastern part of zone 1 is characterized by the majority presence of poor
female agricultural laborers, of whom a substantial proportion belongs to the scheduled
groups.
Rustagi (2012) Laborers, like in other regions, are highly dependent on wage income
from agriculture, which is lower for females, especially during times of climatic stresses
Mahajan (2012) Within the scheduled groups, male migration and low incomes create
additional burden for the women left behind, further augmenting their farm labor work
and domestic responsibilitie.
Ravera et al. (2016) Consequently, this may have negative effects on their health and
nutrition status. Low cost and potentially profitable CSA practices, such as improved
seed varieties and weather based agro-advisories may be considered as plausible
options to help these female laborers reduce their dependency on wage income as well
as improve their nutrition status. While improved seeds can help increase their own
land production and income, by providing a marketable surplus, agro-advisories can
further help reduce cost of production along with providing information related to
nutrition and health.

CHAPTER 3
 AREA OF PROFILE

In pursuance to the Gazette Notification, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate

Change, the Government of India laid procedure for preparation of District Survey
Report of minor minerals other than sand mining or river bed mining. The main purpose
of preparation of District Survey Report is to identify the mineral resources and
developing the mining activities along with other relevant data of the District.

OVERVIEW OF MINING ACTIVITY:

Minerals of Economic importance found in Ariyalur District are mainly Celestite,
Limestone, Shale, Sandstone, Kankar and Phosphate nodules occur at various places in
the district. Limestone of sedimentary origin has been found in Ariyalur and Sendurai
Taluks. The Limestone is cement grade to plus cement grade in quality and is used in
the cement plants. Fireclay is used for the manufacture of floor tiles, stoneware pipes,
fire bricks and in the chemical industry. Jayamkondam in Udayarpalayam Taluk is rich in
Lignite, Oil and Gas reserves. Apart from the above major minerals the common use
minor minerals viz., River sand, Laterite, Roughstone, Redgravel, Brickclay, pebbles,
filling earth and Kankar are also found in this District.

The office of the Deputy Director, Department of Geology and Mining is functioning
under the control of District Collector, Ariyalur. The Deputy Director, Geology and
Mining is assisting the District Collector in the Mineral Administration works.
NERAL PROFILE OF THE DISTRICT:
Ariyalur District came into existence by the bifurcation of Perambalur District as per
G.O.(Ms)No.683 Revenue (RA1(1)) Department dated 19.11.2007. It is bounded on the
North by Cuddalore, South by Thanjavur, East by Cuddalore and Thanjavur and West by
Perambalur and Tiruchirapalli districts. Ariyalur has been functioning as a separate
District since 23.11.2007. Ariyalur District consists of two Revenue Divisions viz.,
Ariyalur and Udayarpalayam, Four Taluks viz., Ariyalur,Sendurai, Udayarpalayam and
Andimadam (Andimadam Taluk is formed as per G.O.(Ms) No. 167 Revenue (RA1(1))
Department dat 2017) comprising 195 Revenue Villages. The has six blocks viz. Ariyalur,
Thirumanur, Sendurai, Jayankondam, Andimadam and T.Palur comprising of 201 Village
Panchayats. There are two Municipalities viz. Ariyalur&Jayankondam and two To
Panchayats viz. Udayarpalayam&Varadharajanpettai.

LOCATION:
Ariyalur District is located in central Tamil Nadu and is 265 k.m. away from Chennai.
The District has an area of 1949 Sq.Km. Ariyalur railway station connected by southern
railway which connects Chennai, Madurai, Tuticorin and Thirunelveli. Ariyalur is also
well connected by roadways which also an important road junction on the Ariyalur-
Chennai, AriyalurAriyalur-Thungapuram-Thittakudi, SH27AriyalurJayamkondam are the
major road.

AREA AND POPULATION:

The initial provisional data released by census India 2011, shows that density of
Ariyalur district for 2011 is 389 people per sq. km. In 2001, Ariyalur district density was
at 358 people per sq. km. Ariyalur kilometers of areas. Enumeration of key persons was
also done by census official Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu. 5 Ariyalur District is located
in central Tamil Nadu and is 265 k.m. away from Chennai.
The District has an area of 1949 Sq.Km. Ariyalur railway station connected by
southern railway which connects Chennai, Madurai, Tuticorin and Thirunelveli. so well
connected by roadways which also an important road junction on Chennai, Ariyalur-
Thanjavur, and Ariyalur-Trichy roadways. SH143 Thittakudi, SH27 Ariyalur-Thanjavur
and SH139 AriyalurJayamkondam are the major roads via Ariyalur. The initial
provisional data released by census India 2011, shows that density of Ariyalur district
for 2011 is 389 people per sq. km. In 2001, Ariyalur district per sq. km. Ariyalur district
administers 1,94 Enumeration of key persons was also done by census official Nadu. In
2011, Ariyalur had population of 7 Limestone Mines of Kallankurichi formation Fireclay
Mines at Managathi Village Ariyalur District is located in central Tamil Nadu and is 265
k.m. away from Chennai. The District has an area of 1949 Sq.Km. Ariyalur railway
station connected by southern railway which connects Chennai, Madurai, Tuticorin and
Thirunelveli. so well connected by roadways which also an important road junction on
Trichy roadways.

ADMINISTRATIVE SET – UP:

Ariyalur District consists of two Revenue Divisions viz., Ariyalur and Udayarpalayam,
Four Taluks viz., Ariyalur, Sendurai, Udayarpalayam and Andimadam (Andimadam Taluk
is formed as per G.O.(Ms) No. 167. Revenue (RA1(1)) Department dated : 08-05-2017)
comprising of 195 Revenue Villages. The District has six blocks viz. Ariyalur, Thirumanur,
Sendurai, Jayankondam, Andimadam and T.Palur comprising of 201 Village Panchayats.
There are two Municipalities viz. Ariyalur&Jayankondam and two Town Panchayats viz.
Udayarpalayam&Varadharajanpettai.

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION:

Agriculture continues to be the most predominant sector of this district economy, as
70 percent of the population is engaged in Agriculture and allied activities for their
livelihood. The district has as an area of 1949 sq.km with a gross cropped area of around
lakhs Ha. Ariyalur District has a Geographical area of 1,93,338 Hectares. Of which the
net area cropped is 1,11,874 Hectares(64.70%). Out of which about 45136 Ha are
irrigated and about 66,738 Ha are rain fed. A total of 32,933 hectares (8.92%) are kept
as fallow lands. The lands-put to non-agricultural purposes occupy 43,953 (11.91 %)
hectares. The cultivable wastelands of 7,742 (2.10%) hectares can be brought in to
agricultural uses by suitable measures. The River Cauvery tributary irrigates about
10,389 Ha. inThirumanur, T.Palur and Jayankondam Blocks.
TRADE AND COMMERCE:
Internal trade of the district is developing on a large scale. Cement and limepowder are
manufactured in Ariyalur. These products enter into the market in different parts of the
country. Market Committees are functioning in the district for thepurchase and sale of
cotton, groundnut, chilly, corn and other edible oil products. The co-operative societies
for milk are functioning at all parts of the district. One warehouse is present in the
district for wholesale trading for chillies and onions.

GEOLOGY OF THE DISTRICT:

The Cretaceous formation of the Ariyalur (Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu) is one of the
best developed sedimentary sequences in South India. The Cretaceous system of
Cauvery Basin consists of shallow marine sequence with a rich faunal succession of
Albian–Maastrichtian.

Was the first to work on the stratigraphy of this formation and he divided the litho-
units into three groups: Uttatur, Trichinopoly and Ariyalur. These three groups are
largely disconformable and occasionally unconformable at places. The geology and the
stratigraphy of this area are accounted by many workers (Rama Rao, 1956; Ramanathan,
1968; Banerji, 1972, Sastri et al, 1972; ONGC, 1977; Sundaram and Rao, 1979 & 1986;
Ramasamy and Banerji, 1991; Banerji et al, 1996; Gonvindan et al, 1996). Ramasamy and
Banerji (1991) have revised the stratigraphic framework of the exposed Pre-Ariyalur
sequence based on detailed lithological and petrographical variations. Banerji et al.,
(1996) have redefined the Uttatur Group and identified within it four distinct formations
comprising reefoidal bodies, sandy clay, coarse sand bar and gypsiferoussiltyclay
units.Madavaraju (1996) has presented a detailed geochemical and petrographical
account of Ariyalur Group of sediments and Kallamedu Formation is the youngest unit of
this group. Further REE distribution and its importance in establishing anoxic/oxic
conditions in lime rich Kallankurichi formation was attempted by Madavaraju and
Ramasamy (1999).
 The sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous – Palaeocene age are well developed in the
Ariyalur area, which consist both clastic and carbonate facies. The diversity of fauna is
very large in the vast sedimentary basin that has attracted the attention of geologists
not only from India but also from foreign countries. Sastry et al., (1972) have further
divided the Ariyalur Group into four formations mainly based on lithological changes
and characteristic faunal content: i) Sillakudi ii) Kallankurichi iii) Ottakoil and iv)
Kallamedu Formations. This classification has been followed by various workers of
varied interests. Kallamedu Formation (Late Maastrichtian) is the youngest formation of
the Ariyalur Group and it exhibits large variation in lithology. The exposed area looks like
a bad land topography with sparse vegetation.

EVOLUTION OF CAUVERY BASIN:

The Cretaceous–Paleocene sections of Cauvery Basin are closely related to the rifting
and drifting phases of peninsular India. The basement is characterized by structural
highs and lows, these being evidenced by strong tectonic activity affecting the basin
since its inception. Two major tectonic and sedimentary phases are deciphered. The first
is taphrogenic rifting and associated block movements along the dominant NE-SW trend
during Late Jurassic, resulting in morphotectonic humps and deep slopes. The second
phase signifies coastal progradational/deltaic sedimentation through a series of marine
transgression and regression in response to the oscillatorytectonic movements. During
Paleocene, the basin continued to tilt towards east and deposits consequently shifted.
Cauvery basin comprises of depressions separated from one another by subsurface
ridges; these structural elements extend into the offshore area. The structural elements
from north-south are, (1) Ariyalur Pondicherry depression, (2)Kumbakonam–Madnam-
Shiyal ridge (3) TanjoreTranquibar–Nagapattinam depression (4) Pattukottai–
Mannargudi ridge (5) Ramnad–Palk Bay depression (6) Mandapam - Delft ridge. The first
marine transgression occurred during the close of Late Jurassic. The marine
environments of sedimentation continued till Cretaceous although a series of minor
transgressions and regressions.
 A major regression occurred during the close of Cretaceous. The basin underwent an
easterly tilt and the depocentres shifted due east prior to marine transgression during
the beginning of Paleocene.

DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATION PATTERN:

The regional slope is towards east. Denudational, structural and fluvial processes
mainly control the geomorphic evolution of the area. Mainly the varying resistance of
geological formations to those processes has governed the evolution of various
landforms. Various land forms occurring in the area such as structural hills, erosional
plains, residual hills rolling uplands and pediments of different facies belonging to the
denudational and structural land forms.

Fluvial landforms caused by the activity of Cauvery, Marudayar and Vellar river
systems, include younger flood plains, older flood plains and buried pediments.

LAND UTILISATION PATTERN IN THE DISTRICT:

Agriculture continues to be the most predominant sector of this district economy, as

70 percent of the population is engaged in Agriculture and allied activities for their
livelihood. The district has as an area of 1949 sq.km with a gross cropped area of around
1.118 lakhs Ha. District has a Geographical area of 1,93,338 Hectares. Of which the net
area cropped is 1,11,874 Hectares(64.70%). Out of which about 45136 Ha are irrigated
and about 66,738 Ha are rainfed. A total of 32,933 hectares (8.92%) are kept as fallow
lands. The lands-put to non-agricultural purposes occupy 43,953 (11.91 %) hectares. The
cultivable wastelands of 7,742 (2.10%) hectares can be brought in to agricultural uses by
suitable measures.The River Cauvery tributary irrigates about 10,389 Ha. in Thirumanur,
T.Palur and Jayankondam Block.

SURFACE WATER AND GROUND WATER:

Scenario of the District 7.1 Hydrogeology The major aquifer systems in the district
are constituted by (1) Basal crystalline rocks consisting mainly of Charnockites, Granites
and Gneisses of Archean age and (2) Sedimentary formations ranges in age from
Cretaceous to Recent.

ALLUVIAL FORMATIONS:

In the river alluvium ground water occurs under water table condition. The
maximum thickness is 37 m and the average thickness of the aquifer is approximately 12
to 15 m. These formations are porous and permeable, which have good water bearing
zones.

TERTIARY FORMATION:

Tertiary formations are mainly Cuddalore Sandstone, mottled ferrugeous clays and
pebbles. The ground water occurs in semi-confined conditions and confined conditions
with good ground water potentials in these aquifers. The Specific Capacity in the
Tertiary formations ranges from 40 to 1627 lpm/m/dd.

CRETACEOUS FORMATIONS:

Cretaceous formations comprises white Sandy Lime stones and Sand stones with
fossils, Calcareous mottled sandstones with fossils, shell Limestones, clays, sand stones
with fossils, Basal Limestone, clays and sandy beds with fossils. Ground water in the
sandy clay lenses and fine sands underlain by white and black clay beds constitutes
phreatic five aquifers in the depth range 10.0 to 15.0 m below ground level. Phreatic
aquifers in the limestone are more potential. The Specific Capacity in the cretaceous
formation ranges from 18.77 to 90.66 lpm/m/dd.

HARD ROCK FORMATIONS:

Hard rock formations include Charnockites, Granites and Gneisses traversed by

Quartz and Pegmatite veins. Ground water occurs under water table conditions in
weathered mantle and semi-confined conditions in fractured zones depend on the
joints, fracture and its development.
PRE-MONSOON WATER LEVEL:

The depth of water level during pre-monsoon (May2006) ranges from 1.10 to 8.55 m
bgl. In major part of the district the depth to water level during pre-monsoon is in the
range of >2 – 5 m bgl.

POST-MONSOON WATER LEVEL:

The depth of Water level during post-monsoon (Jan2007) ranges from 1.10 to 6.78 m
bgl. Almost in entire district, depth to water level during post-monsoon is in the range of
>2 – 5 m bgl, except some isolated patches.

AQUIFER PARAMETERS:

In the Cretaceous formation Transmissivity is 234 m2 /day and storativity is in the

order of 3.527x10-Transmissivity ranges from 620 to 1455 m2 /day and storativity
ranges from 3.29 to 7.74 x 10-5 in Tertiary formation.

GROUND WATER:

Quality Ground water in phreatic aquifers in this district is, in general, colorless,
odorless and predominantly alkaline in nature. The specific electrical conductance of
ground water in the phreatic zone (in microsiemens at 25°C) during May 2006 was in the
range of 1030 to 10,110 in the district. Conductance below 750 µS cm -1 has not been
observed in any part of the district. Saline ground water (EC >10,000) is observed at
select pockets of the district. It is observed that the ground water is suitable for drinking
and domestic uses in respect of all the constituents except total hardness and nitrate in
about 64% of the samples. Total hardness as CaCO3 is observed to be in excess of
permissible limits in 54% of the samples analyzed whereas nitrate is found in excess of
45 mgl-1 in about 73% of samples. Excess fluoride more than the permissible limit of 1.5
mgl-1 is observed at Thirumanur area and found to be localized phenomena. The
incidence of high total hardness is attributed to the composition of litho units
constituting the aquifers in the district, whereas nitrate pollution is most likely due to
the use of fertilizes and other improper waste disposal.

STATUS OF GROUND WATER DEVELOPMENT:

Groundwater resources of the district has been estimated using GEC-97

methodology, jointly by Central Ground Water Board and State Ground and Surface
Water Resources Data Centre, Govt. of Tamil Nadu. The six blocks in the district are
under safe category and feasible for groundwater development. Safe blocks may be
developed for further along with conservation strategies for sustainable development of
available potential. The overall district shows the level of groundwater development at
81 % as on 31st March 2004.

WATER CONSERVATION AND ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE:

Central Ground Water Board had prepared a master plan to augment groundwater
potential by saturating the shallow aquifer taking into consideration the available
unsaturated space during post monsoon and available uncommitted surplus run off.
Subsequently, computations have been made for Drought Prone Area Programme
(DPAP) for over exploited and critical blocks in the districts warranting immediate
attention. Institute of Remote Sensing, Anna University had prepared block wise maps
demarcating potential zones for artificial recharge for the State of Tamil Nadu.
Subsequently, State Government agencies have constructed artificial recharge
structures with their own fund or with fund from Central Government, dovetailing
various government programmes.

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL OF THE DISTRICT CLIMATE:

The climate of Ariyalur district is sub-tropical. The average rainfall which the district
receives during Northeast monsoon is 485 mm and during Southwest monsoon is 357
mm respectively. The normal onset of Southwest monsoon is first week of June whereas
for Northeast monsoon is second week of October.
RAINFALL:

The annual rainfall normal (1970-2000) of Ariyalur district is 949 mm.5 Projections of
rainfall over Ariyalur for the periods 2010-2040 (2020s), 2040-2070 (2050s) and 2070-
2100 (2080s) with reference to the baseline (1970-2000) indicate a decrease of 2.0%,
3.0% and 3.0% respectively.

MINING LEASES (LIMEKANKAR) MARKED ON THE MAP

At present, there are no leases for quarrying limekankar. However, the applied areas for
grant of quarrying leases for quarrying limekankar are marked in the district map.

Details of Eco-Sensitive area, if any in thedistrict

Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary is located in Ariyalur District, Ariyalur taluk (about 20 kms from
Ariyalur Town) of Tamil Nadu, between 79o 2’ 6.56” E and 79o 3’ 26.2” E longitude and
10o 58’ 12.19” N and 10 o 58’ 50” N latitude, encompassing an area of 4.53715 square
kilometres. The sanctuary is surrounded by Kilakavattankuruchi, Karaivetti, Kovilesanai
east, Suttamalli, Sathamangalam, Venganur and Vetriyur Revenue villages. The
sanctuary is one of the most important fresh water feeding ground for migratory water
birds in the State of Tamil Nadu. The sanctuary stakes a claim of 188 recorded species of
birds including 82 water birds. At any instance at least 45 bird species can be spotted
offering a choice location for ornithologists and researchers besides bird watching
enthusiasts.

AirEnvironment

The mining and allied operations may cause deterioration of air quality due to pollution
if prompt care is not taken. The principal sources of air pollution in general
duetominingandalliedactivitieswillbethedustgenerationintheminedueto:
Excavation of Limekankar,overburden.
Movement of HEMM such as excavators, tippersetc.,
Loading and unloadingoperation
Overburden &Limekankartransportation

Beside the above mentioned fugitive dust emissions, atmospheric fugitive dust
emissions, atmospheric pollution can occur as a result of emission of SO 2, Nox, CO etc.,
from diesel driven mining equipment, compressors, generators etc., Larger suspended
particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat and do not cause problems.
WATER ENVIRONMENT:
Generation of Industrial effluent water from workshop, servicebuilding.
Disturbance to drainage course or water bodies in the project area, ifany.
Washouts from waste dumps/embankment, ifany.
Domesticeffluent.

NOISE &VIBRATION:
Noise is one of the inevitable causes of pollution in mining operations largely due to
the extensive mechanization adopted. Since the Limekankar in the District is in friable
form no drilling and blasting is required for the excavation. Hence the major source of
noise will be from the equipment’s such as Excavation, loading & unloading&
movement of vehicles etc., will produce noise of considerable magnitude in mining
operations. Prolonged exposure to a high noise level is harmful to the human auditory
system and can create mental fatigue, rebellious attitude, annoyance and carelessness,
which may lead to neglect of work and also results in accidents.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
The management is able to deal with the situation efficiently to reduce confusion
keeping in view of the likely sources of danger in the mine.
The purpose of disaster management plan is to restore the normalcy for early.

SYSTEM OFCOMMUNICATION:
An internal communication system should be provided. Telephone nos. and addresses
of adjoining mines, rescue station, police station, Fire service station, local hospital,
electricity supply agency and standing consultative committee members should be
properly updated anddisplayed.

CONSULTATIVECOMMITTEE:
A standing consultative committee will be formed under the head of Mines. The
members consists of Mines manager safety officer medical officer public relation
officer Foreman and environmental engineer.

FACILITIES&ACCOMMODATION:-
Accommodation and facilities for medical centre, rescue room and for various
working groups shall be provided. Regular checking of these facilities shall be
undertaken.
FIRST AID & MEDICALFACILITIES:
The mine management should be having first aid / medical centre for use in
emergency situation. All casualties should be registered and should be given first aid.
The centre should have facilities for first aid & minor treatment, resuscitation,
ambulance and transport. Proper telephone / wireless should be provided for quick
communication with hospitals where the complicated cases are to be referred.
Regular checking of these facilities shall be undertaken by the doctor and the in charge
of the first aidroom.

STORES:
A detailed list of equipment available, its type & capacity and items reserved for
emergency should be maintained.

TRANSPORT SERVICES:
A well defined transport control system should be provided to deal with the
situation.

FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONSGROUP:

Liaison with representatives of the mine workers is required to ameliorate the
situation of panic, tension, sentiments, grievances and misgivings created by any
disaster. Management is required to ameliorate the injured, survivors and family
members of affected persons by providing material, finance, moral support and
establishing contact with relatives of victims. The consultative committee formed,
especially the nominated public relation officer shall look into theseaspects.