Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Faction
Faction
i
ii
INTERNAL FRICTION OF MATERIALS
Anton Puškár
iii
Published by
Cambridge International Science Publishing
7 Meadow Walk, Great Abington, Cambridge CB1 6AZ, UK
http://www.demon.co.uk/cambsci/homepage.htm
© Anton Puškár
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iv
PREFACE
The complete absence of books characterising the internal friction
of materials, its external and internal aspects and the application of
measurements in various scientific and technical areas, especially in
physical metallurgy and threshold states of materials, has been the
impetus for the author to write this book. Without understanding
the principle and mechanisms of anelasticity and the effect of
various factors on internal friction, together with the application of
methods of reproducible internal friction measurements, it is not
possible to solve the problems of the application of these
measurements as direct or indirect methods for the evaluation of the
structural stability of alloys, problems of cyclic microplasticity and
deeper understanding of processes associated with the response of
materials to single or repeated loading.
In addition to the original systematisation of the possibilities
of using internal friction measurements in various sciences, the
book presents the latest theories and results together with practical
approaches to the measurement and evaluation of the resultant
relationships
Anton Puškár
v
vi
CONTENTS
vi
4.2 EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND EVALUATION .....
...................................................................................................... 143
4.2.1 Infrasound methods......................................................................144
4.2.2 Sonic and ultrasound methods......................................................151
4.2.3 Hypersonic methods.....................................................................167
4.3 PROCESSING THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS AND
INACCURACY...........................................................................169
4.3.1 Inaccuracy caused by the design of equipment.............................169
4.3.2 Inaccuracies of the measurement method......................................172
4.3.3 Errors in processing the measurement results...............................174
6 CYCLIC MICROPLASTICITY..............................................234
6.1 CRITICAL STRAIN AMPLITUDES AND INTENSITY OF
CHANGES OF CHARACTERISTICS.......................................237
6.1.1 Physical nature of the critical strain amplitude.............................239
6.1.2 Methods of evaluating critical amplitudes.....................................245
6.2 CYCLIC MICROPLASTIC RESPONSE OF MATERIALS....248
vi
6.2.1 Dislocation density and the activation volume of microplasticity . 248
6.2.2 Condensation temperature of the atmospheres of solute elements 257
6.2.3 Deformation history.................................................................................262
6.2.4 Cyclic strain curve.......................................................................267
6.2.5 Temperature and cyclic microplasticity........................................276
6.2.6 Magnetic field and microplasticity parameters..............................282
6.2.7 Saturation of cyclic microplasticity...............................................290
6.3 FATIGUE DAMAGE CUMULATION......................................297
6.3.1 Hypothesis on relationship of Q–1 – and – Nf dependences ... 297
a
6.3.2 Deformation and energy criterion of fatigue life...........................300
6.3.3 Effect of loading frequency on fatigue limit..................................311
References..................................................................................................315
Index..........................................................................................................325
ix
x
SYMBOLS
A - coefficient of anisotropy
Ap - approximate coefficient of anisotropy
a - lattice spacing
B - proportionality coefficient
BHR - Blair, Hutchins and Rogers model
b - Burgers vector
b - fatigue life coefficient
c - fatigue life exponent
cikmn - elasticity constant
cm - average concentration
c0 - initial concentration
cp - heat capacity at constant pressure
D - diffusion coefficient
D, D|| - diffusion coefficient normal and parallel to the dis-
location
dz - grain size
E - modulus of elasticity (Young modulus) in tension or
compression
ED - dynamic modulus of elasticity (Young modulus)
EN - non-relaxed modulus of elasticity
ER - relaxed modulus of elasticity
ES - modulus of elasticity
Eef - effective modulus of elasticity
E/E - defect of modulus of elasticity (Young modulus)
e - temperature coefficient of the change of the modulus
of elasticity
F - coefficient of the shape of the hysteresis loop
F, F|| - force acting normal and parallel in relation to the
dislocation
FR - Finkel’stein-Rozin relaxation
G - shear modulus of elasticity
G - difference of moduli of elasticity
H - activation enthalpy
h - Planck’s constant
I - magnetization current
i - interstitial atom
K - bulk modulus of elasticity
KS - mean capacity of absorption of energy in the
microvolume
k - Boltzmann’s constant
kI - coefficient of magnetomechanical bond
Lef - effective length of the dislocation segment
Ln - length of the pinned dislocation segment
xi
Lp - spacing of pinning points
M - ratio of the extent of internal friction and the defect
of the modulus of elasticity
Nf - number of cycles to fracture
n - coefficient of cyclic strain hardening
no - density of geometrical inflections
P - pressure
Qc - activation energy for creep
Q–1 - internal friction
Q–1S - height of Snoek’s peak
Q–1SK - height of Snoek and Köster peak
Q–1m - internal friction slightly depending on
Q–1o - internal friction independent of , the so-called
background
Q–1p - internal friction strongly dependent on , so-called
plastic friction
Q–1t - internal friction strongly dependent on loading time
R - degree of dynamic relaxation
Re - yield stress
Rm - ultimate tensile strength
SK - Snoek and Köster relaxation
S - entropy difference
s - substitutional atom
smnik - elasticity constant
ss - designation of a pair of substitutional atoms
T - oscillation period
TF - thermal fluctuation relaxation
Th - homologous temperature
Tp - ductile to brittle transition temperature
Tt - melting point
t - time
V - volume
V+ - activation volume
v - vacancy
vd - dislocation velocity
vl - velocity of the longitudinal wave
vt - velocity of the transverse wave
W - total energy supplied to the system
Wt - energy consumed by material up to fracture
Wk - half energy of the formation of a double kink
W - energy scattered in the material during a cycle
Z1, Z2 - total power of the exciter and power required to
overcome resistance in the exciter
- coefficient of intensity of damping
- widening of the peak of internal friction
- thermal conductivity coefficient
xi
kr1 - first critical strain amplitude
kr2 - second critical strain amplitude
- logarithmic decrement of damping
ac - total strain amplitude
ap - plastic strain amplitude
c - total strain
d - additional strain
e - elastic strain
i - fatigue ductility coefficient
mn - strain tensor
kr1 - first critical strain amplitude
kr2 - second critical strain amplitude
kr3 - third critical strain amplitude
p - plastic strain
t - strain at crack formation
d - rate of change of additional strain
D - Debye temperature
E - Einstein temperature
- coefficient of proportionality
1, 2 - parameters of the ellipsoid of deformation
µ - Poisson number
- Debye frequency
- specific density
a - density of active dislocation sources
d - dislocation density
n - density of stationary dislocations
p - density of mobile dislocations
- normal stress
a - stress amplitude
C - fatigue limit
f - fatigue strength coefficient
ik - stress tensor
K - physical yield limit
- shear stress
r - relaxation time
- relaxation time at constant strain
- phase shift
o - angle of deflection of the pendulum
- relative amount of scattered energy
- circular frequency
- half width of the resonance peak at half its
height
xi
xiv
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
1
AIMS OF INTERNAL FRICTION
MEASUREMENTS
The elasticity characteristics belong in the group of the important
parameters of solids because they are often used in the analytical
solution of the problems of deformation and failure. The elasticity
values are used in all engineering calculations and the design of
components, sections and whole structures. In the development and
application of specific materials and high-strength components pro-
duced from them, it is necessary to consider the required rigidity
and also the probability that a certain amount of energy will build
up in the system during service. Actual solids are characterised by
the scattering of mechanical energy in them, i.e. internal friction.
This representation of the anelasticity of materials and their tran-
sition from elastic to anelastic, microplastic or even plastic response
to external loading are the consequences of the effects of external
loading and the activity of various mechanisms and sources of scat-
tering of mechanical energy in the material which may be charac-
terised by relaxation, dislocational, mechanical and magneto-
mechanical hysteresis. These mechanisms result in changes of the
structure-sensitive properties of materials and also the structure-
sensitive component of the Young modulus which is still regarded
erroneously in a number of publications as a material constant. The
external factors, such as mechanical loading, temperature, the effect
of the magnetic field, different frequency of the changes of loading,
etc., lead to changes of the nature and mechanisms of the processes
of scattering of mechanical energy in materials. The relationships
between the changes of internal friction and the defect of the Young
modulus with changes taking place in the material on the atomic
level, on the level of a group of grains, in the volume of the loaded
solid or in a group of solids, have already been confirmed and veri-
fied.
1
Internal Friction of Materials
solid solutions
diffusion
damping capacity
Internal friction Young's modulus
micromechanical characteristics
Threshold
state
relaxation additional loading creep
of materials
cracking resistance
quality of system
noise in system
Fig.1.1
The author of the book has developed an original system, Fig.
1.1, which, using the currently available data, shows the possibili-
ties of the application of internal friction measurements in differ-
ent sciences, from the atomic size up to entire structural complexes.
The effect of the external factors on the occurrence of threshold
2
Natureof and
Aims Mechanisms
Internal Frictionof Measurements
Anelasticity
3
Internal Friction of Materials
4
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
2
NATURE AND MECHANISMS OF
ANELASTICITY
The solution of a set of problems associated with the nature, meas-
urements, evaluation and application of information on the internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus of materials is based
on a brief and functional characterisation of the elasticity param-
eters of structural monoliths and composite materials, and also on
the evaluation of the effect of different internal and external factors
on their magnitude. A special position is occupied by the effect of
factors causing nonlinearity between stress and strain, i.e. anelastic
behaviour of the materials. This includes the explanation of the phe-
nomenon of deformation lagging behind stress, irreversible scattering
of energy in materials and mechanisms by which the energy of vi-
brations is irreversibly scattered in the materials. These processes
are also reflected in the level of the Young modulus and the occur-
rence of defects of the Young modulus, and this may influence the
accuracy of calculations of permitted stresses in components or
whole structures.
where cikmn and snmik are the elasticity constants. Strain tensor mn
5
Internal Friction of Materials
and stress tensor ik are the tensors of the second order. They can
be described by nine pairs of strain components or nine pairs of
stress components, and the unit volume is selected sufficiently small
to ensure that the strain of stress unit is the same everywhere.
Three pairs of components act in the direction of the x axis, i.e.
xx in the direction normal to the wall of the cube; these pairs are
oriented normal to the x axis. They include the normal stress which
is positive for tension and negative for compression. The second
pair of the components in the direction of the x axis acts on the
walls oriented normal to the y axis. This pair is denoted xy and yx.
The third pair of the components in the direction of the x axis acts
on the walls normal to the z axis. This pair is denoted xz and zx.
The second and third pair act in the given planes and tend to shift
them mutually. They are denoted as tangential or shear stress. Since
the elementary volume of the material does not rotate, the compo-
nents must be in equilibrium, i.e. xz = zx, and they are denoted xz,
and also xy = yz, denoted xy. Consequently, this gives a symmet-
ric tensor of the second order with six components
Every symmetric tensor of the second order has three main axes.
Since the axes of the coordinates are regarded as synonymous with
the axes of the tensor, only the main stress 1 is obtained.
For an anisotropic medium, equation (2.1) can be expanded into
a system of linear equations, i.e. for stresses xx, yy, zz, yz, xy,
strains xx, yy, zz, yx, zx and xy, using the elasticity constants cikmn,
as given for the first of six rows in the form
where is shear.
Similarly, equation (2.2) can be expanded utilising the elasticity
constants smnik, as given for the first of the six rows
6
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Generally, the elasticity constant cikmn (and also smnik) has the
form of a tensor with 39 components, where the first of the 6 rows
is c11, c12, c13, c14, c15, c16 (or s11, s12, s13, s14, s15, s 16 ).
Proportionality is found between the elasticity constants c12 = c21
or s11 = s21 and, generally, c = c, or s = s. As a result of this
symmetry, the crystallographic system with the lowest symmetry
(triclinic) has only 21 independent components, and the number of
independent components in the orthorhombic system decreases to 9,
in the tetragonal and diagonal systems it decreases to 6, and in the
hexagonal system to 5.
For cubic crystals there are three elasticity constants, c11, c12 and
c44. The elasticity constants cikmn and snmik are linked by the defined
relationships [3].
The physically determined elasticity constants for technical ap-
plications are complicated. For crystallographic systems with the
symmetry higher than orthorhombic, the normal tensile stress in the
direction of the x axis (xx) results in relative elongation xx and two
reduction in areas yy and zz:
σxx
s = , s =–µ s , s = –µ s .
xx
E1 yy 12 xx zz 13 xx (2.6)
E1 E2 E
= , E2 = E3 , E3 = 1 . (2.7)
µ12 µ µ23 µ32 µ31 µ13
12
E
G=
( ).
2 µ +1
(2.8)
7
Internal Friction of Materials
–P
K= = E
∆V
V
(
3 1– (2.9)
2µ
.
)
The values of the elasticity moduli (E, G), the bulk Young modu-
lus ( K ) and Poisson number ( µ) for a number of metals are
presented in Table 2.1. For rock and glass µ = 0.25, G = 0.4E,
K = 2/3E, for metals µ = 0.33, G = 3/8E, K = E, and for elastomers
µ = 0.5, G = 1/3E, and the K/E ratio is high.
The Young modulus is closely linked with the velocity of propa-
gation of sound in a metallic material. In the case of a longitudi-
nal elastic wave, the velocity of propagation is
vl = E
p (2.10)
G
vt = , (2.11)
p
8
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Table 2.1 Elasticity moduli and other characteristics of several metals at 20°C
Type of E G K Vl Vt
metal
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (ms–1) (ms–1)
*
Al
Ca 70.8 26.3 0.34 77.5 6355 3126
Ni 19.6 7.4 0.31 17.2 – –
Cu 231.2 89.1 0.31 190.0 5894 3219
Pd 145.3 54.8 0.35 139.6 4726 2298
Ag 142.7 51.8 0.39 192.1 4594 1987
Ir 81.1 29.6 0.38 103.6 3686 1677
Pt 528.0 214.0 0.26 370.0 – –
Au 169.9 61.0 0.44 272.7 – –
Pb 88.1 31.1 0.42 175.4 3361 1239
37.3 13.6 0.44 48.8 2158 860
**
Li
10.5 4.0 0.36 11.8 5709 2821
Na
7.2 2.7 0.32 8.3 3078 1434
K
4.6 1.7 0.35 4.0 – –
V
131.2 48.3 0.36 154.3 6000 2780
Cr
279.7 102.0 196.5 – –
Fe
223.2 86.9 0.28 173.1 6064 3325
Rb
1.3 0.47 – –
Nb
107.0 39.2 0.39 159.0 5104 2089
Mo
330.0 119.7 0.30 282.5 6649 3512
Ta
190.0 71.1 0.35 194.3 4447 2039
393.7 153.0 0.29 308.1 5319 2843
***
Mg
Ti 44.8 17.6 0.28 34.5 5895 3276
Co 114.4 43.3 0.36 107.2 6263 2922
Cd 220.9 84.5 0.32 190.3 5827 3049
65.5 24.6 0.30 62.2 3130 1663
****
In
Sn 13.9 4.8 0.46 41.6 2459 709
60.1 23.6 0.33 60.6 3300 1649
Comment: * - cubic face centred; ** - cubic body centred; *** - hexagonal closed-
packed; **** tetragonal
2c
A = c –44 , (2.12)
11
c12
9
of the mechanical properties on the loading direction is shown in
Fig. 2.1.
10
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.1. Directions of true stress at fracture of aluminium single crystal (a), elongation
of aluminium single crystal (b), Young modulus of aluminium single crystal (c),
Young modulus of iron single crystal (d), shear modulus of elasticity of iron single
crystal (e) and Young modulus of magnesium single crystal in tension (f).
Table 2.2 Approximate (Ap) and accurate (A) anisotropy coefficients of elastic properties
E
=3
– jJ α cos β + β cos y + y cos α . ) (2.13)
100
( E111
cos
cos cos
11
texture, if the latter is expressed by two or more ideal orientations.
12
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Tt = k1 A E , (2.14)
y 0 cp
K= , (2.15)
βVa
cp Tt
E ln , (2.16)
V T
a
2y0 –η
µ= , (2.17)
3y 0 + η
where = 1.5 for fcc metals, and = 0.945 for bcc metals.
Debye temperature D is linked with the Young modulus by the
equation
13
Internal Friction of Materials
JE2
γ 1/6
①D = 168 j pA , (2.18)
jJ
1 2
14
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
∆K gβ T
= , (2.19)
K0 3
E/E0
Th
Fig.2.2. Dependence of relative values of the Young modulus of various metals on
homologous temperature, where E0 is the Young modulus at 0 K.
15
Internal Friction of Materials
where
1 δK
g= (2.20)
K0 δs
K 0 gcpT
. (2.21)
K0 3Va K0
16
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
E E0
E ,
(2.22)
eT 1
17
Internal Friction of Materials
˙ A2 Qe
ne
RT (2.23)
18
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
following form
n *
˙ Qe
A3 (2.24)
e RT ,
E T
Q* R ln d ln E T
nR
˙
c
1 1 (2.25)
d
T T
Consequently
* nRT 2 dE
Qc Qc Qc .
E dT
E E 0 1 1P (2.26)
,
19
where E0 is the Young modulus at the atmospheric pressure, and the
value 1 varies from 10 –1 to 10 –2 GPa –1. Specific values of for
1
various materials are presented in Ref. 5.
The increase of the Young modulus with increasing hydrostatic
pressure is caused by a decrease of the atomic spacing in the crystal
20
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.3. Dependence of Young modulus on microstrain a/a for heat treated St3
steel.
21
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
E E
E 3 K ,
(2.27)
T T V P T
C
E T
ET ET0 3K
dT .
P TT
T (2.28)
0
For pure iron and binary alloys of iron with cobalt, nickel, chro-
mium and molybdenum at T << Tc equation (2.28) describes satis-
factorily the experimentally measured values.
The dependence of the Young modulus on the type and severity
of the stress state and, in particular, strain state is of principal im-
portance not only for predicting the changes of the elastic materi-
als in service but also for the development of suitable theoretical
models of the strength and plasticity behaviour of metals and alloys.
The level of the Young modulus is also influenced significantly
by the strain.
The addition of alloying elements to the main metal changes its
elastic characteristics as a result of changes of the interatomic
bonds in the alloys. This takes place in relation to the chemical
interactions between foreign atoms as a result of the change of the
concentration of ‘free’ electrons (electron factor) or as a result of
the effect of lattice defects and, consequently, lattice parameters,
which is the result of different atomic radii of the added and main
22
metal (dimensional factor). In reality, these factors can affect the
Young modulus in the same or opposite direction. Experiments show
that the dependence of the change of the Young modulus on the con-
23
Internal Friction of Materials
E E E ln a
3K c.
l (2.29)
P
c
T T
24
and for TiC E = 0.46 × 10 5 MPa. For tungsten E = 3.96 × 105
25
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
wt.%
Fig.2.5. Change of the Young modulus of Cu–Zn and Cu–Sn in relation to composition
indicating the formation of intermetallic phases.
MPa, and for WC E = 6.7 × 105 MPa. These approaches are of in-
formation nature.
In the systems with superlattices, the magnitude of the Young
modulus depends on the state of the structure, for example, the val-
26
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.6. Change of the elasticity moduli in relation to the concentration of the solid
solution.
ues for the disordered state of an alloy are presented in Fig. 2.6.
After the formation of a superlattice, there are significant changes
in relation to the initial condition.
The dependence of the elasticity moduli on the composition of the
alloying for some transitional elements is complicated becaus
d-electrons take part in the formation of bonds in these metals. Cs,
Ti, Mg and Fe are characterised by unstable electron configurations,
reflected in allotropic transformations. Extrema on the E (c )
dependences may also form when the transitional metal is the main
component (Fe–Al, Ti–Al) or it is also an addition (Cu–Ti), or both (Ti–
Mo).
The complicated nature of the changes of binding forces in alloy-
ing of transition metals has so far prevented the construction of a
unified mechanism of the effect of foreign atoms on the elastic
characteristics of the transition metals.
In ferrous alloys, it is possible to evaluate the effect of the elec-
tron factor on the change of the Young modulus in alloying with dif-
ferent elements [14]. The electron factor of the transition metals of
the same period as iron (chromium, vanadium, cobalt, nickel, man-
ganese) is almost 0 and, consequently, all changes of the elasticity
moduli in alloying are associated with the dimensional factor. The
atoms of the transitional elements from higher periods are charac-
27
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
28
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.8. Effect of temperature on the dependence of the Young modulus on the temperature
of an Fe–Cr alloy.
29
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
wt.%
Fig.2.9. Dependence of the Young modulus and Poisson number on the composition
of ferrous and nickel alloys after cold tensile deformation (symbol 1) and after annealing
(symbol 2).
30
Internal Friction of Materials
wt.% Mo wt.% V
Fig.2.10. Dependence of the Young modulus of alloys of Ti with Mo (a) and with
V (b) after rapid cooling (1) and tempering (2).
31
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
32
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.11. Effect of temperature on the Young modulus of ordered CuZn and Cu3Au
alloys.
33
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Fig.2.12. Effect of temperature on the Young modulus of steel 40 (1) and white
cast iron (2).
temperature range (Fig. 2.12, curves 2). Figure 2.12 shows the
changes of the Young modulus in relation to temperature for a steel
with 0.4 wt.% C (curves 1) and for white cast iron with 2.8 wt.%
C and 1.4 wt.% Si (curves 2). Both materials were normalised in
the initial condition. In the temperature region below the eutectoid
transformation temperature (curves 1) the dependence E(T ) is
slightly nonlinear. In the eutectoid transformation temperature range
there is a large decrease of the elasticity moduli associated with the
start of dissolution of cementite particles. Completion of the
transformation results in a drop in the rate of decrease of the E(T)
dependence. The large increase of E at temperatures of 1000–1050
°C is interpreted by the equalisation of the composition of the
phases as a result of the dissolution of the solutes built up at the
grain boundaries in the disappearance of the old grain boundaries
during the growth of austenite grains. With the reversed change of
temperature the extent of relaxation at the grain boundaries de-
creases and the dependence E(T) is shifted higher in comparison
with gradual heating. The curves E(T) in heating and cooling be-
come identical below the eutectoid transformation temperature.
34
Internal Friction of Materials
E Ez Ez
E1 Ez
35
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
wt.%C
Fig.2.13. Dependence of the Young modulus of steel on carbon content after quenching
from 900°C (1) or 1050°C.
36
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.14. Temperature dependence of E/E and of e for USA steel after quenching
from 800 °C (a) and tempering at 150° (b), 300 (c) and 450°C (d).
37
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
38
Internal Friction of Materials
are also changes in the form of the E(T) dependence, reflected in ad-
dition changes of the curves of the temperature hysteresis of the
elasticity moduli associated with the development of phase transfor-
mations in the material.
The dependence of the Young modulus on temperature tempera-
ture in alloyed chromium steels is shown in Fig. 2.15. At tempera-
tures of 150–200°C and 350–500°C, the elasticity moduli of the
quenched steels increase. The decrease of the rate of increase of the
Young modulus in tempering in the temperature range 150–200°C is
associated with the breakdown of martensite and the formation of
-carbide. The second ‘plateau’ in the temperature range 350–500°C
is attributed to the transformation of carbides.
The Young modulus increases as a result of tempering the
quenched steel at temperatures higher than 500°C, especially in al-
loyed steels. This is associated with the fact that the addition of
alloying elements, such as Mo, Cr, V reduces the rate of the break-
down of the supersaturated solid solution and increases the tempera-
ture range in which this process takes place. The extension of the
breakdown time of martensite and the formation of pearlite increase
the Young modulus after tempering at high temperatures. The in-
crease of the chromium content in the steel increases the intensity
39
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
40
Internal Friction of Materials
and ageing showed that the decrease of the Young modulus of the
material is associated with the change of the texture during heating
to the quenching temperature as a result of recrystallisation. After
ageing the Young modulus increases. This phenomenon is control-
led by the process of short-range ordering and by the formation of
nuclei of the -phase with a size of 1–1.5 nm. Continuation of age-
ing results in a small increase of the Young modulus. This is ex-
plained by the anisotropy of the elasticity characteristics of the
particles of the -phase during their growth.
The elasticity moduli are influenced not only by the type and
number of the particles of the strengthening phase but also by the
uniformity of distribution of this phase in the volume of the mate-
rial. For example, the Young modulus of a high-speed tool steel
decrease in the case of the nonuniform distribution of the carbide
phase, or the moduli of elasticity of steels for stamping dies de-
crease as a result of the formation of small areas with free ferrite.
This increases the structural homogeneity of the material.
The effect of the main metallic mass and the shape of graphite
on the change of the Young modulus with increasing temperature for
grey and high-strength cast iron was investigated in Ref. 18. The
anomalies of the E(T) dependence are caused mainly by the number,
dimensions and shape of graphite and also, to a lesser degree,
whether the main metallic mass is ferritic or pearlitic.
The method of measuring the E(T) dependence can also be used
in examination of the kinetics of arrangement of the silicon atoms
in the main the metallic mass of ferritic grey cast iron. The decrease
of the Young modulus after quenching when the solid solution is dis-
ordered, and also the anomalous increase of the temperature depend-
ence of the Young modulus in the temperature range 350–550°C are
explained by the breakdown of the superlattice. Evaluation of the re-
covery of the elasticity moduli after quenching grey cast iron from
different temperatures made it possible to determine the critical
value (approximately 775°C) separating the characteristic changes
of the elasticity moduli. In quenching from temperatures in the range
from Curie temperature to 775°C, the solid solutions of iron and
silicon in the matrix are characterised by the disordered distribution
of the solute atoms resulting in a decrease of the elasticity moduli.
Quenching from 775°C and higher temperatures results in the rapid
decrease of the Young modulus as a result of more extensive defects
in the structure formed in the process of quenching from higher tem-
peratures.
41
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
E m
E 1 p , (2.30)
p 0
2/ 3
1
E p E0 p b
, (2.31)
1 ap
42
Internal Friction of Materials
Eh (2.32)
E1c1 E2 c2
Es
E1E2
, (2.33)
E2 c1 E1c2
where E1, E2 are the Young moduli of the filler and the matrix, c1,
c2 are the volume fractions of the components.
The expression for Eh corresponds to the case with the same de-
formation in the two components, and the expression for Es for the
same stresses. The difference between Eh and Es decreases if calcu-
lations are carried out using the variance principles, the method of
the theory of random processes, etc.
The calculated and experimentally determined elasticity moduli
for powder composites based on iron, molybdenum and tungsten
with the content of an copper–iron binder to 35% are compared in
Table 2.3.
The deviation of the experimental values of the Young modulus
to higher values is explained by the fact that the expressions for Eh
and Es do not take into account factors such as the interaction of
43
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Table 2.3 Calculated and experimental values of the Young modulus of composite
materials with different matrix
*
5 1.875 1.768 1.930 – 1.950 1.80 1.70 1.60 1.48
25 1.875 1.768 1.808 – 1.840 1.77 1.61 1.33 –
30 1.875 1.768 1.779 – 1.813 1.73 1.56 1.34 –
**
20 2.687 2.213 2.549 2.496 2.381 2.380 2.33 2.33 2.16
25 2.687 2.213 2.446 2.246 2.130 2.130 2.06 1.96 1.87
32 2.687 2.213 2.246 1.824 1.921 1.920 1.90 1.86 1.78
36 2.687 2.213 2.128 1.386 1.740 1.725 1.69 1.65 1.59
***
25 3.137 2.410 – – 2.855 2.73 2.73 2.65 2.55
38 – – – – 2.170 2.05 2.05 2.00 1.95
the elastic fields of the inclusions and the matrix, the local
nonuniformity of the stress state, the elastic properties of the com-
ponents, etc. More accurate calculations of the elastic characteris-
tics of the composites can be carried out taking into account the
statistical nature of the distribution of heterogenities, the mutual
effect of the components and correlations between their elastic
fields.
The theory of isotropic deformation of elastic solids with random
heterogenities, using the elasticity factors and , gives
3 2
Em . (2.34)
M c cck 1
E E 0 , (2.35)
ck 1 1 M c ck
44
Internal Friction of Materials
45
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
46
Internal Friction of Materials
higher than the yield limit of the matrix, failure takes place. When
this stress is insufficient for particles to be deformed, failure propa-
gates through the matrix.
This description of the elasticity characteristics is also valid for
laminated composites [22]. To solve the boundary problems of the
elasticity theory, it is necessary to know the geometrical parameters
of the phase, the distribution and cross-section of the fibres. Irregu-
lar distribution of the fibres in the cross-section of the component
greatly complicates the calculations. If the geometry of the phases
and approximation of the stress fields are taken into account, it is
possible to find simple methods of joining the elements of the com-
posite. The main problem in determination of the elastic character-
istics of the composites with fibres is the evaluation of the moduli
by the variance calculation procedures.
The modulus of elasticity along a solid in the direction of rein-
forcing fibres can be determined as an additive characteristic,
whereas the values in the direction normal to the direction of the
strengthening fibres greatly differ from the values determined from
the decrease rule. Reinforcement of the matrix with fibres greatly
increases the Young modulus in the direction normal to the direc-
tion of fibres. However, the increase of the Young modulus of the
fibre results in a situation in which the increase of the transverse
modulus of the composite is not significant and the solution ap-
proaches the values determined for infinitely rigid fibres. The ra-
tio of the longitudinal and transverse modulus of normal elasticity
at higher values of the Young modulus of the fibres is small and this
restricts the application of fibres with high elasticity moduli in the
composites. The increase of the rigidity of the system in the trans-
verse direction can be achieved by selecting the orientation of fibres
in different layers which obviously decreases the rigidity of the com-
posite in the axis of the component. A suitable example is a lami-
nated composite in which the orientation of the fibres in the indi-
vidual layers deviates by the selected angle. The properties of this
composite are similar to those with the isotropic characteristics, and
the values of the Young modulus fit in the group of the values de-
termined in the longitudinal and transverse direction in relation to
the distribution of the fibres.
The elasticity properties of the component of the composite char-
acterise to a certain extent the conditions of failure of components
made of composite materials. The fibre-reinforced composite
remains sound if
47
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
3.25 F
, (2.36)
1 E d
2
48
Internal Friction of Materials
49
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Fig.2.18. Time dependence of the change of strain when loading the solid with constant
stress (a) and the change of stress when loading the solid with constant strain (b).
50
Internal Friction of Materials
51
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
˙
1 c (2.37)
.
1
.
0
52
(2.38
)
53
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.19. Stress–strain dependence under the effect of connstant stress (a) and constant
strain (b).
ER (2.39)
˙.
54
use the equation in the form
55
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Fig.2.20. Delay of strain behind stress (a) and the hysteresis loop (b).
E E 1 R
, (2.40)
d N 2
1 2r
EN ER
R ,
EN
Fig.2.21. Frequency dependence of the change of the Young modulus and energy
scattered during a single cycle.
57
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
1
Q
30 (2.41)
,
where is the half width of the resonance peak at half its height,
and 0 is the circular resonance frequency of vibrations of the
specimen.
Taking equation (2.41) into account, we obtain
Q1 R r
1 2r2 . (2.42)
58
Internal friction is also characterised by the relative amount of
59
Internal Friction of Materials
W
.
W (2.43)
In dynamic measurements
Q1 .
2 (2.44)
ln
zn
zn1 , (2.45)
2. (2.46)
For small phase shift values of and (Fig. 2.20) tan = (1/2)
(W/W). The characteristics Q–1, , , are linked by the equations
Q1 tan W
. (2.47)
2 2W
3
G E.
2 1 (2.48)
61
Internal Friction of Materials
62
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
q
1 0 e
kT . (2.49)
63
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.25. Positions for the distribution of interstitial atoms in the cubic body-centred
lattice: 1) atoms of the main metal; 2) octahedral positions; 3) tetrahedral positions.
a2 2
D 1.
2
64
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Fig.2.26. Temperature dependence of internal friction for pure iron with 0.027 wt.%
of nitrogen.
65
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.27. Illustration of the change of a pair of defects under the effect of a pair
of defects.
66
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
67
Internal Friction of Materials
68
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
a = 0 increasing a
Fig.2.30. Diagram describing the vibration of parts of pinned dislocations and the
formation of new dislocations.
decreases along the GDA line, i.e. in the direction differing from
that during loading. In repeated loading the curve passes along the
points ABEF and FEA. The area defined by these curves is propor-
tional to the absorbed scattered energy and its size depends on the
number of points from which the dislocation became unpinned. The
process of unpinning of the dislocation and generation of new dis-
locations is shown in Fig. 2.30e. After a further increase of the
stress amplitude up to some critical value, the dislocations segment
with the initial length Ln can therefore generate dislocation kinks
69
Internal Friction of Materials
and renew the activity of the dislocations source (Fig. 2.30f) which
leads in the final analysis to cyclic microplastic deformation.
These processes, starting with the vibration of the segments of
the dislocations pinned at the points K up to the generation of new
dislocations, depends on the magnitude of the stress amplitude a
or the strain amplitude and provide different contributions to the
extent of internal friction.
Because of the importance of the effect of the stress amplitude
on the extent of internal friction in the examination of substructural,
structural and deformation characteristics of materials and the deri-
vation of relationships of fatigue damage cumulation in materials,
the problem is examined in detail, especially in section 3.2 and
chapter 6 of this book.
Hysteresis is observed to various degrees in all materials. The
main reason for it is the irreversible movement of the dislocations
in the stress field, i.e. microplastic deformation. The hysteresis
curve in the ideal case is independent of time and depends only on
the magnitude of stress. Consequently, the Young modulus and in-
ternal friction are independent of frequency but depend on the strain
amplitude. The slope of the hysteresis loop and its area do not
change in relation to the rate of repetition of loading. The shape of
the hysteresis loop is influenced mainly by the level of the maximum
stress.
Figure 2.32 shows schematically the frequency (A) and amplitude
(B) dependence of the Young modulus and internal friction for the
case of relaxation (I), resonance (II) and hysteresis (III).
The third case is of special importance for engineering. Strain
amplitude-dependent internal friction, formed at high strain ampli-
tudes, makes it possible to suppress the development of dangerous
resonance states of components, sections and whole structures.
70
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Fig.2.32. Changes of the Young modulus and internal friction in relation to frequency
(A) and strain amplitude (B) for relaxation (I), resonance (II) and hysteresis processes
(III).
Eef
e p . (2.50)
71
Internal Friction of Materials
E E Eef
E E , (2.51)
where E is the ideal or initial value of the Young modulus. The re-
lationship of the defect of the Young modulus with p depends on
the loading conditions. Figure 2.33 shows that in static loading
E d p
E d .
72
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
Q1 **
p
. (2.52)
e
E .
D
e p (2.53)
The difference between the values of the static and dynamic elas-
ticity moduli is associated with the fact that the real solid is not
characterised by ideal elasticity. The value of ED depends on the
type, nature and mechanisms of anelasticity of the material and,
consequently, it is the equivalent of Eef, determined in static load-
ing. For the case of repeated loading we have
E p
.
(2.54)
E e
The effective elasticity moduli are the result of the effect of sev-
eral factors which can be conventionally divided into two groups.
The first group includes the factors which take into account the
phase composition, structural state, the level of micro- and
macrostresses, etc. This classification has a number of problems
because both groups overlap.
It is useful to distinguish between the nonlinear and nonelastic
behaviour of the material. The anelastic behaviour the material re-
sults in the formation of a hysteresis loop. The nonlinear nature of
the – dependence results in the formation of Eef and E/E with the
change of . The anelasticity phenomena, associated with the for-
mation of the hysteresis loops, indicate the nonlinear behaviour of
73
the material.
74
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.2.34. Form of the hysteresis loop of the material with E/E = 0 (a) and
E/E 0 (b)
2W
E ,
(2.55)
D 2
where
0
W d.
0
()
The nonlinear form of the middle line of the hysteresis loop is the
result of the effect of two types of factors. They are factors whose
effect results only in the formation of the defect of the Young modu-
75
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
lus, and factors causing both the defect of the Young modulus and
anelastic scattering of energy in the material. Additional deforma-
tion is immediately evident and depends only on the magnitude of
acting stress.
The type of anelastic processes, related to the second group of
the factors, is determined by the type of the dependence of the ad-
ditional plastic deformation on the acting stress and loading time.
In anelastic processes of the relaxation type, the defect of the
Young modulus, referred to as the degree of relaxation, is deter-
mined by the equation
E EN ER
.
E EN (2.56)
K K 2b
Vf g 1 , (2.57)
I 0
2
where
a
2 F
f 2
,
V
F is the free energy of the ferromagnetic material
F
g ,
V
V
aP 6P2 ,
V
E E S E , (2.58)
where ES and E are the elasticity moduli of the material in the satu-
rated and initial conditions.
The value of the E phenomenon is high in materials with high
magnetostriction, with moderate magnetic crystallographic anisot-
ropy and a low level of internal stresses. The characteristic E/E S
reaches almost 20%, for example, in the case of annealed nickel.
One of the manifestations of the E phenomenon is the difference
between the values of the elasticity moduli measured by dynamic
methods whilst maintaining a constant value of the external mag-
netic field (EH) and saturation (E S ), and
ES EH
k2 ,
1
(2.59)
EH
77
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
78
Internal Friction of Materials
79
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
E Eddisl.
,
E d (2.60)
E 6
L2 , (2.61)
E 2 d
E
Aea ,
E (2.62)
where A and a are the parameters that depend on the type and con-
ditions of loading.
The mechanisms of dislocational anelasticity are characterised by
80
Internal Friction of Materials
Q 1 p
M
E p , (2.63)
E
81
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
E
A f r2 f x2 , (2.64)
E f r2
82
Internal Friction of Materials
1 Lp
lL
p
l xdl,
0
(2.65)
l 2l
it
(2.66)
B 2 2
be ,
t x
where B is the characteristic of viscous friction, 2 is the linear en-
ergy of the dislocations. Consequently
Q1 A1 B d
L4 p (2.67)
,
2
E
A L2 ,
(2.68)
2 d p
E
83
termined by the viscous movement of the dislocations and, conse-
quently, depend on the loading frequency and viscous friction coef-
ficient B. The defect of the Young modulus is determined by the
84
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
BL2
p
.
2
85
Internal Friction of Materials
m
Vd V0 (2.69)
,
1
where v0, 1, m are experimental constants. For this model [35] with
the change of m from 1 to higher values, the ratio determined by
equation (2.63) is in the range 0.85–0.93.
In simultaneous measurements of Q–1 and E/E on single crystals
of copper, zinc, and on solid solutions of these elements with the
content of solute elements to 0.01 wt.%, the ratio determined by
equation (2.63) in the range of dependence of Q–1 on strain ampli-
tude is 0.5–1.0. For a copper alloy with 35 wt.% Zn, the ratio is
from 0.06 to 0.25.
Under the effect of higher strain amplitude the material behaves
as a nonlinear solid. This is reflected in the value of the ratio de-
termined by equation (2.63), because it becomes dependent on the
strain amplitude. Two types of dependence can be observed in this
case.
In the case of a purely hysteresis mechanism of anelasticity, the
increase of nonlinearity of the dependence results in a directly
proportional decrease of the value of the ratio determined by equa-
tion (2.63), as shown in Fig. 2.37a. The second type of the depend-
ence of M on stress amplitude appears when the viscous movement
of fresh unpinned dislocations in the crystal lattice dominates at
< cr2. Increase of the level of microplasticity increases the den-
sity of fresh dislocations and this lead to an increase of the value
of coefficient B which depends on the frequency of intersection of
the dislocations moving in non-complanar slip planes. In this case,
the value of M is proportional to the parameter B and will increase
with increasing . This is observed for, for example, copper, Fig.
86
Nature and Mechanisms of Anelasticity
E H V
Ae kT , (2.70)
E
87
Internal Friction of Materials
88
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materi als
3
FACTORS AFFECTING ANELASTICITY
OF MATERIALS
The resultant value of the extent of internal friction and the defect
of the Young modulus is the integral representation of frequency-
dependent and frequency-independent mechanisms of scattering of
mechanical energy in materials and also of many other processes,
phenomena and mechanisms which can operate in different mate-
rials under the effect of different external influences.
In this chapter, attention will be given to explaining the physi-
cal nature of internal friction which is independent of the strain
amplitude, the so-called internal friction background Q–1 and also
the effect of temperature for materials with different structures and
substructures. Since the problem of cyclic microplasticity is exam-
ined in Chapter 6, in this chapter, we shall present only the main
data on the effect of the strain amplitude on internal friction and
the defect of the elasticity (Young) modulus. However, special at-
tention will be given to the effect of loading frequency, loading time,
the number of load cycles and the effect of the magnetic field in
ferromagnetic materials.
Each section shows that, in addition to understanding the nature
and effects of the individual influences, it is also important to ob-
tain information on the accuracy of measurement of Q–1 or E/E
on the change of these factors.
Many of the effects are not unique and often overlap, act
together or against each other. This is also explained by the dif-
ferences in the effect of temperature on internal friction and pos-
sibly the defect of the Young modulus, because other mechanisms
are determined by the response of the material to repeated load-
ing and this reaction is significantly influenced by temperature in
loading.
89
Internal Friction of Materials
Q1 ~ L4 M
and ~ L2 (3.1)
0
M
90
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Fig. 3.1. Dependence of internal friction on temperature for copper filament crystals
(a) silicon filament crystals (b). a: 1) initial condition, 2) after plastic deformation
at room temperature, 3) polycrystalline specimens. b: 1) initial condition, 2) after
0.6% deformation, 3) after 1.1% deformation, 4) after 1.5% deformation, 5) after
anneling at 800°C/1 h.
91
Internal Friction of Materials
been observed for many metals (Al, Mg, Cu [48], Ta [49], Pt [49],
etc). According to Ref. 49, these phenomena at temperatures close
to the melting point can be interpreted by diffusion mechanisms.
After melting of the metals which have closely packed lattices
in the solid state, the liquid state is characterised by the occurrence
of a structural relaxation mechanism of energy absorption [50] so
that it is possible to obtain, for example, for tin, the relationship
between the structure in the solid and liquid state. The high-
temperature gamma phase is obtained by cooling the melt at 300°C,
the stable beta phase is obtained from the melt at 410–450°C and
the ß phase with the nuclei of the gamma phase can be obtained
from the melt at 320°C (Fig. 3.2b). The coefficient of absorption
of sound (T), caused by structural relaxation, has a background
nature in molten metals and changes with temperature in accord-
ance with the change of the ratio T 3 /v 3 , where v is the velocity of
sound. These considerations are justified when the short-range
order is retained in melting.
92
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
f
U
(3.2)
01
e
RT
Q
T
U n1
eRT
Q1 const ,
0
(3.3)
ln Q01 1
n1 Q1
0 2
2 . (3.4)
ln
1
93
tion background is treated as the superimposition of relaxations
with a wide time spectrum.
94
Internal Friction of Materials
const
U 1
Q01 d 2T e ,
RT
(3.5)
z
where dg is the mean grain size. At high frequencies ( << 10 2 s –
) we can use the equation in the form
1
1
,
U
ef 2
Q1 const e (3.6)
0 RT
dzT
Fig. 3.3. Displacement of a dislocation segment in the stress field (a–e), where
the solid lines indicate the position of the dislocation, broken lines the initial position,
1 is the position of the point defect at the start of displacement, 2 is the position
of the point defect in the vibration period T, and a) t = 0, b) t = T/4, c) t = T/2,
d) t = 3T/4, e) t = T. The diagram of relaxation of the dislocation in the stress
field (f), where the solid lines represent the positions with maximum energy, broken
lines those with minimum energy, A and B are the areas of pinning of dislocations
with length L, H is the height of the Peierls barrier.
m
U
2
Q1 ~ e RT
, (3.7)
0
96
Internal Friction of Materials
Q1 ~
D D0
U
0 RT , (3.8)
RT
e
RT
U
1/ t N0 Lef
2
Q021 e RT , (3.9)
2
G
98
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Table 3.1 Parameters of the relaxation structure and internal friction background
in metals
99
Internal Friction of Materials
The total relaxation maxima of this type can be found by, for ex-
ample, the superimposition of the Snoek maximum, determined by
the presence of carbon and nitrogen in iron. In some cases, the
relaxation maxima of different nature can overlap if they are dis-
tributed closely to each other on the temperature axis. In both
cases, the evaluation of the individual relaxation mechanisms starts
with the division of the overall curve Q0–1(T) into the individual in-
ternal friction maxima caused by the effect of various mechanisms
of mechanical relaxation. This task is similar to the case of distri-
bution of the profile of X-ray diffraction into individual components.
Like in X-ray diffraction, satisfactory solutions are obtained only
when certain conditions, relating to the distribution of maxima on
the temperature axis and the height of the partial peaks of inter-
nal friction, are fulfilled. An advantageous feature is that when di-
viding the spectrum of the maxima of internal friction, the specific
relaxation time = eH/RT holds for the given maximum and the
0
analytical description of the profile of the relaxation maximum of
internal friction Q (T) = Q–1 (T) – Q–1 (T) is available in the form
–1
r 0 t
1
Q T
Q 1
H 1 1
r max sech ,
(3.10)
R T T
max
Q1 T
r
Q1 ri (3.11)
T .
i
10
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Qr1 1
arsech f . (3.13)
1
Qmax T
10
Internal Friction of Materials
10
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
10
Internal Friction of Materials
H
0 e (3.14)
1,
RT
H Tmax1Tmax 2 ln 2 ,
R (3.15)
Tmax 2 1
Tmax1
ln
H
Tmax1 Tmax 2 1
ln .
0 R Tmax1Tmax 2 2 1 2 (3.16)
H RTmax
10
kTmax 3.17)
ln
h
Tmax S, (
10
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Q1 T H
RT (3.18)
er
and for the high-temperature section of the maximum (T > Tmax) the
equation
H
Q1 e RT . (3.19)
r
10
Internal Friction of Materials
H
0e RT 1
.
2H 4 (3.20)
1 2 02 e RT
H 2.63R
T1T2
, (3.21)
T2 T1
10
Internal Friction of Materials
Activation
Temperature Temperature
Alloying element Loading energy of
of Snoek of formation
(wt.%) frequency additional
maximum of additional
(HZ) maximum
(K) maximum (K)
(kJ.mol–1)
Fe-N System
0.5 – 2 Mn
1 297 280 69*
0.5 Cr 308 81.6*
0.5 Mo 1 296 320 84.0**
0.5 V 1 296 348 92.0**
1.0 Al 1 296 360 95.0**
0.8 283 323 81.0
Fe–C System
0.49 – 5.15
V 450 383 348 80.5
1.02 – 3.43 0.2 299 291
Mo 950 388 473 105.5
0.86 Mo 950 390 427 92.2
1.65 Si 1 312 334 87.0
3 Si 960 393 431 93.1
3.46 Si 0.65 – 353 133.0
0.1 – 0.22 Ti 950 389 453 101.3
0.9 Co 950 389 362 78.6
4.53 Co 960 394 360 77.2
4.4 W 945 386 363 78.9
3.9 Ni 970 396 473 102.5
3.9 Cr 1 – 460 –
8 Cr 1 – 510 –
15 Cr 1 – 535 –
20 Cr 1 – 550 134
25 Cr 1 – 560 136
30 Cr
11
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
11
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 3.6. Bordoni’s peak of polycrystalline copper after plastic deformation of:
a) 0.1%, b) 0.5%, c) 2.2%, d) 8.4%. Loading frequency 1.1 kHz.
11
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
11
Internal Friction of Materials
An0 l3 N l dl,
Q1
kT 2 2
1
(3.22)
l
11
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Fig. 3.8. Dependence of the height of the Snoeck–Köster maximum of Armco iron
on its heating rate.
11
Internal Friction of Materials
wt.%
Fig. 3.9. Effect of Cr content on the temperature at which Snoek’s maximum (1)
and Snoek–Köster maximum (upper curve) of Fe–C alloy is observed. The temperatures
at which the maxima are detected are indicated (2 Hz).
11
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Fig. 3.10. Snoek maximum (lower curve) and deformation maximum (upper curve)
of Fe–C alloy with temperatures at which maxima are recorded (2 Hz).
11
Internal Friction of Materials
E
Q1
,
11
r
E 1 22 (3.23)
r
11
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
l
N l dl exp
(3.24)
dl,
2
Lp Lp
12
Internal Friction of Materials
C
2 n
C
1 0 (3.25)
Q1
X
i
01/ i1
2
where
C1 0L3
n
C2 (3.26)
Lp
k b
C2 ,
L (3.27)
p
8Gb2
0 ,
2S
12
ment with the experiments on commercial purity metals at tempera-
tures higher than the condensation temperature of the Cottrell at-
mospheres T on the dislocations.
12
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
N l c...li 1/ 2
dN t
NN t P
N N t P (3.28)
,
dt ox x x 0y y y
U
P exp .
kT
12
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 3.11. Model of separation (a), dependence of the energy of the double loop
on the distance s between the dislocation and the pinning point (b) and stress
(c), where 1 is linear energy, 2 Cottrell energy and 3 is the strain energy; m - low
stress, v - high stress,
1
Q
d
° ,l N t
(3.29)
,
2W
where W =
° d d; d , 1N t .
Thermomechanically activated separation of the dislocation
(Teutonico model) describes the situation of two dislocation seg-
ments pinned in the centre between a point defect [86]. The total
energy of the system consists of the energy of the bowed disloca-
tion U1, the energy of elastic interaction U2 and the work carried
out by applied stress U3. The diagram of the model is in Fig. 3.11a,
b. The effect of the magnitude of acting stress is shown in Fig.
3.11c.
Under the effect of very small (4) or very high amplitudes (4)
there is only one energy minimum, which means that there is only
one stable position of the segments. For the mean values of the
stress amplitude (5) we record two stable positions, separated by
an energy barrier. Under the effect of low stresses, there is no un-
pinning and the increase of stress results in the formation of a sec-
12
ond energy minimum and unpinning may take place. This results in
the disappearance of the first energy minimum and the dislocation
is mechanically unpinned from the pinning points.
12
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
kT C 1/ 2
kr 1 ln 1 . (3.30)
U0
1
1 2
exp
U U
f (3.31)
.
a b
12
1 kT
12
Internal Friction of Materials
3
Q1 L3 r1 exp t1 (3.32)
.m
0 0
12
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
U WM b dLp
(3.33)
,
4
W 0bdLp
Qm1 Ln 0 bexp M .
24L p 2
(3.34)
kT
0 kr
WM
. (3.35)
b dLp
b dLp
exp 1.
2kT (3.37)
Lp
102.
b (3.38)
12
When calculating Q –1, Koiva and Hasigutti [90] used the follow-
m
13
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 3.13. Positions of dislocation lines in the process of overcoming a point defect,
where a is the equilibrium position when overcoming the obstacle, b shows approach
to the concentrated force, c shows the binding energy for the case of repulsion
(w > 0) and attraction (w < 0). 1) stable position in front of the obstacle, 2)
unstable position behind the obstacle (saddle of the curve); 3) stable position after
overcoming the obstacle.
dN t U0
N t exp (3.39)
.
N
0 1
dt kT
1
L3
Q N0 n
f m
12 0
h kT
13
)
. (3.40
13
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
U kT ln 0
, (3.41)
0
where 0 is the frequency of vibrations of the dislocation segment,
is the frequency of external loading.
The temperature dependence of the segment length Lp fulfils the
equation
Lp k ln 0 /
U / L . (3.42)
T
p
0
m 0
2
n
13
Q1 T,
L (3.43)
n
N l dl,
Lmin 0
13
Internal Friction of Materials
13
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
13
Internal Friction of Materials
2
1
G
G Z 2 0
2
,
2 (3.45)
1
0
where
8l 2Gb2 aB
Z , ,
Sl
4 (3.47)
m020
13
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
aBl 2
.
2kT
2 kT
.
m0l2
kT
a sin ,
G 8Gb2l 2
, (3.49)
G 4D l
1
1 8Gb2 Bl
Q (3.50)
6 Sl 2 4
sin
G 8 G b2 Sl sin 2
, (3.51)
G l 2 B2 2
14
Internal Friction of Materials
14
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Table 3.3 Resonance frequencies 0 and position of internal friction maxima max
Ag 467 76.0
Al 868 65.0
Au 352 79.0
Cu 628 92.0
Ni 784 135.0
Pb 210 24.5
Zn 586 69.0
Ge 640 51.0
G 1 Z
Q .
max (3.53)
max 2
G
2
Sl
max
Bl
2
m 02
, (3.54)
B
14
Fig.3.15. Displacement of dislocations under the effect of stress: a) displacement
at low (1) and high (2) friction; b) the case of high friction with oscillations not
in phase (1) or in phase (2); c) change of situation after adding another pinning
point (as b).
14
Internal Friction of Materials
14
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Fig.3.16. Diagram of the effect of forces on the pinned atom: a) length of dislocation
segments A = B; b) A < B.
14
Internal Friction of Materials
b 2b2 2 2
F
2
Lp lp1 , F||
8C
L p Lp1 (3.55)
,
where is the acting stress, b is the Burgers vector, C is the
stretching of the dislocation line, Lp and Lp+1 are the lengths of the
dislocation segments on each side of the pinned atom. Force F|| is
independent of the orientation of external loading and is always
directed from larger to shorter dislocation segment. Force F
changes its sense in accordance with the sense of applied stress.
Both forces (F and F||) can cause movement of the blocking sol-
ute atoms. In the case of small bows of dislocation segments, the
following equation can be used
F||
F
Gb Lp Lp1
, (3.56)
4C
It can be seen that F|| is many times smaller than F. The move-
ment of the pinning points in the direction normal to the disloca-
tion line should be examined under static loading. With repeated
loading, the redistribution of the pinning atoms depends on the re-
lationship between the relaxation time and the frequency of
changes of external loading.
For the simplest model of the dislocation segment with a single
pinning point, situated between two pinning points, the relaxation
time of movement of a pinned atom together with the dislocation
at the stress acting in the direction normal to and parallel to the
initial position is
D L L 4C
C 1L 2 L ; || D|| 2 2 , (3.57)
1 2
kT L1 L2 b
kT
14
where D and D|| are the diffusion coefficients of the atoms of the
solute in the direction normal and parallel to the dislocation line, L1,
L2 are the lengths of the adjacent dislocation segments.
The displacement of the pinning atoms is interpreted by the dif-
fusion under the effect of the external force and, consequently, it
is possible to determine the diffusion coefficients along the dislo-
14
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
2
1e
1
1 1 1 1
where Q–1(), Q–1(0) is the internal friction under the effect of stress
and without it, is time, 0 is the duration of saturation of the
changes, and 1 is the time related to the loading frequency.
The unpinning of the dislocations from the solute atoms and their
new distribution in the atmosphere is described in detail in the
analysis of the Q–1 – dependences. In this section, it is possible
to examine the case in which a solute atom moves together with
a dislocation.
Force F (Fig. 3.16) has the meaning corresponding to the
meaning of external loading. The solute atom does not travel far
Fig. 3.17. Region of separation (A), diffusion with activation energy of 0.32 × 10–
19
J (B), diffusion with the activation energy of 0.8 × 10–19 J (C) and the position of
pinning (D) of the dislocation in relating to pinning atoms in the stress–temperature diagram.
14
Internal Friction of Materials
away from the dislocation. When the applied stress carries out
work higher than the binding energy of the solute atom and the dis-
location, the dislocation separates from the pinning atoms. With in-
creasing temperatures the jump time of the solute atom de-
creases and the solute atom and the dislocation can move together.
The – T dependence (Fig. 3.17) shows the region of unpinning
of the dislocation (A) and the region of displacement of the solute
atoms (B) together with the dislocation. The boundaries of the re-
gions are a function of temperature, loading frequency, binding en-
ergy of the solute atoms and the dislocations, and the activation en-
ergy of diffusion. It should be noted that due to rigid pinning (C)
the probability of joint movement of the solute atoms with the dis-
locations increases with increasing temperature.
This model explains the temperature dependence of the critical
strain amplitude cr where the value of cr decreases with increas-
ing temperature. Examination of the Q–1 – dependence for cop-
per with zinc and germanium shows that the change of the tem-
perature dependence of cr occurs at a temperature of ~170°C.
This temperature denotes the start of displacement of pinning at-
oms together with the dislocations, with the average displacement
being 4b. Consequently, D can be determined.
The joint displacement of the atoms of the solute with the dis-
location may not be reflected only in the time dependence of in-
ternal friction, because the direction of diffusion of the pinned atom
during transverse movement changes during cycling loading. Dis-
placement may also influence the function of the distribution of the
solute atoms along the dislocations, with a decrease of the prob-
ability of formation of clusters of the atoms. In addition, the defor-
mation, caused by the displacement of dislocations increases, and
there are also losses associated with the frequency of jumps of the
atoms of the solute with the frequency of external loading.
Continuous recording has a large number of advantages in com-
parison with discrete recording where vibrations must be periodi-
cally decreased when the saturation branch forms, and when the
unstressing branch appears it is necessary to excite the specimens
for measurement of Q–1. Disregarding the short measurement time,
this results in errors which are especially evident at short relaxa-
tion times.
Since the diffusion coefficient of the solute atoms along the dis-
locations causes a change of Q–1, the time dependence of Q–1 is
reflected in certain temperature and frequency ranges. At low tem-
perature, the mobility of the solute atoms is low and the long-term
14
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Fig. 3.18. Temperature dependence of internal friction (A) for aluminium A999
at different frequencies: 1) 1.38 kHz, 2) 2.41 kHz in instantaneous measurements;
3 and 4) the same frequency and after saturation lasting 3 min. b) temperature
dependence of friction decrement.
15
Internal Friction of Materials
r
Fig. 3.19. Dependence of the increase of the decrement of oscillations on the radius
of the solute atom.
15
Table 3.5 Friction mechanisms in ferromagnetic materials ( – specific electrical resistance, R – the radius of the specimen, Xa –
the initial magnetisation determined by the movement of domain boundaries, XR – reversible magnetization, D – size of domains, s
– stress of magnetic elastic saturation)
Dependence of Q–1 on
Reason for Mechanical Frequency Limiting Frequency f Shape and
Reversible
Q–1 movEment of Macroeddy f<<f f »/96X ~f f/f Independent Q–1 = 0 at Does not
0 0 a- 0 bn
bn
domain currents 1+(f+f 0) 2
depend
f>>f0 D2 f
~ –1 I = Is
boundaries
Reversible
processes of f<<f0 f0»/25XR- ~f f/f0
Q–1 bn
rotation of f>>f0 D2 ~f –1 1+(f+f 0)2
the vector
12
Factors Affecting Anelasticity of Materials
Fig. 3.21. Main shapes of the curves of the dependence of the amount of scattered
energy on stress amplitude in ferromagnetic materials.
12
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 3.23. Dependence of internal friction on the strain amplitude of the alloy at
23 kHz. 1) without the magnetic field, 2) using the electric field with 3 × 104
V m–1, 3) after application of the magnetic field with an intensity of 1.1 × 104 V
m –1 .
crease the height of the maximum and increase the stress max. The
form of the dependences is also influenced by the measurement
conditions, such as temperature, application of a constant or vari-
able magnetic field, electric current, static loading, etc.
the magnitude of internal friction of cobalt and cobalt alloys is
significantly influence by the polymorphous transformation.
Increasing content of the alloying element decreases the amount of
the low-temperature -phase with a hexagonal close-packed lattice
and the temperature of the transformation increases. This
is also reflected in the dependence of internal friction on strain
13
Internal Friction of Materials
13
Measure ments of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Youn g Modulus
4
MEASUREMENTS OF INTERNAL
FRICTION AND THE DEFECT OF THE
YOUNG MODULUS
The requirements on equipment and devices for measuring internal
friction and elasticity moduli different [1,103]. For example, the
determination of an independent characteristic, such as the internal
scattering of energy, i.e. damping capacity, is carried out with dif-
ferent force effects on actual solids. For many actual structural
components it is important to know a wide amplitude and frequency
dependence of oscillations so that it is important to use a suitable
test system. On the other hand, the tasks of physical metallurgy and
threshold states require exact experiments in different directions (for
example, in analysis of the relaxation spectrum of internal friction
in solids it is necessary to regulate temperature from the liquid he-
lium temperature up to temperatures close to the melting point, dif-
ferent frequencies at low strain amplitude).
In the following section, we discuss the fundamentals of experi-
mental procedures and equipment for measuring internal friction and
the defect of the Young modulus and also examine the possibilities
of automating these methods.
13
friction and the defect of the Young modulus.
Fig. 4.1. Classification of the test methods, measurements and recording of internal
ELASTIC AND ANELASTIC PROPERTIES
Visual
Infrasound Excitation Measur- Recording
ements
Sound Electrostatic
Measured Recording
Measurement
Ultrasound Frequency character- method method Electromagnetic
Hypersound
Direct Indirect Piezoelectric
Standing
Elastic Mechanical
134
Running waves
Absolute
Relative
Digital print
Oscillation increment
Oscillation damping
Longit-
udinal
Resonance curve
Programming
Supplied power
Hysteresis loop
Type of
Transverse
Calorimetric
oscillations
Phase delay
Differential
Ultrasound
Rotating Recording Coding
output
External Computer
independent Excitation
method Analogue x–y
Self-
excitation rec. device
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
135
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 4.2. Methods of excitation (V) and recording (P is the receiver) of internal
damping and the defect of the Young modulus (1): a) mechanical (2 – hammer,
3 – microscope), b) capacitance (4 – electrode of the condenser), c) magnetostriction
(5 – magnetostriction device), d) electromagnetic (6 – magnetic layer), e) piezoelectric
(7 – piezocrystal), f) eddy current.
Fig. 4.3. Dynamic hysteresis loop: a) away from resonance ( / r < 1), b) in
resonance ( / r = 1).
136
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
and strain in the form of a hysteresis loop. Figure 4.3 shows exam-
ples of a dynamic hysteresis loop away from resonance, Fig. 4.3a,
and at resonance, Fig. 4.3b.
The energy measurement method is based on evaluating the dif-
ference of the electrical or mechanical output of the excitation de-
vice, required for maintaining the selected amplitude of the vibra-
tions of the specimen. The relative scatter of energy in the material
of the evaluated specimen is determined from the equation
Z1 Z2
fW , (4.1)
U
W
(4.2)
.
tf
The method is integral and can be used in the case of the homoge-
neous stress state of the specimen, without connected masses.
Indirect methods of internal friction measurements, Fig. 4.1, also
include the method of damping vibrations and other methods. In this
method, the specimen is the elastic part of the vibrating system.
Internal friction is characterised by the logarithmic decrement of
vibrations .
Taking into account the decrease of the energy of the system dur-
ing a vibration cycle, it is possible to determine the difference of
the energies corresponding to the adjacent maxima At, At+t . We
introduce the concept of the logarithmic decrement of vibrations in
the form = Q–1. Consequently,
137
Internal Friction of Materials
At
ln t. (4.3)
At
t
2 A
t t A
At At t Atst . (4.4)
At
0 A
0
, (4.5)
At
s
138
0.7
Q 1
fr and Q 1 3 f r 0.5 , (4.6)
i.e. from the width of the resonance maximum at the height of 0.7
139
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
Q1 K
(4.7)
fr ,
Q1 K1 3db
, (4.8)
r
141
Internal Friction of Materials
2
1 tan , (4.9)
f r
2 tan . (4.10)
x
A A ex cos t ,
(4.12)
0
W Ax Ax
1 e2 (4.13)
,
W Ax
142
and at low values of and by the equation
143
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
W
2 4 .
W (4.14)
M 1 ,
G
and ,
E (4.15)
l t
n E n222 I
fl 1 , (4.16)
2L 2SL 2
and
n G
f ,
t
2L
144
Internal Friction of Materials
145
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
146
Internal Friction of Materials
when using the frequency criterion for: infrasound (10 –4 –10 2 Hz),
sonic (10 2 –10 4 Hz), ultrasonic (10 5 –10 8 Hz) and hypersonic (10 9 –
1011 Hz). The conventional nature of the division also results from
the region of sonic and low frequency oscillations but has a certain
physical substantiation [26].
Fig. 4.5. Diagram of equipment for measuring internal friction using strain gauges:
1) oscilloscope; 2, 12) frequency-selective filters; 3) amplifier; 4,5,9) strain gauges;
6) switch; 7,8) resistors; 10) two-channel amplifier of strain gauge data; 11)
compensator of the phase shift of the signal.
147
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
specimen, passes through the strain gauge bridge, the amplifier and
the filter to the horizontal axis of the oscilloscope. The signal from
the sensors 9, proportional to the stress, passes through the strain
gauge bridge, the reverse change of the phase shift and the filter to
the vertical axis of the oscilloscope. The beam of the electrons on
the screen of the oscilloscope describes the loop in the stress–strain
coordinates. The application of accurate strain gauges (nonlinearity
2.1 × 10–4 %) makes it possible to increase greatly the sensitivity
of measurements. In evaluation of materials with 0.001 the er-
ror does not exceed 10%, Efficient connection of the amplifier
makes it possible to subtract the elastic strain from the total strain
of the specimen and, consequently, increase the sensitivity of the
system [110].
This system is universal and is utilised in fatigue systems load-
ing the specimen by pull–push, bending or torsional loading. At
higher loading frequencies, the method of the dynamic hysteresis
loop is used for recording the diagrams of cyclic deformation [111].
The torsional pendulum is used in the low-frequency range and
is the most efficient method of measurement of the internal friction
dependent on the strain amplitude, and in measurements of the in-
ternal friction dependent on temperature. The shear Young modulus
is determined by the square of frequency f 2 of damped vibrations
(G ~ M*f, where M* is the moment of inertia of the system). There
are three methods of using the torsional pendulum: direct, reversed,
and combined (Fig. 4.6).
A suitable example of the design of measuring heads in the
148
Internal Friction of Materials
149
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
150
Internal Friction of Materials
1 tn
ln
(4.17)
n t
0
151
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
152
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 4.8. Block diagram of equipment (a) and the shape of pulsed of the cantilever
specimen (b): 1) amplifier, 2) relay, 3) sound generator, 4) oscilloscope, 5) screw,
6) measuring discs, 7) base plate, 8) wedge, 9) variable mass, 10) indicating
device, 11) electromagnet, 12) specimen, 13) microscope, 14) spring.
Fig. 4.9. Diagram of the oscillating system and optical recording system. 1) spring,
2) inertia mass, 3) prismatic specimen, 4) mirror, 5) light source, 6) recorder.
153
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
154
Internal Friction of Materials
of contact of the specimen with the filament. For example, when us-
ing filaments 0.1 mm thick and in the case of the minimum distance
to the nodes of the vibrations, the scattering of energy in the con-
tact zone is less than 3% when the level of the background of the
internal friction of equipment is Q–1 < 10–5. This systematic error
is almost completely eliminated in the systems without contact where
the correction of the filaments or supports to the specimen is car-
ried out exactly at the nodes of the vibrations. For example, in the
presence of bending vibrations, the contact is realised in the form
of needles. The displacement of the sensors of excitation or the
change of the method of securing the specimens make it possible to
produce not only basic vibrations but also higher harmonic vibra-
tions. A shortcoming of these systems is the low level of the strain
amplitude ( 10–5) and in the case of contactless connection also
the proximity of the measuring unit to the zone of external influ-
ences. In both the contact and contactless variant of equipment with
single connection at the node of the vibrations it is possible to ex-
cite several types of vibrations. All these systems can be fully au-
tomated.
Equipment for cantilever securing of the specimen is used in
evaluation of thin sheets, foils, filaments and wires.
A special position is occupied by the vibrators consisting of
stepped and exponential concentrators because they make it possi-
ble to apply a wide range of strain amplitudes [105,143]. The meas-
urements of vibrations and of their changes using piezoceramic
sheets connected by long waveguides with the specimens are carried
out to evaluate the relative change of internal friction because
energy is lost in contact areas.
In electrostatic excitation, one of the ends of the bar is subjected
to the effect of a periodic force formed as a result of electrostatic
attraction between the conducting end of the bar and the stationary
electrode (Fig. 4.10). In excitation of the bending vibrations the
electrodes are situated in the area with the maximum amplitude of
the vibrations. The electrodynamic method of excitation is associ-
ated with the mutual effect of the conducting metal strip, deposited
on the surface of a non-conducting specimen, with the magnetic
field. This results in the formation of an alternating force causing
vibrations in the specimen. These methods are suitable for materi-
als with low internal friction in a wide frequency range.
The effect of the electrostatic force between capacitor plates,
where one of the plates is represented by the part of the surface of
the specimen, makes it possible to excite longitudinal, bending or
155
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
156
Internal Friction of Materials
fixing area and the fact that direct heating of the specimens is not
possible. Therefore, a new system was developed, Fig. 4.11b, where
thin wire suspension is used for inducing and receiving electromag-
netic vibrations. On the one side, the suspension is connected to the
membrane of the electromagnetic converters and on the other side
at the nodes of the vibrations (or the ends of the specimen). The
suspension is outside the furnace and the entire electrical circuit is
at room temperature [139].
The circuit for automatic equipment with electromagnetic con-
verters for the continuous recording of internal friction and Young
modulus at normal or torsional vibrations is shown in Fig. 4.12
[139]. The parameters of this variant are as follows: frequency
range 0.5–3 kHz, the strain amplitude range from 10–7 to 10–4, tem-
perature range from –196 to 600°C, vacuum 0.13 Nm–2, the back-
ground of equipment is 10–5 unit of internal friction, the sensitiv-
ity of equipment to the relative change of internal friction is 10–
%.
On the basis of the circuit with the electromagnetic excitation of
vibrations and suspension of the specimens on filaments, S.A.
Golovin and A.A. Morozyuk (Tula Polytechnic Institute) constructed
systems based on the differential measurement method. This system
makes it possible to record differences of the signals from the ref-
erence specimen and the measured specimen. This greatly improved
the accuracy of the method. Equipment of company Elastomat is
also used widely. These systems include electromagnetic and piezo-
electric exciters in different temperature ranges of measurement of
internal friction and Young modulus (–190°C to 200°C, or 20 to
157
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
158
Internal Friction of Materials
f0 f2
159
m1 m0
f2 (4.20)
f1
,
160
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
Fig. 4.14. Vibrators with a ceramic converter and stepped concentrator (a) and
with an exponential concentrator (b): 1) supply of electric signal, 2) earthed
electrode, 3) sensing electrode (dimensions in mm).
161
Internal Friction of Materials
fr 3dB
Q1 ,
1,2,3
fr 1,2,3
or
fr 3dB
Q 1 ,
1,2 (4.22)
fr 1,2
162
and defect of the Young modulus (Technical University, Zilina).
163
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
k1 U s , (4.23)
1 Un K1,2,3
Q1,2,3 , (4.24)
Us fr
K1,2,3
Us
r 3dB . (4.25)
f Un
164
shape and properties of the connected specimens and their material
(156).
165
Internal Friction of Materials
E m1,2,3
f fr
E m3 r1 , (4.28)
fr
where m1,2,3 and m1,2 at the calculated effective masses of the entire
system without the specimen, fr1 is the resonance frequency of the
entire system, determined using the value of differing from that
used in the determination of fr.
For the currently available range of from 5×10 –6 to 7×10 –4 it
is sufficient to measure at least 30 points at different values of
from the given range. For every point it is necessary to determine
Un, Us, fr. Special attention must be given to at least tenfold rep-
etition of the measurement for the determination of fr3dB (equation
4.26), because this value is included in the calculations of Q–11,2,3 . In
the manual setting of the values of Un in the range from 100 mV
to 1000 mV on a dial-type electronic voltmeter, with the manual set-
ting of the frequency of the resonance peak with the accuracy of 1
Hz in the frequency meter, and with subjective determination of the
value of Us on a dial-type electronic millivoltmeter with the manual
search for the value of frx of frt with the accuracy of ±1 Hz, sub-
jective determination of Us at Us max /2, taking into account the
manual inputting of the initial data, interoperational values and the
output values, we obtain that at fr = 22.5 kHz and Q – 1= 10 –4 the
3
measurement error is approximately 1% and at E/E = 10–3 it is
~0.1%. The measurement time of every experimental point is no
longer than 60 seconds, i.e. for a set of 60 measurements, together
with the adjustment time of the measurements, it is no less than
3600 s, with high concentration of the operator.
Puskar, Palcek and Houba [155] constructed equipment in which
these disadvantages are removed. The decrease of the measurement
time and improvement of the accuracy of measurement of internal
friction and the defect of the Young modulus are based on the com-
plete automation of the selection of power supply, measurement,
evaluation and graphical expression of the results of measurement
using a microcomputer. The resonant system 1 + 2 + 3, or 1 + 2
+ 7 + 3 (Fig. 4.15) is powered by the oscillator 11, controlled by
a programmable generator with the attenuator 10, activated using
the interface 7 from the microcomputer 4. The magnitude of Un is
166
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
Density of specimen ?: H
Size of specimen?:L1,L2,D1,D2 Speed of sound?: v
Frequency range?:t1,t2
max?: max
Initial value U?:U0
Interpolation U(i)
Calcul. U s maxr, , f , Q–1, dE/E
+
Interpolation U(i) Calcul. Us max, fr, frx,f3dB +
Printing of results
Calcul. , Q–1, k2 , k312, m , m Graph
Fig. 4.16. Flow chart showing measurement and evaluation of internal friction
and the defect of the Young modulus in equipment VTP-A (Technical University,
Zilina).
167
Internal Friction of Materials
it transfers the data to the disk storage 5 and the signal for print-
ing the selected data and the graphical dependences in the printer
6. For the case of a sandwich converter 13, Fig. 4.15, consisting of
the piezoceramic plates 14, adhesion bonded to the metallic sections
15, the algorithm, Fig. 4.16, is the same. Using the extension
waveguide 17 with the length n/2, where n is an integer and is
the wavelength of the waves in the material of the waveguide, speci-
men 3 can be placed in a furnace or a cryogenic unit with program-
mable temperature change, in a unidirectional magnetic field with
the programmed change of the intensity, in vacuum which can be
varied using a programme, or in the testing space of a nuclear re-
actor where the intensity of neutron radiation can be varied in ac-
cordance with a programme, or it can be placed in other energy
fields which are either constant or can be varied in accordance with
a programme. The data on the parameters in the unit 18 are proc-
essed by the unit for evaluating the defect 19 and, subsequently, the
data are transferred through the interface 7 into the microcomputer
4 which then controls the parameters in unit 18.
The system reduces the measurement time of a single point to
4 s which means that 30 points can be measured within 600 s, in-
cluding the setting time. The system also increases the accuracy of
measurement of Un, Us, fr, fr3dB, fr1 at a frequency of 22.5 kHz so
that at Q 3– 1 = 10–4 the measurement error is approximately 10 per-
cent. The system described in the invention eliminates the subjec-
tive error of measurement caused by the operator. As a result of
eliminating manual calculations and drawing graphical dependences
in the selected coordinates, the time required for obtaining reproduc-
ible data on Q 3– 1 and E/E is reduced further. The application of the
programmable generator with the alternator 10 and digital
multimeters 8 and 9 makes it possible to set more sensitively the
value of U n and measure appropriate values, as well as select
Un max = 1500 V thus expanding the strain amplitude range from
1.2×10 –7 to 1×10 –3 . The programmed control of the measurements
enables data to be obtained on the time dependences of Q –3 1 and
E/E from 4 s to the selected time.
Magnetostriction vibrators for a frequency of 3–20 kHz using
longitudinal vibrations have also been developed at the Institute of
Strength of Materials of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine [104,
157].
The evaluation of internal friction by the calorimetric method at
a frequency of ~ 20 kHz, Fig. 4.17a, can also be carried out using
the magnetostriction vibrator (1). The magnetostriction phenomenon
168
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
Fig. 4.17. Diagram of calorimetric (a) and resonance (b) methods: a: 1) magneto
striction vibrator, 2) concentrator, 3) specimen, 4) calorimeter filling, 5) thermocouple,
6) casing of the calorimeter, 7) microscope, 8) mixer, 9) rubber membrane, 10)
base plate, 11) collar, 12) cooling of vibrator; b: 1) stabilized power source, 2)
capacitance sensor, 3) detector, 4) electronic potentiometer, 5) frequency meter,
6) oscillator, 7) amplifier, 9) vibrator, 10) concentrator, 11) specimen.
169
Internal Friction of Materials
4 Em T
V 2 ft , (4.29)
0
170
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
Fig. 4.18. Placing of the transducer on the specimen. 1,2) silver coatings with
the transducer between them, 3) transition layer, 4) specimen.
171
Internal Friction of Materials
172
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
173
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 4.20. Principle of the hypersonic method utilising the piezoelectric phenomenon:
1) resonator for superhigh frequency; 2) ultrasound pulse with a length of 1 µs;
3) crystal; 4) transition layer; 5) specimen; 6) propagation of ultrasound waves;
7) shape of the echo signal on the oscilloscope.
174
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
175
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 4.21. Calculated (1–3) and experimental (4) dependences log (s, v) on
log (M 1 /M 2 ) (a) and nomogram for selecting structural members of equipment
with the minimum level of losses in the system (b).
176
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
the ratio Kt/Kv 100 is sufficient for obtaining accurate data on the
internal friction of materials.
Aerodynamic losses are a function of the density of the medium
in which measurements are taken, and also of the shape of moving
components and the rate of changes of their temperature. Taking
into account the fact that the distance of different parts of the sys-
tem from the axis of rotation differs, and the speeds of these parts
are also different, it is necessary to solve a problem of the non-
stationary movement of a solid in a viscous medium. In accordance
with the calculations carried out by Yu.V. Piguzov [107], the aero-
dynamic losses by friction with the environment can be expressed
by the equation
a 82 S R3
0
, (4.33)
3KT 2
177
Internal Friction of Materials
Q1 1
A
Ap
Ak ,
p (4.34)
ln
Ak
Ai
h h
1 A in i
in
Q Ai Ai hi hin . (4.35)
Ain 1 1
Ain
A in
2 Ain
178
The application of automatic discriminators passing signals pro-
portional to the amplitude of the damped vibrations in the range Ai
to Ai+n and also of counting devices for the determination of the
179
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
Q 1 r (4.36)
,
Q 1 Z C N (4.37)
,
180
factor of the feedback, C is the calibration error, N = Z + Ne,
181
Internal Friction of Materials
Q1 0.4H
T
, (4.38)
RT 2 q1
182
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
120 2.0
100 1.8
80 1.6
60 1.4
40 1.2
20 1.0
0
Q–1× 10–4
Qmax
Q1
1
0 40 80 120 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
T, °C Qmax
1
1
Qmax
1
2
Fig. 4.23. Temperature dependence of internal friction (Tm1 = 313 K, Tm2 = 343
K) for computer-calculated two maxima (a) and the dependence of the resolution
of the spectrum on the ratio of the height of the maxima (b).
183
Internal Friction of Materials
184
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
m
2 m 2
1 n y1
n xi x yi
n y
m 2
S n2 i1 i1
,
m2 i m m
2
(4.39)
i 1 n
i 1
nxi x
i 1
186
Internal Friction of Materials
m n
m i
2
yij n y
02
i 1 j 1m i 1
S , (4.40)
ni m
i 1
187
Measurements of Internal Friction and the Defect of the Young Modulus
188
Internal Friction of Materials
189
Structural Instability of Alloys
5
STRUCTURAL INSTABILITY OF
ALLOYS
The thermal and frequency dependence of internal friction as a re-
sult of relaxation is associated with the mean time of movement of
atoms in the equilibrium position of the crystal lattice and relaxa-
tion time r. The relaxation time is determined by the nature of
processes and is a material characteristic. In this chapter, we
present several mechanisms of the relaxation of internal friction
used in solving the problems of physical metallurgy and threshold
states of materials.
190
Internal Friction of Materials
s or vacancy in fcc, bcc and hcp lattices does not form the
anelasticity state, because a defect results in distortion whose sym-
metry is the same as that of the crystal. However, in the formation
of the s – s or s – v pair, the anelastic phenomenon may occur.For
example, the s–s pair in the bcc lattice forms a tetragonal and in
the fcc lattice an orthorhombic dipole with the orientation 110, and
under the effect of external stress they can be mutually displaced.
Zener relaxation and the associated occurence of a kink on the curve
of the internal friction dependence in the single crystal of -brass,
caused by the initial displacement of a pair of atoms, is a general
feature associated with the dissolution of atoms in the substitutional
solid solutions.
The temperature of formation of the maximum of internal fric-
tion and the activation parameters of the relaxation process are
connected together by the expression 0 exp (H/RT), which is also
used for the determination of H and 0. If the frequency is changed
from 1 to 2, the internal friction peak is displaced on the tem-
perature axis from Tmax1 to Tmax2. Consequently
H R T T 2
max1 max 2 ln ,
(5.1)
Tmax 2 1
Tmax1
ln H T
0
2
max1
T
Tmax2
T
1
( ).
ln
(5.2)
1 2
max2 max1 2
191
H RTmax
ln
kTmax S, (5.3)
h
192
Structural Instability of Alloys
a2
D , (5.4)
where a is the spacing of the adjacent atoms, is the geometrical
factor with the value 1/24 for the bcc lattice and 1/12 for the fcc
lattice, where = 3/2 r for the interstitial solid solution, or = r
for the substitutional solid solution. Basically, it is possible to
evaluate not only the mobility of individual atoms and pairs but also
of larger clusters of the atoms capable of migrating in the crystal
in different dimensions and with different speeds [2].
Determination of the value of D using equation (5.4) and the
value of H using equation (5.1) or (5.3) makes it possible to deter-
mine the value of D0 in the equation D = D0 exp (–H/RT).
When comparing the effective coefficient of diffusion from the
displacement of the mass, determined from internal friction meas-
urements, the thermodynamic activity of the element is characterised
by the correlation factor [2].
193
Internal Friction of Materials
n
htk (5.5)
1,
ht
194
atoms. The relaxation time can be determined using the Arrhenius
195
Structural Instability of Alloys
Fig. 5.1. Dependence of internal friction on temperature for tantalum with 0.013 wt.
% C at two loading frequencies.
H
Q 1 T sech ,
2 1 1 (5.6)
k
T T
max
196
Internal Friction of Materials
Table 5.1 Parameters of Snoek relaxation in bcc metals and interstitial solute
atoms
H·1010 0 ·1015
System Tmax at 1 Hz
(J) (s) (K)
c00 2 F g
(5.7)
,
kT M 1 g
197
temperature dependence of internal friction [180]. The published re-
198
Structural Instability of Alloys
199
Internal Friction of Materials
2
D a ,
36 r (5.9)
where
1 1
.
r
max 2 fmax
200
Structural Instability of Alloys
84
D 0.02exp
(5.10)
C
RT
and for nitrogen in -iron
76
D 0.003exp ,
(5.11)
N
RT
where activation enthalpy is in kJmol –1 , and the dimension of the
diffusion coefficient is cm2 s–1.
Figure 5.3b shows a more accurate determination of the depend-
201
ence DC (T). One of the curves was obtained on the basis of empiri-
202
Internal Friction of Materials
cal dependences, the other one was calculated according to Wert and
Marx from the data on internal friction. If the slope of the straight
line in Fig. 5.3a is modified in such manner as to describe the low–
and high-temperature measurements, the straight line 4 in Fig. 5.3b
reflects accurately the results of measurements of Snoek’s peak. The
reason for the difference of the data obtained in the high-tempera-
ture range was described in detail in Ref. 2 and is based on the
occurrence of an additional activation process, causing a deviation
from the Arrhenius relationship, and on the effect of vacancies.
The data on the diffusion characteristics in transition metals can
be supplemented by analysis of the results presented in Table 5.1
and 5.2. Consequently
Ta Cr Mo W
203
Structural Instability of Alloys
Fig. 5.4. Model for explaining the Finkelstein–Rozin phenomenon (A is the iron
atom, V the foreign atom, e.g. substitutional or interstitial atom or vacancy).
204
Internal Friction of Materials
trations higher than the critical value c0. The transition from the
parabolic to linear dependence is characterised by the concentration
ck. Its level differs for different alloys (usually ck > c0). When ap-
proaching the solubility limit, the concentration dependence starts
to deviate from linear. Increase of the amount of the second phase
may result in a decrease of the height of the Finkel’stein–Rozin peak
with increase of the concentration of interstitial atoms. Verner [193]
confirmed the absence of any strong effect of substitutional atoms
and vacancies on the FR phenomenon. This makes it possible to
understand the relaxation mechanism associated with the rotation of
a pair of interstitial atoms under the effect of external stress.
Evaluation of the probability of formation of these pairs, formed
by the interstitial and substitutional atoms, was carried out using
the data in Table 5.3 expressed in fractions of interaction in the co-
ordination sphere. In all cases, repulsion is detected in the first two
co-ordination spheres. This shows why pairs of the nearest neigh-
205
Structural Instability of Alloys
2 d
W
E c2 exp
Q 1
dNm kTmax ,
max W (5.12)
9 N0 kTmax 24 c exp 1
kT
max
where
1
d
N0
dN
m
1
Q W
6c2 exp ,
max
kT
max
where
1 E 2
d 1
.
9 N0 dNm kTmax
207
Internal Friction of Materials
208
Structural Instability of Alloys
Fig. 5.5. Temperature dependence of internal friction for brass (f = 620 Hz).
209
Internal Friction of Materials
H
,
(5.13)
0
kT
zW
1 dH 1/ 2 ,
H kT 2c 11 c (5.14)
n dcm
m m
211
Internal Friction of Materials
loying additions increases the height of the peak, even if the tem-
perature at which this is recorded does not change. However, the
change of the vibration frequency results in changes of the tempera-
ture at which the Bordoni peak is observed, but the shape of the
peak remains unchanged. This peak is also slightly influenced by the
strain amplitude. The activation energy of the relaxation process
varies from 8 to 10 kJ×mole –1 and 0 = 10 –1 – 10 –12 s [203]. The
characteristic feature of Bordoni relaxation is that the height of the
peak is almost an order of magnitude higher than in the relaxation
peaks with a single relaxation time.
At temperatures lower than room temperature, the fcc metals sub-
jected to plastic deformation undergo other relaxation phenomena,
differing from Bordoni relaxation, even though their occurrence is
explained on the basis of the assumption on the movement of bows
in the dislocations. To explain the occurrence of peaks at low tem-
peratures, but higher than the Bordoni peak, the author of [204]
proposed an interpretation based on the assumption that in certain
cases the relaxation may be the result of breaking of diffusing dis-
location bows by point defects, especially vacancies. Different types
of the defects then determine the formation of several peaks.
212
Structural Instability of Alloys
Fig. 5.6. Relationship of the height of Snoek and Köster peaks (Q–1SK) and Snoek
peak (Q –1S ) in ferrous alloys.
213
Internal Friction of Materials
0.001 wt.%C
dependence Q–1
~ 1/2
S–K p
is not valid generally [205]. The maximum
height of the S–K peak for iron with 0.015 wt.% C after 20% de-
formation of the specimens is obtained at 220°C after one hour. It
should be taken into account that it is necessary to determine the
condition of the atmosphere of solutes during the formation of the
carbon S–K peak.
There are differences in the effect of nitrogen and carbon on
S–K relaxation. According to Snoek, during measurement of Q–1 in
loading with hertz frequency of nitrogen-alloyed iron we obtain a
high, complete peak. In the case of carburised iron, the height of the S–
K peak is initially small and after heating the material to the tem-
perature range T Tmax S–K this difference may increase [209]. Simi-
lar observation can also be made when heating the Fe–C alloy for
short periods of time to 300°C. At the same concentration of the
solid solution, the height of the Q–1S–K peak is approximately 4–5
times higher than in the case of the Fe–N alloy. The boundary con-
centration for obtaining the maximum value of Q–1S–K in nitrogen-
alloyed iron is approximately an order of magnitude higher, even
214
Structural Instability of Alloys
z5
(5.15)
S K c 1 z
2 2 4
Q1 T Al20 f z dz,
kT c d lc 2
, (5.16)
G b3 D
215
Internal Friction of Materials
2l 2
,
2 BG b2 (5.17)
216
Structural Instability of Alloys
2bDk F*
B exp k (5.18)
,
kT
kT
l Dk 2F *
B exp k (5.19)
,
kT kT
where Dk is the diffusion coefficient of the bow, 2F * is the free en-
k
ergy required for the formation of a double bow with the critical
size. Since in the case of the schema in Fig. 5.8b–3, it is not pos-
sible to correlate the experimental data, we can use the schema of
bending (Fig. 5.8, b–4) and obtain the value of the frequency fac-
tor irrespective of the value of HH
0
2l kT
2 Gb 4 . (5.20)
217
() of internal friction to lower temperatures.
218
Internal Friction of Materials
wt.%C wt.%C
0.9 wt.%C
Fig. 5.9. Dependence of the peak formed at 250°C (Q–1max or Q–1SK) of quenched
carbon steels on carbon content (a, b), quenching temperature (c) and subsequent
tempering (d) at a carbon content (wt.%C) of: 1) 1.16; 2) 0,92; 3) 0.71; 4) 0.32;
5) 0.12 (f = 1 Hz).
219
Structural Instability of Alloys
220
Internal Friction of Materials
m, it can be seen that each pinning point will be subjected to the
effect of the force F() caused by the bending of the adjacent dis-
location segments (see also section 3.5). The force can be divided
into the component F and F||, i.e. to the direction normal and par-
allel with the initial position of the dislocation line [223], deter-
mined by the equations
2 2
b 2 2
F
8m
l 1 l2 (5.21)
,
b
F l l ,
(5.22)
|| 1 2
2
where b and m are the Burgers vector and the linear elongation of
the dislocation, l1 and l2 are the lengths of the dislocation segments
of the dislocations in the vicinity of the pinning point. The exist-
ence of the forces FI and FII is the physical reason for the appear-
ance of many anelastic processes (Table 5.4) at T > T0 determined
by the effect of the normal or parallel component of the force dur-
ing movement of the atom of the solute in the region of the dislo-
cation kernel.
A special feature of these manifestations is that under the effect
of external loading the dislocation lines do not separate from the at-
mospheres of the solute atoms, even though the atoms themselves
can move along the dislocation line by the pipe diffusion mecha-
nism. Thermally activated separation of the dislocations can take
place as an independent process supplementing the phenomena
caused by the diffusion displacement of the solute atoms.
The phenomena of dislocation anelasticity, caused by the diffu-
sion displacement of the atoms of the solutes in the atmospheres
around the dislocations are controlled by the transverse and longi-
tudinal mobility of the atoms of the solutes in the dislocation ker-
nel. This model can be used in the quantification of the appropri-
ate diffusion characteristics.
A special feature of Table 5.4 is that it includes the mechanism
of formation of the thermal–fluctuation relaxation peak of internal
friction (TF relaxation), caused by the separation of the dislocations
from the pinnig solid atoms. In this case, the separation of the dis-
locations segments is initiated by the thermal–fluctuation jump of
221
the atom of the solute which pins the segments in the direction nor-
mal to the dislocation line.
222
Table 5.4 Systematization of anelastic phenomena
Mechanism of formation
207
of peak of Q–1
Relaxation peak of Q–1 due to
Time dependence of Q–1 Snoek and Köster peak Time dependence of Q–1
caused by rever- sed transverse
unpinning of dislocation
jumps of atoms initiatied by thermally-
activated jumps of solute
atoms
Oscillation of Q–1
Peaks of Q–1
caused by dragging of
solute atoms
Relaxation peak
Q–1
208
where the TF is the peak of internal friction.
209
Structural Instability of Alloys
Table 5.5 Activation characteristics of different peaks for fcc and bcc metals
210
Internal Friction of Materials
211
Structural Instability of Alloys
L lc2 ,
D 2 2
where
D D H
exp L
L LC
kT
2 3
2 02 G lc .
4mkT
T
lc kT
2DT m,
where
212
Internal Friction of Materials
HT
D
D exp
T T0
kT
213
Structural Instability of Alloys
Fig. 5.12. Dependence of internal friction in heating (a) and cooling (b) and on
the square of frequency (c) on temperature, with the strain amplitude /G = 4×
10–5.
Parameter Peaks
P
L T
215
Structural Instability of Alloys
G b2
r .
24
216
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.5.13. Dependence of the degree of relaxation (a) and relative activation enthalpy
(b) of different metals on the extent of splitting r (H 0 is the enthalpy of self
diffusion of pure metal).
217
Structural Instability of Alloys
218
Internal Friction of Materials
wt.% wt.%
Fig.5.14. Dependence of the degree of relaxation (a) and activation enthalpy (b)
on the content of interstitial elements in alpha iron.
219
Structural Instability of Alloys
also be detected when the size of grains all subgrains is smaller than
the spacing between the fibres [246].
n p Q1 (5.24)
max
,
220
Internal Friction of Materials
n n0 K Q1 (5.25)
max
,
wt.%
Fig.5.15. Dependence of the height of Snoek peak (Q –1= Q –1, f 1 Hz) and carbon
S 40
concentration in ferrite (a), dependence of the height of the Snoek peak on temperature
221
(b) for the carbon contents in wt.%. 1) 0.003, 2) 0.010, 3) 0.040, 4) 0.400.
222
Structural Instability of Alloys
n2 m Q1 (5.26)
max
,
H RTmax kTmax
ln , (5.27)
hmax
223
activation of atom migration under the effect of external stress so
224
Internal Friction of Materials
225
Structural Instability of Alloys
2l2c
Dd ,
(5.28)
Q1T Q1
ln st,
01
Q Q 1
where Q–1 and Q–1 are the values obtained under the effect of and
0
in its absence, t is time, and the values of lc are determined by an
independent method (for example, from the curves of the Q–1 (T)
dependence). The method is described in detailed in Ref. 2.
t n
q 1 exp (5.29)
,
1 1
q 1 Qmax 0 Qmax t (5.30)
,
226
1
Qmax Q1
0 max
227
Internal Friction of Materials
where Q–1
max t max 0 are the heights of the Snoek peak at time t
and Q –1
and t = 0, with Q–1max being the same, but at t . The transfor-
mation of the results to the coordinates log ln (1/1 – q) vs ln t can
be utilised when determining the precipitation factor n which char-
acterises the breakdown mechanism. At the same time, it is possi-
ble to calculate the activation enthalpy and the rate of the process
of breakdown of the solid solution [252]. The carbon content of
structural steels is higher than the concentration associated with the
saturation of the solid solution. In principle, 'reversible' dissolution
of the phases, containing carbon and nitrogen, in ageing can be
evaluated from ‘reversible’ dissolution during time-limited heating
of the alloy to high-temperature.
Another example is from the area of the evaluation of the devel-
opment of low-temperature brittleness observed at 475°C. From the
kinetic parameters of the change of the height of the Snoek maxi-
mum and from the splitting of the peak in the breakdown stage, it
is possible to plot the diagram of breakdown of ferrite with a high
chromium content (Fig. 5.16), as described in Ref. 254. In the case
of short-term ageing, the height of the Snoek peak rapidly decreased
and carbon and nitrogen precipitated at the dislocations (n = 0.5 –
0.7). In this stage, 50–70% of interstitial atoms in ferrite precipi-
tates from the solid solution (region A, Fig. 5.16). In continuing
ageing of quenched Kh25 steel (the concentration of C and N is 0.01–
0.2 wt.%) in a narrow temperature range (450–525°C) the Snoek
peak is split as a result of the formation of microregions (s–i
complexes) with different content of chromium and interstitial atoms
into regions in later stages of the process; this is verified by another,
objective method (region C).
It is also possible to examine the processes of distribution of the
interstitial elements during isothermal annealing of supercooled
austenite in the steel on the basis of the Finkel’stein and Rozin
peaks (FR) which follow the redistribution caused by quenching to
the formation of the Snoek maximum and Snoek and Köster maxi-
mum [255].
228
Structural Instability of Alloys
229
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.5.17. Change of the reduction in area determined at –196°C (a), the height
of the P addition peak of internal friction (b) in relation to tempering time at
500 °C of alloyed iron with 0.032 wt.% P (solid circles) and the internal friction
230
peak (broken lines).
231
Structural Instability of Alloys
232
Table 5.7 Binding energy of solute atoms with grain boundaries, obtained by internal friction measurements
Temperature at Concentration c at
Dependence of
which peak is at point of peak cgb= Annealing Binding energy of
Solute- height of primary 0.5 or saturation Tp used in
maximum point or temperature solute atom with
addition peak on
system cgb = 1 of T0 calculation
concentration Q–1 saturation
Q –1 of
(c) curve (K) grain(J·10
boundaries
19
)
With saturation
Cu–Ni 920 0.12 – 920 0.25
"
Ni–Cu 1070 0.2 – 1070 0.24
"
Fe–Cr 900 0.15 – 900 0.22
228
"
Ag–Cd 700 0.17 – 700 0.17
"
Cu–Sb 800 10–3 – 800 0.77
Without 7·10–3 – 650 0.38
Al–Mg 650
saturation 0.11 – 1040 0.21
Ni–Cr " 1040
Cu–Zn 770 0.2 – 770 0.1
"
Alloyed 0.2 923 923 0.8
–iron-P 580 660 – 923 923 0.96
– – 923 923 0.88
– 823 823 1.1
– 1123 1123 0.7
-iron-C – – 673–873 673–873 0.96
–
Cu–B 730–770 – – – 0.76
–
Structural Instability of Alloys
229
Internal Friction of Materials
230
Structural Instability of Alloys
231
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.5.20. Interaction of the crack with planar dislocation clusters (a) and thermal
fluctuation formation of the microcrack (b).
232
Structural Instability of Alloys
233
Internal Friction of Materials
6
CYCLIC MICROPLASTICITY
Taking into account the promising nature and prospects of the prac-
tical application of the results, and taking into account chapter 3.3,
it is useful to pay special attention to the effect of the strain am-
plitude on the internal friction of the materials and the defect of the
elasticity (Young) modulus in the range characterised by the exten-
sive generation, movement and interaction of the dislocations, i.e.
in the region of cyclic microplastic response of the materials.
Mott [267] assumed that in the presence of randomly distributed
dislocations situated at certain distances from each other, the ran-
dom distribution of the stress exerts an effect
Gb1/ 2
i .
The formation of new dislocations requires the critical stress kr=
i + Gb/l. If a new dislocation, generated by a source, moves by the
distance d and the number of these dislocations is n, the strain in-
creases by the value nbd. It is assumed that the sources generate
dislocations in an avalanche like manner and that only some sources
operate. The avalanche–like nature of generation of the dislocations
is determined by the fact that the activity of the sources depends on
the sum Gb/l and the local value of i and not on their means value.
Local stress fluctuations generate the avalanche–like formation of
dislocations whose intensity increases with the increase of the de-
gree of nonuniformity of distribution of stress in the volume. Un-
der the effect of the stress with the reverse orientation, new sources
operate and generate the dislocations of the opposite sign.
Golovin [268] determined the internal friction in the microplastic
region in the form
234
Cyclic Microplasticity
2
nb d
Q1
p
2 (6.1)
a
q tm
U0 i bdl
exp (6.2)
kT
Q1 r0Lnb G U D exp U0 1 01 i b dl,
4
(6.3)
p
l C0
2
kT 0 kT
235
Internal Friction of Materials
2G 1/ 3
C
0 i 0
Gb3
1/3
2W C2
M 0
236
microvolume. The integral in equation (6.5) is the quantity that de-
termines the number of plastically deformed grains in the unit vol-
237
Cyclic Microplasticity
m
˜
W 2NKs A0 B s (6.6)
,
k
E N˜ Ks B
Q1 m2 ,
(6.7)
p
k
m
238
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 6.2. Changes of internal friction with the change of strain amplitudes indicating
critical strain amplitude and intensity of changes of the characteristics.
Under the effect of strain amplitudes with the value to kr1 (the
first critical strain amplitudes), the increase of ac is accompanied
by internal friction independent of the strain amplitudes. This is the
background of internal friction Q–10 (section I, where the intensity
of changes of Q–1 is 0 = 0). Under the effect of strain amplitude
higher than kr1 but lower than another critical value ac, there is a
slight increase of the magnitude of internal friction, and with the in-
crease of ac recording shows a large increase of internal friction,
which is the manifestation of cyclic microplasticity. This region is
characterised by the occurrence of plastic internal friction Q–1p (sec-
tion III, where 2 > 1). With a further increase of the strain am-
plitude it is possible to reach kr3 (third critical strain amplitude),
and at values above this amplitude internal friction depends strongly
not only on the strain amplitude but also the loading time Q t–1 (sec-
tion IV, where 3 > 2).
This convention and the occurrence of all or several strain criti-
cal amplitudes and the intensity of the changes of the characteris-
tics are typical of many materials and different test and measure-
ment conditions, and in most cases, some manifestations of the
changes of the dependence Q–1 – are not recorded. This may be
caused by the low sensitivity of measurements but in most cases by
the fact that the acting physical mechanisms in heterogeneous ma-
239
Cyclic Microplasticity
240
Internal Friction of Materials
241
Cyclic Microplasticity
Q1 B
m
A
(6.8)
e ,
here is the strain amplitude
L3
A k1 d 2n
, L (6.9)
p
F
k1 4 s aE ,
(6.10)
B k2 a .
Lp (6.11)
242
Q–1 – dependence is interpreted by the non–elastic interaction of
the dislocation segments with energy barriers. The dislocation seg-
243
Internal Friction of Materials
b
kr 2 . (6.12)
Ln
kr1 rc
b3 E (6.13)
G
c c0
(6.14)
kT ,
e
S r
rT k
kr1 c 0e e kT
, (6.15)
S
b3E
245
Cyclic Microplasticity
H
S , (6.16)
T1
E
E0 (6.17)
S nH
,
T
where
E
E
T0 ,
T
0
T Lp Lp r
Material and treatment
[mm]
[ºC] kr1 kr2 [mm] [J·1019] [m–2]
Armco iron
annealed at 930ºC/1h 100 8·10–5 3.2·10–4 –10–3 9.8·10–5 0.4014 0.288 2·1011
after e = 2.8 % 100 –10–4 6.1·10–4 4.5·10–4 6.7·10–5 0.4263 0.294 1·1012
after e = 7.0% 100 2·10–4 8.0·10–4 3.5·10–4 6.0·10–5 0.4511 0.336 7·1012
after e = 11.2 % 100 2.4·10–4 –10–3 2.8·10–4 5.4·10–5 0.4712 0.362 3·1013
quenched from 950ºC 100 –10–4 5.9·10–4 4.7·10–4 8.0·10–5 0.4360 0.320 4·1012
Molybdenum
after e = 60% 350 1.1·10–4 2·10–3 1.8·10–4 1.7·10–4 0.55 –0.416 1·1015
after recrystallisation at
1200ºC/4h 350 7.8·10–5 6·10–4 5.0·10–4 2.8·10–4 0.555 –0.416 6·1013
C
Q1 e 1 1,
D (6.18)
p
h
where
2
bC Q
kT and D1 VG .
e
f kT
247
form in the vicinity of the obstacles. When this boundary is ex-
248
Cyclic Microplasticity
Q1 X m ,
p (6.19)
takes place, where X and m are the material and experimental con-
stants.
Therefore, when kr2 or 2kr2 is exceeded, microplastic deforma-
tion takes place. This microplastic deformation is of saturation na-
ture, i.e. after a specific number of repeated loading cycles, Q–1p sta-
bilises at a certain value and it is assumed that the density and dis-
tribution of dislocations no longer changes significantly. The rep-
etition of the strain amplitudes higher than kr3 (region IV in Fig.
6.2) results in the process of fatigue damage cumulation, i.e. inter-
nal friction Q–1p is a function of the number of load cycles. Depend-
ing on the value of , fatigue failure of the component is recorded
after a certain number of load cycles. The experimental data and in-
terpretation of these data for describing region IV have been pub-
lished only in a small number of cases, also owing o the fact that
the method of measuring internal friction in evaluation of the fatigue
process is being supplemented by other procedures. The form of the Q–1–
dependence, Fig. 6.2, is a function of many substructural and
structural factors, the type and composition of the material, and the
method of processing the material. Depending on the sensitivity of
measurement of Q–1 and overlapping of different partial mechanisms
of scattering of mechanical energy, all three critical strain amplitude
may or may not be recorded.
Therefore, the dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude
can be characterised by the equation
249
the material during its loading in the region in which the internal
friction depends strongly on strain amplitude, it is necessary to use
250
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 6.3. Dependence of the first and second critical strain amplitude (solid
lines) and internal friction background (broken line).
251
Cyclic Microplasticity
252
Internal Friction of Materials
253
Cyclic Microplasticity
kr1 kr2
Fig. 6.4. Diagram for deriving the increment of internal friction as a result of
increasing dislocation density.
254
Internal Friction of Materials
0
0 ,
242
2
1 p m .
3BL
Q 2
8G m
256
(6.24)
257
Internal Friction of Materials
p A 3 (6.25)
m
,
258
Cyclic Microplasticity
F
V ,
x
i (6.26)
259
Internal Friction of Materials
260
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig. 6.5. Dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude for different materials
loaded with a frequency of 1 Hz and 23 kHz.
Fig.6.6. Results of measurements for the case of validity of equation (6.8) and
different materials loaded with a frequency of 1 Hz and 23 kHz
261
Internal Friction of Materials
Loading
Grain size ·104 ·104 V [mm3] V/b3
Material
[mm] frequency 1 i
262
Cyclic Microplasticity
263
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 6.8. Temperature dependence of internal friction for mild steel after rapid
cooling from 725°C (curve 1) and after annealing (curve 2) at a loading frequency
of ~1 Hz.
264
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig. 6.9. Dependence of internal friction on strain amplitude for different temperatures
at a loading frequency of ~1 Hz (arrows indicate the magnitude of kr1 ).
Figure 6.8 shows that the low value of the internal friction of the
annual material does not change when temperature is increased from
100 to 400°C. When 400°C is exceeded, the characteristic increases.
Measurements were taken at 5×10 –6 and under the effect of a
magnetic field with intensity H = 1.7×10 4 Am–1.
The data on the unstable pinning of the dislocations by the at-
mospheres of the interstitial elements at higher temperatures confirm
the results of internal friction measurements (internal friction de-
pends on strain amplitude), at different temperatures in the range
from 20 to 550°C, as indicated in Fig. 6.9.
Internal friction measurements at different strain amplitude
changing with a frequency of ~1 Hz, under the effect of a magnetic
field with an intensity of 1.7×10 4 Am–1, show that the form of the
Q–1 – dependence in the temperature range 100 – 400°C does not
change greatly. The strain amplitude indicating the start of internal
friction, dependent on the strain amplitude, is denoted kr1 and its
value is ~7×10 –5 . At temperatures of 425°C and higher tempera-
tures, the authors detected a significant increase of the magnitude
of internal friction, and a large decrease of the strain amplitude am-
plitude the start of the region of internal friction, dependent on
strain amplitude (kr1), was recorded. At > kr1, the magnitude of
265
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 6.10. Temperature dependence of the first critical strain amplitude during
loading with a frequency of ~1 Hz.
266
ence of internal friction on strain amplitude. The position of the
267
Cyclic Microplasticity
268
Internal Friction of Materials
269
Cyclic Microplasticity
270
Internal Friction of Materials
271
Cyclic Microplasticity
stress field around the equilibrium positions (the first critical strain
amplitude kr1 ). The absolute values of internal friction and the
defect of the Young modulus are higher for the specimens subjected
to preliminary cyclic deformation at a higher strain amplitude.
In the case of mild steel in accordance with the experimental re-
sults [283] we can use the modelling assumptions of the vibration
of a spring for the vibration of dislocation segments around their
equilibrium positions in the quasiviscous environment. In this mod-
elling assumption, the ratio of the square of the defect of the Young
modulus and internal friction determines the instantaneous disloca-
tion density in the material using the equation [296]
E
2
E
k (6.27)
,
Q1
a m , (6.28)
and the values of the exponent m are also a function of the mag-
nitude of prior cyclic deformation of the material. The validity of
equation (6.28) indicates the process of irreversible changes in the
structure of the steel by the increase of dislocation density with
increasing strain amplitude.
In the range of the start of microplasticity ( > kr2) the increase
of is accompanied by an increase of the dislocation density and
272
of the magnitude of ‘plastic’ internal friction Q–1p, indicating the
273
Internal Friction of Materials
p kr 2
(6.29)
.
The cyclic strain curve, stress amplitude a vs. the plastic strain
amplitude p, characterising the plastic response of the material to
cyclic loading, has the form
a n ,
p (6.30)
n
a m , (6.31)
274
prior cyclic loading of the steel, are the results of more or less ex-
275
Cyclic Microplasticity
276
Internal Friction of Materials
was measured with strain gauges fixed to the essential part of the
specimens and evaluated using a Wheatstone bridge with a selective
nanovoltmeter. The calibration of the proportionality factor of the
strain gauges was measured by the deviation of the free end of the
system with an accuracy of 1 µm, using TW5/2A sensors and
Vibrometer AG equipment with a frequency range from 0 to 100
kHz. The proportionality factor of the strain gauges at a loading
frequency of 23 kHz was 1.8 2%, whereas at the usual frequencies
the proportionality factor is 1.95 + 2%.
The stress amplitude in the central part of the specimen was
evaluated by approximation in accordance with Fig. 6.14. In the
elastic loading range = E a, and the value E (= tan ) is related
with the main resonance frequency fr. In the elastic–plastic region
of loading (for example, point x in Fig. 6.14) ax = Ex (aex + apx)
= Ex acx, and the value Ex (= tan x) corresponds to the resonance
frequency of the system frx. Consequently, Ex = E – Ex, where Ex
is the change of the Young modulus associated with the microplastic
deformation of the specimen. These considerations show that the
stress amplitude, for example, at point x
277
Cyclic Microplasticity
E
E
E 1
Ex (6.32)
ax acx x acx
E
and the amplitude of the plastic component of strain
ax
Ex
. (6.33)
apx acx acx acx acx
E E
Ex 2M fr frx
, (6.34)
E M fr
where M and Mv the effective mass of the entire system and of the
specimen. The measuring equipment and corrections made it possible
to evaluate ac with the accuracy of 1×10 –6 and the changes of
ac
with a scatter of 1.5 10 –7 , the relative change of the Young
modulus with the accuracy of 6 10 –4 and the changes are also
made by connecting strain gauges to the reduced section of the ti-
tanium attachment of the system at the distance of /4 from the end
of the attachment, in which no microplastic deformation took place
up to ac = 4 × 10 –3 [299]. After evaluating the changes of the value
of the amplification factor in the central part of the specimens, the
author found that the agreement of the results determined by this ap-
proximation and by the direct measurement of the stress amplitude
is better than 98%.
The experiments were carried out at a temperature of 21°C un-
der the effect of a constant magnetic field with an intensity of 1.9
× 104 A m–1, parallel with the axis of the specimen. Series of the
specimens with the grain sizes of d z1 , dz 2, and d z3 , were loaded
gradually with increasing strain amplitudes ac. At every selected
value of ac , the author determined internal friction Q–1, the relative
change of the Young modulus E/E and, using equations (6.32) and
(6.33), also the stress amplitude a and plastic strain amplitude ap.
In calibration, it was observed that the loading of the specimens
for 1 hour with ac = 6 × 10 –4 does not cause any measurable
278
changes of the temperature of the specimen so that there cannot be
279
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.6.15. Q–1– (solid lines) and E/E – dependences (broken lines) for different
grain sizes: 1,1') 0.022 mm; 2,2') 0.290 mm; 3,3') 0.620 mm.
280
Cyclic Microplasticity
E
A a , (6.35)
ac
E
Fig.6.16. a – ac (solid lines) and a – ap (broken lines) dependences for steels
with different ferrite grain size: 1,1') 0.022 mm; 2,2') 0.290 mm; 3,3') 0.620
mm.
281
Internal Friction of Materials
a B b ,
ac
(6.36)
ap C c ,
ac (6.37)
282
where C = (B/) 1/n , c = b/n, or C = A, c = a + 1. The values C, c
283
Cyclic Microplasticity
Q1 D d ,
p ap (6.38)
where the values of the factors D, d depend on the ferrite grain size,
and the values of the exponent n are presented in Table 6.3. The re-
sultant dependences indicate the strong sensitivity of Q–1p on the fer-
rite grain size, because the same value of ap results in more exten-
sive scattering of mechanical energy in the material with a larger
ferrite grain. This scattering is associated with the movement and
generation of the dislocations.
Internal friction Qp–1 can be expressed as the ratio of the energy,
scattered in a single load cycle W = F ap [300] (where F is the
characteristic of the shape of the hysteresis loop), to the total sup-
ply of energy W = 1/2 E 2ac . Consequently
p W Faap
Q1 ,
(6.39)
p
2W E2ac
285
Internal Friction of Materials
F Q p1 .
E E 2
(6.41)
E E2
W H h , (6.42)
ac
287
Internal Friction of Materials
wt.% Si and trace amounts of Cu, Nb, Ni, Ca, Mg) and also for
niobium (0.25 wt.% Mg, 0.18 wt.% Ca, 0.07 wt.% Fe, 0.04 wt.%
Si and trace amounts of Ba, Mn), as presented in Table 6.3.
The cyclic strain curve and hardening of materials under repeated
loading are significantly influenced by temperature.
288
Cyclic Microplasticity
Table 6.4 Experimental values of VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz and different test temperatures
Temperature, ºC
Quantity
20 200 300 400 550
289
Internal Friction of Materials
kr1 x1 JT , (6.43)
Fig. 6.19. Change of internal friction background and the first and second critical
strain amplitude in relation to temperature for VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz.
290
Cyclic Microplasticity
where
4
x1 4.1 10 7
J 4.23 10 C 1.
,
kr 2 x 2 KT (6.44)
,
where
Q1 D2 d , (6.45)
ac
here D2, d', or D2, d (for the range of ac from kr1 to kr2, or kr2
and higher) are the experimentally determined coefficients or expo-
nents, presented in Table 6.4.
With the increase of ac at a specific value of this amplitude, the
response of the material changes from elastic to elastic–plastic,
reversible (kr1) up to the region of microplastic deformation ( kr2 ).
This is reflected in the change of the resonance frequency of the
VTP system. After evaluating this change, it is possible to determine
the defect of the Young modulus of the experimental material E/
E [304] which reflects the integral cyclic microplasticity in the ex-
amined volume of the material.
The results of measurements of E/E with increasing ac at the
selected temperatures are presented in Fig. 6.20. Measurements
made it possible to determine more accurately the value of kr1, be-
291
cause E/E is recorded only when this value is reached or exceeded.
The curves can be expressed analytically by equation (6.35). The
292
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 6.20. Change of the defect of the Young modulus on the total strain amplitude
of VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz and different temperatures (arrows indicate the values
of kr1 ).
293
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig. 6.21. Cyclic strain curves of VT3-1 alloy at 23 kHz and different temperatures.
294
Internal Friction of Materials
295
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig. 6.22. Circuit of connection of the coil, shape and dimensions of the specimens
and the shape and dimensions of the coil used in the experiments.
296
Internal Friction of Materials
H×10–3, A m–1
US/IS
IJ, A
297
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig. 6.24. Dependence Q–1 – of 12 032.1 steel under the effect of magnetic
field of different intensity.
298
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig. 6.25. Dependence of internal friction on the intensity of the magnetic field
of 12 032.1 steel at different total strain amplitudes.
299
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig. 6.26. Dependence of the defect of the Young modulus on the intensity of
the magnetic field for 12 032.1 steel under the effect of the magnetic field of
different intensity H × 10–3 (A m –1 ).
300
Internal Friction of Materials
Table 6.5 Change of characteristics of 12 032.1 steel with change of the intensity
of the magnetic field
H·10–3
(A.m–1) "2" A.10–3 a (MPa) n
0
0.8 3.7·10–6 513 0.7364 383 873 0.6039
1.6 5.3·10–6 2094 0.7581 321 361 0.5889
2.4 1.3·10–5 230 0.8186 207 855 0.5496
3.2 2.1·10–5 209 0.8551 142 688 0.5200
4.0 3.05·10–5 442 0.8857 107 050 0.4962
4.8 4.0·10–5 210 0.9095 80 521 0.4744
6.4 5.8·10–5 224 0.9441 57 822 0.4466
9.6; 12.8 1·10–4 210 2.0000 46 667 0.4166
16; 19.2 2.4·10–4 212 2.1053 10 679 0.4186
301
Cyclic Microplasticity
302
Internal Friction of Materials
303
Cyclic Microplasticity
304
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.6.28. Q–1– (solid lines) and E/E – (broken lines) dependences for copper
with different grain sizes, where triangles refer to kr1 and squares to kr2.
Q–1 at low values of ac, for example 2 × 10–7, decreases with in-
creasing grain size of copper. The values of the first critical strain
amplitude kr1 increase with increasing grain size of copper (Fig.
6.28 and Table 6.6). The second critical strain amplitude kr2 (Fig.
6.28 and Table 6.6) also increases with increasing grain size of
copper. The form of the E/E – ac curve indicates that the dynam-
ics of increase of E/E in relation to ac is steeper in the case of
the copper specimens with the larger grain size. The curves shown
in Fig. 6.28 were obtained after loading the specimens for 500 s,
which represents approximately 1.2 × 107 cycles, i.e. after the satu-
ration of the changes of the properties.
At every experimental point (1 – 11 in Fig. 6.29) we recorded the
dependence of Q–1 or E/E on loading time . The schematic rep-
resentation of these dependences in the graph, Fig. 6.29, shows that
the dependence of Q–1 on loading time (solid lines) is not system-
atic and, consequently, is difficult to interpret in this stage of in-
vestigations. The dependence of E/E on loading time (broken
lines), which is more important from the viewpoint of cyclic micro-
plasticity, is, up to a specific value of ac negative or decreases with
loading time.
However, from a specific value of ac the form of the E/E –
305
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig.6.29. Q–1– (solid lines), E/E – (broken lines), Q–1– and E/E – dependences
(inserts 1–11) dependences for copper with a grain size of 0.250 mm in loading
with a frequency of 23 kHz.
curves is identical (from point 4 and higher) with the course of the
changes at the saturation of the characteristics. This amplitude of
the total strain is denoted as the second critical strain amplitude kr2.
The physical meaning of this characteristic is such that at ac kr2
the cyclic microplastic deformation of copper starts and the changes
of the mechanical characteristics (E/E) are saturated in the exam-
ined range.
The tangent to the origin of the saturation curve (dependence 5
in Fig. 6.29) intersects with the horizontal to the saturation value
E/E at the point which determines the time 1. The triple value of
1 determines the saturation time s (analogy with magnetic satura-
tion). Consequently, for each value of ac > kr2 we obtained a set
of data on the saturation time s, and, consequently, on the number
of cycles of loading in saturation Ns (= sf, were f is the resonance
frequency in measurement of the selected point) determined at the
selected values of ac, and also the values (E/E )z at the beginning
of saturation ( = 8 s) and at the end of saturation (E/E) k . This
306
Internal Friction of Materials
a B b , (6.46)
ac
E
C NC ,
s (6.47)
E s
where the values of C, c for different grain size of copper are pre-
sented in Table 6.6. The increase of the defect of the Young modu-
lus increases with increasing number of load cycles at saturation.
The number of load cycles resulting in the saturation of the
changes of the properties of copper with different grain size Ns de-
pends on the total strain amplitude. The analytical form of the de-
pendence is
d
Ns D3 , (6.48)
ac
where D3, d are the characteristics presented in Table 6.6. The ex-
perimental results show that the increase of the total strain ampli-
tude increases the number of load cycles resulting in the saturation
of the changes of the properties of copper, and this increase be-
307
Cyclic Microplasticity
Grain size
kr2 b C c D3 d
kr1 [mm]
Grain size z
h n [MPa] n
[mm] [MPa] z s s
E h
H ,
ac (6.49)
E s
where H = CDc and h = cd, with the values presented in Table 6.6.
From the approximation for the calculation of the stress ampli-
tude a and the plastic strain amplitude ap, which uses the results
of measurements of the defect of the Young modulus at specific
values of ac indicates that the equations (6.32) and (6.33) are valid
in this case.
The experimental measurements show that the values of E/E at
a certain value of ac differ at the start of the loading process (de-
noted by z) and after saturation of the changes of the properties (de-
noted by s).
Processing of the results of measurements using equations (6.32)
and (6.33) shows that as a result of the processes taking place dur-
ing saturation, the cyclic strain curves is displaced to the right, i.e.
to higher values of ap at a specific value of a. The dependence can
be expressed by the equation (6.30). The results show that the val-
308
Internal Friction of Materials
ues of , n for the start of loading and after saturation differ (Ta-
ble 6.6). Increasing loading time decreases the cyclic strain hard-
ening coefficient. Copper with the larger grain size is characterised
by a lower value of the cyclic hardening coefficient, both at the
start of loading or at saturation of the changes of the properties.
In order to obtain saturation in the examined strain amplitude
range, the number of load cycles at a loading frequency of 22.9 kHz
is approximately 1 × 107.
The process of cyclic microplastic deformation is not concen-
trated only at the grain boundaries but is also associated with the
generation and interaction of the dislocations inside the grain. This
explains why the values of kr1, kr2 increase with increasing grain
size. The behaviour of the internal friction background is reversed;
this may be associated with the relaxation processes taking place at
the grain boundaries which contribute to the extent of internal fric-
tion. The dependence of the changes of the properties of the mate-
rial on the number of load cycles is the same as under conventional
loading frequencies [307], although the detailed examination and
analytical description provide new information. During saturation,
with increasing grain size of copper, i.e. with increasing space in
which dislocation interaction takes place, the change of the defect
of the Young modulus becomes larger with increasing number of
load cycles; this associated with the fact that the magnitude of
E/E is the manifestation of the integral cyclic microplasticity in
the elementary volumes of the material. The increase of the number
of load cycles with the saturation of the changes of the properties
results in increase of the difference between the value of the defect
of the Young modulus at the beginning and end of loading; this re-
lationship is associated with the result which shows that increas-
ing total strain amplitude requires a larger number of load cycles
for obtaining saturation.
The coefficient of cyclic strain hardening of copper is, accord-
ing to Ref. 308, the same at frequencies of 100 Hz and 20 kHz, i.e.
n = 0.205, and according to Ref. 309 it is n = 0.209, with the val-
ues of n determined at the stress amplitude higher than the fatigue
limit of copper. Our experiments and approximation indicate that nz
or ns decreases with increasing grain size, and the values of n de-
crease with increase of the number of load cycles; it should also be
added that these characteristics were obtained at stress amplitudes
lower than the fatigue limit of copper.
The number of load cycles for obtaining the saturated state of the
changes of the properties in the examined strain amplitude range is
309
Cyclic Microplasticity
310
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.6.30. Dependence of change of Q–1, E/E on total strain amplitude (a) and
part of the Wöhler curve.
311
Cyclic Microplasticity
lowing equations:
Cc n ,
apkr (6.51)
2
n
C apkr 3 , (6.52)
where is the coefficient of proportionality in the equation for the
cyclic strain curve and n is the exponent of cyclic strain harden-
ing of the material (equation (6.30)). If it is assumed that the char-
acteristics of the cyclic deformation curve in loading below and at
the fatigue limit are the same, the values of and n in equations
(6.51) and (6.52) are the same. According to some approaches, in
loading below and at the fatigue limit the cyclic strain curves dif-
fer. Therefore, in equations (6.51) we have 1, n1, and in equation
(6.52) 2, n2, and 1 2, n1 n2. In equation (6.50) Ed is the dy-
namic modulus of elasticity of the material.
The application of the experimental data, obtained on electrically
conducting copper (section 6.2.6) for different grain sizes, shows
that for the grain sizes of 0.962 mm, 0.250 mm and 0.707 mm the
limit of cyclic sensitivity Cc is 35.8; 33.5 and 30.0 MPa, whereas
the limit of cyclic elasticity Ce is 0.11; 0.22 and 0.35 MPa.
Further information can be obtained from the experiments carried
out on steel CSN 412032.1 (section 6.2.5), with the application of
a magnetic field with the intensity H = 19.2 × 103 Am–1 in meas-
urement of internal friction and the defect of the modulus of the
elasticity in relation to the total stress amplitude. The limit of cy-
clic sensitivity Cc is 198 MPa, and the limit of cyclic elasticity is
Ce 18.4 MPa.
The values of the third critical strain amplitude were not deter-
mined in the measurement of the dependences Q–1 vs. or E/E vs.
because of the experimental difficulties determined by the small
range of the applicable strain amplitudes in equipment VTP–A
(VSDS). The fatigue limit of electrically conducting copper is, how-
ever, 80 MPa and the fatigue limit of steel 12032 is 225 MPa [307].
It can be assumed that for certain types of materials, differing
mainly in the type of structural lattice and also other morphologi-
cal features, the ratio of kr2/kr3 will change in accordance with a
specific dependence. Whilst maintaining the internal and external
312
Internal Friction of Materials
313
Cyclic Microplasticity
Fig.6.31. Internal friction (solid lines) and defect of the Young modulus (broken
lines) in relation to strain amplitude of the steel at a loading frequency of 22
kHz.
314
Internal Friction of Materials
steels, Fig. 6.32, were plotted on the basis of the results of detailed
fatigue tests. The fatigue life curves can be described by the equa-
tion in the form
a
N fb , (6.53)
f
Table 6.7 Characteristics of carbon steels and factors in equations (6.30), (6.35)
and (6.54)
315
Cyclic Microplasticity
ap
N fc , (6.54)
f
Q1
p f f f
bc
W E E 2 N .
(6.55)
E E
316
fracture (the energy criterion of fatigue life) is
317
Internal Friction of Materials
Fig.6.33. Fatigue curves in Manson and Coffin representation for the examined
steels at a loading frequency of 22 kHz.
Q1
W WN p f f
N f1bc .
f f E 2 (6.56)
E
E E
1
ac E E b
N 1 .
f
f (6.57)
E
From the equations (6.56) and (6.57) we obtain the functional de-
pendence for the energy consumed by the material up to fracture in
the form
Q1 f f E E 12b3
p ac
W 1
318
f
E f E
E 2
(6.58)
E E
319
Cyclic Microplasticity
a GW g ,
f (6.59)
here G, g are the factors with the values given in Table 6.8.
If the energy consumed by the material up to the formation of
fracture is expressed in relation to the number of load cycles to
fracture, using equations (6.53) and (6.59) we obtain the depend-
ence of the energy absorbed to fracture, Fig. 6.35. The curves can
be expressed by the equation in the form
W H Nh ,
f (6.60)
Table 6.8. Characteristics in equations (6.59) and (6.60) for the examined steels
H
Steel G g h b/(1+b+c)
[MPa]
321
Cyclic Microplasticity
322
Internal Friction of Materials
cycles
323
Cyclic Microplasticity
·103 H
T, ºC 'f b ' ·104 c n h
[MPa] f [MPa] [MPa]
cycles
Fig.6.37. Manson–Coffin curves of quenched and tempered VT3-1 alloy at different
temperatures.
described by equation (6.54), where the values of f and c are pre-
sented in Table 6.9.
The cyclic strain curves can be described by equation (6.30),
where n = b/c and = f/f n.
The derivation in [302] and measurements of plastic internal fric-
tion Q p–1 for VT3-1 alloy at selected temperatures [321] indicate that
the amount of energy consumed by the specimen to fatigue fracture
can be described by equation (6.60).
The evaluation of the tests from the viewpoint of the energy cri-
terion using equation (6.56) gives the graphical dependence shown
in Fig.6.38. The dependences can be described by equation (6.60),
where H and h are the experimentally determined characteristics
with the values presented in Table 6.9.
The evaluation of the values of ap and ac at Nf = 10 cycles for
8
324
Internal Friction of Materials
the experimental results show that at 20°C ap = 0.022 ac, at 400°C
ap = 0.046 ac and at 550°C ap = 0.024 ac.
The values of the fatigue limit, obtained by the authors of
Ref.319 at different temperatures and the reference number of cy-
cles of 2 × 108, can be compared with the fatigue limit values ob-
tained in loading at a frequency of 100 Hz and a reference number
of cycles of 1 × 107, where the microstructure of VT3–1 alloy was
similar to that used in this work. Kalachev et al. [322] carried out
tests at a temperature of 20°C and the fatigue limit was in the range 550–
620 MPa, whereas in Ref. 323 it was 620 MPa. In fatigue loading at
a temperature 400°C, the fatigue limit was 480–500 MPa [323], and in
Ref. 324 it was 330 MPa. No values of the fatigue limit have been
published in the technical literature for a tempera- ture of 550°C.
With increase of temperature from 20°C to 400– 550°C, the strain
fatigue limit decreases from 1.85 × 10–4 to 1.43
× 10 –5 or even 6.1 × 10 –5 and is therefore close to the value of
10–5, as generalised for different types of steel [297].
Evaluation of the microstructure prior to and after fatigue load-
ing at different temperatures indicate that in the temperature range 20–
400°C the structure of the VT3–1 alloy is stable and, conse- quently,
the changes of the properties with increasing temperature are
controlled by the conventional mechanism. However, loading at
cycles
Fig.6.38. Application of the energy criterion of fatigue life of VT3-1 alloy at
different temperatures.
325
Cyclic Microplasticity
326
Internal Friction of Materials
327
Cyclic Microplasticity
tions for the removal of heat from the area in which heat is gener-
ated in a single cycle (–). The temperature difference may result in
a gradient of internal stresses (±). The bcc metals with interstitial
elements significantly increase the deformation resistance with in-
creasing strain rate (+). At high loading frequency, the time avail-
able is insufficient for general corrosion processes (+) to take place.
The fraction of the plastic strain amplitude in the total strain am-
plitude at the selected value of the total strain amplitude and at the
high loading frequency is smaller than at the conventional loading
frequency (+). At high loading frequency, the slip lines are narrower
and are found in a smaller number of grains, with a smaller surface
relief in comparison with the conventional loading frequency (+).
The width of the plastic zone around the fatigue crack at the high
loading frequency is smaller than at the conventional loading fre-
quency (–). The shift of the front of the fatigue crack into the ma-
terial at high frequency requires a significantly larger number of
load cycles than at the conventional loading frequency (+). The size
of the activation volume at high and conventional loading frequen-
cies is approximately the same.
Each of these reasons is characterised by different intensity of
the effect on the appropriate fatigue characteristic. Some of them
are mutually connected and other combinations mutually exclude
each other. For these reasons, all attempts for the analytical expres-
sion of the effect of frequency on the fatigue limit or Kath are of the
empirical nature with limited validity.
To conclude this chapter, it should be noted that important and
valuable information and interpretation can be found in the previ-
ously mentioned monographs and also in a compilation edited by
Gorczyca and Magalas [328].
328
Internal Friction of Materials
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Index
A
activation energy of diffusion 86 compensation phase method 167
activation enthalpy 78
composite materials 37
activation volume 78 condensation temperature 257
aerodynamic losses 171 Cottrell atmospheres 97, 106, 197
allotropic transformations 22 Cottrell parameter 106
amplitude–frequency spectrum 3 Coulomb 7
anelastic strain 84 Coulomb forces 153
anelasticity 1, 28 critical shear stress 86
atomic density 12 crystallographic system 7
atomic spacing 13 Curie temperature 19, 36, 68
B cyclic microplasticity 79, 276
cyclic strain curve 267
background of internal friction 79 cyclic strain hardening 296
Barkhausen jumps 129
BHR theory 210 D
Blair, Hutchison and Rogers d-electrons 22
model 209
damping capacity 133
Bloch walls 46, 59, 128, 289
damping decrement 156
Boltzmann constant 56
damping factor 140
Boltzmann distribution 86
DB transition 230
Bordoni maxima 98
Debye frequency 186
Bordoni peak 116
Debye maximum 90
Bordoni phenomenon 58
Debye oscillations 93
Bordoni relaxation 105, 197
Debye peak 208, 212
Bordoni’s maximum 100
Debye shape 90
Bordoni’s relaxation 98, 99
Debye temperature 11, 14
bowout of the dislocation 76
defect of the elasticity modulus 1
Bridgman equation 67
degree of dynamic relaxation 49
bulk self-diffusion 85
diffusibility of atoms 188
Burgers vector 74, 115
dilation coefficient 54
C dimensional factor 22
dislocation anelasticity 69, 70
characteristic process time 49 dislocation clusters 80
circular resonance frequency 51 dislocation configuration 71
clustering 126
dislocation kernel 201
coefficient diffusion of point
dislocation multiplication process 71
defects 86
dislocation segment 99
coefficient of absorption of sound 82
dislocational strain 71
coefficient of anisotropy 10
dispersion strengthening 38
32
Internal Friction of Materials
32
Index
R eferences
32
Internal Friction of Materials
32