BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus

Nanomaterial Applications in Optical Transduction

 Semiconductor Nanocrystals
(Quantum Dots)
Quantum Dots: Structure and Properties Prev. class

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Not only passive optical labels but in more elaborate
transduction schemes based on resonance energy transfer,
fluorescence quenching or chemiluminescence.
(i) Determination of Ions and Small Molecules
 Luminescence of QDs can be very sensitive to the chemical
state of the capping layer
 Making use of the fluorescence changes induced by adsorption
or interactions with an ion complexing capping ligand
 Depending on the properties of the analyte, various mechanisms
for QD–analyte interaction
 Fluorescence enhancement when ions such as Zn2+ or Cd2+
interact with the QD surface and passivates surface trap states
 Similar effect - Zn2+ interacts with cysteine-modified QDs
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Several QDs aggregate through cysteine–Zn2+ coordination,
activating surface states (responsible for enhanced emission)
 Some cases analyte–QD interaction quenches the fluorescence
 Due to electron transfer from the analyte (e.g., Cu2+) to the
capping ligand (thioglycerol) to give Cu+ (quenches
fluorescence by facilitating nonradiative recombination of
electrons and holes in the excited QD
 Different quenching mechanism: Fe3+ combines with cysteine-
capped QDs, Fe3+ complex partially absorbs QD emitted light
and functions therefore as an inner filter (decrease in fluorescence
emission in concentrated solutions due to the absorption of exciting
light by the fluorophore that is close to the incident beam and which
significantly diminishes light that reaches the sample further away
from it) BITSPilani, Pilani Campus
 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Quenching: Ag+ adsorbs on the CdS QD surface and displaces
Cd2+, giving Ag2S that facilitates electron–hole recombination.
 Quenching by electron transfer from analyte to excited QD
valence band with small molecules such as dopamine
 Detection scheme based on metal-ion complexation is strongly
influenced by the pH that modulates by protonation-
deprotonation the binding capacity of the ligand
 Optical pH determination with QDs capped with thiocarboxilic
acids, such as mercaptopropionic or mercaptosuccinic acid that
modulate the QD fluorescence by proton dissociation
 More advanced approach supramolecular recognition using
QDs functionalized with specific receptors, such as
macrocyclic ligands, or porphyrin
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
(ii) Fluorescent Labels in Biosensors
 QDs also used as passive optical labels in immunoassay and
nucleic acid-based sensing
 Biotinylated antibodies attached to biotin-functionalized QDs
form signaling conjugate in a sandwich assay on a microtiter
plate.
 Several antibodies can be detected simultaneously using QDs
with a specific size for labeling each analyte (Fig. 20.3)
 Although some overlapping of emission bands, individual
bands resolved by spectrum deconvolution.
 Illustrates possibility of performing multiplex assay using
different size QDs as labels and a single excitation source

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Parallel optical immunodetection of
pathogen toxins

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 A competitive immunodetection scheme for a hapten (Figure
20.4
 biotinylated anti-RDX receptor attached to surface of QD
through an adapter protein (MBP-zb), assembly immobilized
by affinity binding of the antibody to RDX modified support
 By competition, sample RDX displaces the support-attached
QD conjugates, fluorescence intensity decreases with analyte
concentration
 RDX determination concentration 0.5 to 100 ng/ml
 Signal amplification and multiplexed analysis accomplished by
QDs attached to or incorporated in polymer beads, with each
bed acting as an enhanced luminescence label

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Immunodetection of RDX explosive

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
(iii) Resonance Energy Transfer
 Essential condition for RET: matching of emission band of the
energy donor with absorption band of energy receptor
 Easily accomplished with QDs as donors (emission wavelength
of such a species is size-tunable)
 RET useful for developing pH-sensitive QD–dye conjugates
 Squaraine (a pH-sensitive dye) covalently attached to polymer
encapsulating layer of QDs
 Energy transfer occurs from excited QD to dyes whose
acceptor efficiency increases with increasing pH, while the QD
behavior is independent of this parameter
 Dye emission increases on increasing pH, QD emission
undergoes opposite variation (increasing RET efficiency)
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Squaraine

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Solution pH from the ratio of QD emission to dye emission
with all advantages of the ratiometric approach.
 QD RET exploited for devising affinity sensors.
 A substantial improvement in the energy-transfer efficiency by
attaching several receptor dyes to the same QD by affinity-
based the conjugate center (Figure 20.5)
 Figure demonstrates that fluorescence intensity decreases on
increasing the number of quenching dye molecule conjugated
with a QD
 Change accompanied by an increase in dye fluorescence
intensity
 QD can act not only as a fluorophore but also as a scaffold for
assembling other components of the transduction system
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 Enhancement of RET efficiency

Figure 20.5 Enhancement of RET efficiency in immunosensors using multiple

acceptors (Cy3 dye) in a QD-protein conjugate. Both dye-labeled and crude maltose-
binding protein molecules (MBP) are attached by affinity binding to the QD. Total
number of MBP is constant. Spectra pertains to various MBP/MBP-dye molar ratios
as indicated on each curve
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
(iv) Fluorescence Quenching
 A molecular quencher can capture excess energy of an excited
QD, fluorescence intensity decreases
 Aptamer-capped QDs as fluorescence quencher
 Near-infrared PbS QDs in an aqueous solution in the presence
of 15-mer thrombin aptamer that functions as both QD
stabilizer and analyte receptor (Figure 20.6).
 Thrombin combines selectively with aptamer via either the
heparin or the fibrinogen binding sites and in product it
performs energy exchange with the excited QD
 Photoluminescence quenching in proportion to thrombin
concentration with a detection limit of about 1 nM.

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 Aptamer-based determination

Figure 20.6 Aptamer-based determination of thrombin by

QD fluorescence quenching. A is the heparin-biding exosite
and B is the fibrinogen binding exosite in thrombin.
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Other proteins can adsorb nonspecifically to the QD but do not
act as quenchers
 Interference noted only with prostate-specific antigen that also
has a heparin-binding exosite
 Quenching QD fluorescence is a convenient approach for
designing DNA sensors based on the molecular-beacon
configuration
 In such an approach, CdS/ZnS were linked to the 5′ end of a
hairpin capture probe that incorporates at its 3′ end the
quencher molecule 4-(4′-dimethylaminophenylazo)benzoic
acid (Dabcyl)

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 In this state, QD fluorescence is quenched by the nearby
quencher
 After hybridization with target, fluorophore and the quencher
located at a long distance from each other, enhanced
fluorescence signal
 Multiplex analysis easily implemented using a set of different
probes, each of them labeled with a QD of specific emission
wavelength
 QDs have also been employed for devising fiber optic sensors
 Affinity sensor (Figure 20.7) Receptor is Protein A that shows
affinity to immunoglobulin G used as the model analyte

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Fiber optic fluorescent immunosensor

Figure 20.7 Design of a fiber optic fluorescent immunosensor

using QDs as labels

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 QD-modified protein A immobilized by glutaraldehyde
crosslinking on aminosilanized glass slide of 1mm diameter
attached next to the distal end of a bifurcated optical fiber
 Fiber allows the excitation light to reach the sensing layer and,
on the other hand, conveys fluorescence light to the light
detector.
 Receptor–analyte interaction results in fluorescence quenching
in relation with analyte concentration and allows this one to be
determined at concentrations between 0.5 and 5 mg/ml
 Main advantage of QD as fluorophore: great intensity of the
fluorescence light that permits using a long optical fiber
without considerable loss in intensity

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
(v) Chemiluminescence
 QDs photoluminescence radiant energy absorption forms an
electron–hole pair
 Alternatively, excited QDs produced by charge-transfer
processes that involve suitable electron donors and acceptors
 In alkaline solution, H2O2 decomposes to yield OH• radicals
and superoxide ions (O2-).
 Radical injects a hole, superoxide ion injects an electron

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Next, a charge-transfer process involving charge-injected
QDs results in an excited QD that relaxes by light emission:

 Chemiluminescence of QDs triggered by chemical reaction

of a co-reactant that produces electron donors and electron
acceptors.
 Charge injection from reactants into QDs is conditioned by
relative position of energy levels in donor/acceptor and QD
(Figure 20.8).
 Thus, hole injection occurs if the redox potential of the
acceptor is below the hole level in the QD

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 Energy level diagram

Figure 20.8 Energy level diagram of CdSe QDs and an electron donor
(O2-) and acceptor (OH•) involved in QD chemiluminescence

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
 Electron injection possible if redox potential of donor above
electron level in QD CB.
 Redox potential can be pH dependent, attention should be paid
 Radicals are involved in the mechanism, any radical scavenger
can be determined by its inhibiting effect on
chemiluminescence
 Scavengers small organic molecules or biomolecules
containing -OH, -SH or -NH2 groups
 Ionic species interacting with the surface-protecting layer of
the QD affect the chemiluminescence behavior
 Metal ions such as Pb2+, Hg2+, Ag+, Fe3+, can be determined
by means of mercaptoacetic-covered CdS QDs

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
(vi) Electrochemically Generated Chemiluminescence (ECL)
• QDs chemiluminescence is triggered by suitable electron
acceptor/donors that can inject holes or electrons in QD
• If such species result from electrochemical reaction, term ECL
• Interaction of QDs with the SO4• radical-anion formed by
electrochemical reduction of peroxodisulfate
• SO4• injects a hole in a CdSe QD and hole recombination with
an electron from CB results in light emission
• Alternatively, ECL can be triggered by the electrochemical
reaction of a QD which injects an electron into CB giving rise
to the QD(e-) form
• If O2 also present, electrochemically reduced to form OOH- ion
that abstracts an electron from VB of QD(e) and turns it into the
excited form QD* that emits light
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• A similar process occurs in the presence of H2O2, but this
compound is a less-efficient co-reactant
• Such processes with QDs immobilized on Pt or paraffin-
impregnated graphite electrodes
• Analytical applications of QD-ECL mostly similar to QD
chemiluminescence with advantage that the process can be
triggered electrically
• As oxygen and H2O2 are involved in reactions catalyzed by
oxidases, QD-ECL possible transduction procedures in
biosensors based on such enzymes

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
(vii) Quantum Dots as Photoelectrochemical Labels
• Photoexcitation of a QD yields an electron–hole pai
• Trapping a CB electron in surface states, sufficiently long
lifetime to permit transfer of trapped electron to a positively
charged electrode giving rise to an anodic photocurrent (Figure
20.9A).
• If an electron donor (D) is present, the overall process will
consist of D oxidation mediated by the photoexcited QD
• Current can be reversed by making electrode negative wrt VB
edge and a photomediated reduction of a suitable electron
acceptor A takes place (Figure 20.9B).
• Enables photoelectrochemical detection of QD-tagged
biocompound in presence of sacrificial electron donor or
acceptor
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 Photocurrents

Figure 20.9 Photocurrents generated by quantum dots

associated with electrodes. (A) anodic photocurrent;
(B) cathodic photocurrent.
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• An application of QDs as a photoelectrochemical label for
monitoring nucleic acid hybridization (Figure 20.10)
• Electrode and CdS QDs surfaces are functionalized by thiolated
oligonucleotides 1 and 3, respectively.
• Oligonucleotide 1 complementary to 5′ end of target 2, while
oligonucleotide 3 is complementary to the 3′ ends of target
• After the target–probe recognition (step I), the modified QD is
bound by hybridization with the overhanging moiety of target
(step II)
• In step III, QDs tagged with a 2/1 oligonucleotide hybrid are
attached by hybridization to the oligonucleotide 3 that is
present in the QD layer produced in step II.

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 QD Photoelectrochemical Monitoring

Figure 20.10 QD photoelectrochemical monitoring of DNA

hybridization. (A) Recognition and QD labeling process; (B)
photocurrent action spectra (current–wavelength curves) for numbers
of QD layers. Electron donor: triethanolamine (20 mM)
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• By repeating the above sequence a layered aggregate including
a high number of QDs can be grown sequentially
• Strategy a considerable enhancement of sensitivity
• Upon photoexcitation, QDs convey electrons from the
triethanolamine donor to electrode giving rise to response
photocurrent related to target concentration
• Direct electron uptake from distant (Figure 20.9) QDs is hardly
probable and, in order to achieve this process, [Ru(NH3)6] 3+
used as mediator
• Alternatively, electron transfer from excited QDs to electrode is
conveniently effected by intercalating daunomycin (as an
electron relay) in the DNA duplex.
• As shown in Figure 20.10B, response photocurrent increases
with the number of QD layers
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• QD photoelectrochemistry successfully applied for the
development of enzyme-inhibition sensing schemes
• Enzyme–QD conjugate is covalently attached to a gold
electrode (Figure 20.11A)
• Under the catalytic effect of the enzyme, the acetyl
thiocholine substrate (1) is hydrolyzed, giving thiocholine (2)
that undergoes an electrochemical oxidation mediated by the
excited QD
• Product of the enzyme reaction acts as an electron donor, no
sacrificial donor is needed here

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Figure 20.11B shows the effect of the excitation wavelength
on the photocurrent and demonstrates that the current
reaches a plateau below the absorption threshold of the QD
• The plateau photocurrent increases with substrate
concentration (reminiscent of Michaelis–Menten curve)
• At a constant substrate concentration and in presence of an
AChE inhibitor, the plateau photocurrent decreases with
increasing inhibitor concentration, as is usual with enzyme-
inhibition sensors

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Figure 20.11 QD-based photoelectrochemical detection of

acetylcholine esterase inhibitors. (A) sensor configuration
(B) Photocurrent action spectra recorded in the presence of various
substrate concentrations (mM) as follows: (a) 0; (b) 6; (c) 10; (d) 12;
(e) 16; (f) 30. Inset: photocurrent at 380nm vs. substrate concentration.
0.1M phosphate buffer, pH = 8.1.
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
Carbon Nanotubes as Optical Labels

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are hollow cylinders made of graphite

structured sheets (graphenes) of graphitic carbon

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Light Absorption and Emission by CNTs

• Optical properties of CNTs from particular distribution of
electron energy levels
• Macroscopic conductor continuous valence and conduction
bands
• Overlap in a metal conductor, high electric conductivity
• Conduction and valence bands separated by a bandgap in
semiconductor
• Pure semiconductors a very low conductivity at ambient
temperature

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Density of energy states in single-walled carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs) distributed in a discrete form, displaying marked
spikes at specific energy values where the density of states
tends to infinity (Figure 20.12)
• Such patterns van Hove singularities (non-smooth point in
the density of states of a crystalline solid)
• In a metallic SWCNT, valence and conduction bands overlap
partially
• In a semiconductor SWCNT bands separated by a bandgap
where no allowed energy states exist
• HOMO and LUMO of semiconducting SWCNTs correspond
to the first van Hove singularities in the VB and CB (v1 and
c1), respectively
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Figure 20.12 Density of electronic energy states in

SWCNTs

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• For light absorption incoming photon energy must match
difference between two valence and conduction van Hove
singularities with similar indices
• Hence, v1- c1 (E11) and v2- c2 (E22) ) transitions allowed but
v2- c1 and v1- c2 transitions are forbidden
• Symbol E is replaced by M (metallic) or S (semiconductor)
• In semiconductor SWCNTs, photon absorption gives rise to a
quantum-confined electron–hole pair (exciton) with a Bohr
radius of approximately 2.5 nm.
• SWCNTs luminescence occurs as a result of an E22-type
excitation (Figure 20.12).
• After excitation both electron and hole quickly relax to v1
and c1 states, respectively
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Electron–hole recombination takes place, results in light
emission with a relatively large Stokes shift caused by previous
relaxation processes
• v1- c1 transitions in near-infrared region (800–2000 nm), no
fluorescence background from biological components
• Quantum yield very low (typically around 0.01%), values up to
20% attained by proper optimization of the procedure for
isolating individual nanotubes in solution

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Low quantum yield due to luminescence quenching by
interactions between nanotubes themselves or nanotubes
and other materials, including the immobilization support in
the case of supported CNTs.
• Oxygen strong quencher, so, brightly fluorescent CNTs
obtained upon coating them with an oxygen-excluding
surfactant

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Energy separation of van Hove singularities depends on the
nanotube structure and surface modification by adsorption or
chemical functionalization
• Tuning optical properties of SWCNTs.
• Figure 20.13 mixture of SWCNTs in suspension
• Large difference between the spectra of CNTs modified by a
simple surfactant (curve 1) or by dextran (curve 2)
• Each nanotube type (n, m indices) gives rise to a distinct
spectral band in both absorption and fluorescence spectra
• Band intensities very different, in accordance with the
adsorbate capacity to prevent quenching by ambient water and
oxygen

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Figure 20.13 Absorption and fluorescence spectra of a water

suspension of SWCNTs coated with sodium colate (curves 1) or
3,4- diaminophenyl-functionalized dextran (curve 2). CNT n, m
indices are indicated on each band in the fluorescence spectrum
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Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• CNTs are characterized by excellent photostability
• Do not exhibit blinking (random switching between ON (bright)
and OFF (dark) states of the emitter under its continuous excitation)
• Significant when tracing the displacement of a CNT-labeled
biocompound.
• Fluorescence bands of CNTs located in the near-infrared
region results in a minimal interference by background light,
which is characterized by lower wavelength

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Raman Scattering by CNTs

• Both metallic and semiconductor
• Exciting photon promotes electron from VB to CB
• Excited electron exchange of energy with quantified lattice
vibrations (phonons)
• Excited electron relaxes to the VB by photon emission
• Energy of the emitted photon different from incoming
photon by the amount of energy exchanged with phonons
• Energy difference detected as a shift in frequency with
respect to the frequency of the incoming photon (Figure
20.14).
• Frequency shift proportional to energy difference between
the vibration states.
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Figure 20.14 Raman spectra of isolated SWCNTs immobilized

on an oxidized silica substrate. Star labels indicate contributions
of the oxidized silica.

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

• Characteristic of resonance Raman scattering: energy of

either the incoming or emitted photon matches the
difference between two electronic levels in the nanotube
• Non-resonant Raman scattering: excited electron is
promoted to a virtual state but such a process is much less
intensive as compared to the previous one

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Raman spectrum of a CNT related to the characteristic
molecular vibration modes
• Due to geometry, a SWCNT specific radial breathing mode
(RBM) that corresponds to radial expansion–contraction
• RBM frequency inversely proportional to diameter, allows
this parameter to be inferred from Raman spectrometry data
• This specific band permits distinguishing SWCNTs from
various graphite forms
• A series of Raman bands common to most graphite forms
(Figure 20.14)
• G band (for graphite) due to vibrations along tangents to
nanotube surface
• Fine structure exhibits several signals with two strongest
component being labeled G+ and G- bands
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• CNT G bands slightly shifted wrt that of graphene
• D band s from structural defects disorder induced mode),
• G′ band second overtone of the D band
• Due to selection rules, the G′ band is stronger than D
• CNTs Raman bands relatively insensitive to environment,
application as optical labels in bioassay
• Excellent signal to background ratio, outstanding detection
limits
• Fluorescence and Raman spectrometry widely used for
characterizing SWCNTs
• Application in bioimaging and biosensing
• Advantage: position of characteristic bands in the NIR,
minimizes interference of the background radiation
• Excellent resistance of CNTs to photobleaching
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
CNT Optical Sensors and Arrays
• Developing quenching-based sensing scheme
• Nitric oxide (NO), quenches fluorescence of SWCNTs by
electron withdrawal from the VB of excited nanotube
• Selectivity by modifying the CNT with a NO selective
receptor such as 3,4-diaminophenyl-functionalized dextran
(Figure 20.15)
• Design of a nanosensor for reversible, real-time, and spatially
resolved detection of NO in macrophage cells, applications for
in vivo assays

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Figure 20.15 Nitrogen oxide detection by means of a 3,4-

diaminophenyl-functionalized dextran modified SWCNT.

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• A CNT glucose-detection scheme, enzyme immobilized by
adsorption on CNT wall and CNT fluorescence in NIR
excited with light from a laser pointer (635 nm)
• For transduction, [Fe(CN)6]3- added to sample solution, this
anion adsorbs irreversibly onto nanotube wall and quenches
fluorescence by electron withdrawing
• Hydrogen peroxide produced by the enzyme reaction reduces
[Fe(CN)6]3- to [Fe(CN)6]4-, not a quencher
• Fluorescence intensity enhanced, possible to determine the
concentration of glucose in millimolar range
• Raman labels in proteins arrays based on immunoassay in
the sandwich format (Figure 20.16)

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing

Antibody determination in the sandwich format using CNTs as

Raman labels. (A) Structure of the sensing layer;
(B) carbon nanotubes modified with a secondary antibody; (C)
structure of the receptor-analyte-tagged antibody ternary
complex.
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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• Array support of Au nanoclusters covered with branched PEG-
COOH by condensation with self-assembled cysteamine (H2N-
(CH2)2-SH)
• Various protein-antigens covalently linked to previous layer as
receptors for target antibodies
• To obtain SWCNT tagged secondary antibodies, nanotubes
modified by adsorption of a mixture of two polyethylene glycol
modified phospholipids (DSPE-3PEO and DSPE-PEG-NH2)
• Secondary antibody (goat antimouse immunoglobulin G –
GaM-IgG) linked to this layer, served for specific binding of
SWCNTs tags to the target antibody in the sandwich format
(Figure 20.16C)

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 Applications of Quantum Dots in
Chemical Sensing
• CNT G+ signal strongly amplified as a result of local field
enhanced by gold nanoclusters
• Possible to detect analyte 1 pM level, about 100 times lower
than detection limit using molecular Cy3 labels
• Multiplexing by using isotopically pure C13 and C14
nanotube; each of them exhibiting a distinct G band.

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