TET-DG-5001 - Basic Design Criteria v1.1

Design Guidelines TET/SS/5501
Date: 14/05/2015
BASIC DESIGN CRITERIA Issue: 1.1
Electronic Document, only the original archived in Quality Department is signed / Printed copies uncontrolled
Revision Date Details
1.0 22/04/12 First issue
1.1 14/05/2015 - Page 3 section 1.1 last paragraph’’ Future population and
Growth rates’’ updated after publication of Population Projection
Sultanate of Oman (2015-2040) by National centre for Statistics
and Information (NCSI)
- Section 1.3 LPCD table updated.
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................................................................. 2
1. WATER DEMAND FORECAST ................................................................................................................ 3
1.1 Population forecast ................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Categories of Water Demand ................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Domestic Consumption / Pipe Supply...................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Domestic Consumption / Tankers Supply................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Non Domestic Consumption .................................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Leakage and other technical losses........................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Water Used by PAEW in its Normal Operations (after leakage) ............................................................ 6
1.8 Fire Fighting.............................................................................................................................................. 6
1.9 Commercial Losses ................................................................................................................................... 7
1.10 Peak Factors .............................................................................................................................................. 8
2. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Future Water demand – Design horizon and phasing of Assets .............................................................. 9
2.1.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Water Demand .......................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1.3 An `` All-In`` figure for preliminary estimating ...................................................................................... 9
2.2 Pressure in the network ............................................................................................................................. 9
3. TRANSMISSION AND TRUNK MAIN DESIGN ................................................................................... 10
3.1 Headroom ................................................................................................................................................ 10
3.2 Route and elevation ................................................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Desired pressure ...................................................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Velocity ................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.5 Surge ....................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.6 Valves ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.7 Air valves ................................................................................................................................................ 12
3.8 Pipe materials .......................................................................................................................................... 12
3.9 Thrust blocks ........................................................................................................................................... 13
3.10 Energy considerations ............................................................................................................................. 13
4. WATER QUALITY .................................................................................................................................... 13
5. CONTROL PHILOSOPHY ........................................................................................................................ 14
6. SECURITY OF SUPPLY – RISK MANAGEMENT ............................................................................... 15
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INTRODUCTION
This document has been prepared as a Guide to PAEW engineers and their consultants for the
planning of water transmission and distribution systems.
It is not intended as a complete Manual for pipe design, but is intended to:
1. Set out the PAEW policy for pipeline design;

2. Inform upon standard pipeline design criteria;
3. Provide basic pipeline requirements to ensure the safe operation of the pipeline, and
4. Act as an aid memoire where specialist design skills are required e.g. surge.
In the event of any doubt concerning the use of this Guide, the advice of the General Manager:
Planning and Asset Management Department should be sought.
Wherever possible, the water demand of an area should be based upon researched data
relating to the specific area under study. Only where such data is not available, should the data
in this Guide be used.
The Guide provides the minimum requirements/standards to be met and the data
provided is to be used as the minimum acceptable.
Billed Metered Consumption

Billed (including water exported)
Authorised Revenue Water
Authorised Consumption
Billed Unmetered Consumption
Consumption
Unbilled Unbilled Metered Consumption
Authorised Unbilled Unmetered
Consumption Consumption
System Input
Volume Apparent Losses Unauthorised Consumption
(Corrected for (Commercial
known errors) losses) Customer Metering Inaccuracies
WATER Non Revenue
DEMAND Water Losses Leakage on Transmission and / Water
or Distribution Mains
Unaccounted for
Water Leakage and Overflows at
Real Losses Utility’s Storage Tanks
(technical losses)
Leakage on Service Connections
up to point of Customer
Metering
Table 1: IWA Standard International Water Balance and Terminology
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1. WATER DEMAND FORECAST
1.1 Population forecast
Population
Future water domestic demand depends upon the future population and future per capita
consumption.
Population in an area can be determined in number of ways:
1. As provided by a developer in his request for a water supply to be made available;

2. From the planning proposals of the Omani Planning Authorities;
3. Existing population + growth rate;
4. Calculated (N×P×O) from the number of plots (N), properties per plot (P) and
occupancy rates (O), and
5. Using a population/acre figure
Domestic Occupancy
Domestic occupancy rates are difficult to ascertain due to lack of appropriate data.
Computations are complicated by the large number of empty houses1, holiday homes and for
other reasons.
From the 2010 Population Census and the 2010 water demand study, the following have been
deduced for 2010 and can be used for future developments unless more explicit data is
available.
As assessed
Parameter Governorate for 2010
Domestic occupancy Muscat 5.1

Batinah 6.0
Buraymi 4.6
Dakhliyah 6.0
Dhahirah 6.1
Sharqiyah 4.7
Wusta 7.6
Musandam 3.7
1
According to the 2010 Population Census of the total 551,058 housing units only 396,421 were occupied
2
From Population Projection Sultanate of Oman (2015‐2040) issued by NCSI in September 2014.
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Future population and Growth rates
Unless more specific information is available, for the foreseeable future the following growth
rates can be assumed2 and applied. The following table contains the average population
growth rate deducted from the Population Projection Sultanate of Oman (2015-2040) issued by
the National Centre for Statistics and Information (NCSI) published in September 2014.
2015/20 2020/25 2025/30 2030/35 2035/40

Omani 13.9% 12.1% 10.0% 8.8% 8.4%
Non-Omani 3.6% 1.8% -0.3% -1.6% -2.2%
For local evolutions and detailed estimates data published by NCSI can be referred. NCSI is
updating this information regularly, for detailed information the designer should refer to the latest
data published.
1.2 Categories of Water Demand

For designing and planning a water main, the most important factor is to understand the water
requirement of the area to be supplied and the various categories of demand.
There is a distinct difference between water demand, which is the quantity of water required
within an area to satisfy all the water needs of the area, and water consumption, which is the
actual quantity of water drawn by customers through their service pipes.
In some cases due to inadequacies in the water supply system, customers demand may not be
met. In which case, their consumption is referred to as “restrained demand”. However water
systems shall be designed for unrestrained water demand.
For water demand forecast the following categories can be used.
 Domestic consumption by piped supply;

 Domestic consumption by tanker supply;
 Non domestic consumption;
 Unaccounted for water including:
o Leakage and other technical losses;
o Water used by PAEW in its normal operations;
o Fire fighting usage
o Commercial losses
1.3 Domestic Consumption / Pipe Supply
The required water demand of customers to be met by the PAEW for their domestic use, i.e.
within their residences, varies depending on several considerations such as socio-economic,
cultural and climatic.
Water consumption is expressed as “per capita consumption”, and is the average quantity of
water used per person per day and is generally termed as “lpcd”.
Wherever data is available, domestic per capita demand should be based upon the
consumption at the time of the design, increased appropriately over the project design horizon,
which is usually 25yrs.
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The following data should be used as guidance.
2010
from
Parameter Governorate Water
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040
Balance
Domestic Muscat 175 180 185 190 195 200 200
consumption as Batinah North 167 175 180 185 190 195 195
drawn at tap in
litres/head/day Batinah South 156 165 170 175 180 185 185
Buraymi 180 180 180 180 185 190 190
Dakhliyah 150 158 165 170 175 180 180
Dhahirah 148 154 160 165 170 175 175
Sharqiyah (North and
South)
134 152 160 165 170 175 175
Wusta 130 135 140 145 155 160 160
Musandam 191 191 191 191 191 191 191
These are indicative figures only that apply across a Region. It can be expected that there will
be variations within a Region.
1.4 Domestic Consumption / Tankers Supply
Where water is being distributed by the tankers, the consumption of 22 gallons /capita/day is to
be used.
1.5 Non Domestic Consumption
Where there is not expected to be any specific non-domestic high-usage, there are different
methods to calculate the water consumption, such as:
 Commercial user can be converted into the equivalent number of domestic user,
 Number of employees at the commercial site divided by the population density per
house in the region to get the equivalent number of properties,
 Hotels, clinics and hospitals can be converted into domestic properties by considering
the number of employees so that in turn the usage can be calculated.
Generally the domestic usage uses the greatest volume of water per square meter of any other
type of user.
The following table shows some values of non-domestic consumption for special uses:
Category Average per Capita consumption

Public office 60 l / c/day (6 days per week)
Hospital 200 – 500 l / bed / day
School 20 l / pupil / day (5 days per week)
Hotel 200 – 500 l / person/day
Restaurant 100 l / person/day
Cattle breeding 6 -10 l/ animal/ day
Gardens / plantations 3 -10 l / m2 / day
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A general “rule of thumb” is to allow 20% of the domestic consumption for non-domestic usage
(including government).
Non Domestic Usage – Industrial and High Usage Concerns
Where there are known to be industrial premises that will have a high water consumption or
other developments such as tourist complexes, shopping malls and industrial parks, it is
essential that the anticipated water demand is discussed with the appropriate industrialists,
developers and planning authorities.
Beware that there is a tendency for planners to over-estimate water needs in order to ensure
the adequacy of the water supply to a development.
1.6 Leakage and other technical losses
Water is lost from the PAEW’s system through a number of ways:
1. Leakage – slow continual loss of water through small holes in the mains, poor joints and
the like;
2. Bursts, where the volume lost can be large but are generally of short duration;
3. Water lost when a mains system has to be drained down in order to repair a leak or
burst, including water used to flush the main and take water quality samples after the
burst;
4. Water lost from reservoirs and other storage facilities due to non-closing inlet valves,
wash-out valves not fully closed, incorrectly set water level recorders when a reservoir is
filled by pumps controlled by the reservoir level and from leakage through the structure,
and
5. Water lost from leaking pump glands, inadequately maintained sluice valves, hydrants
etc.
For a new distribution system that has been correctly designed, installed and commissioned,
losses should be negligible within the early years of the pipe system. In order to allow for some
leakage, especially during the later life of the system, an allowance needs to be made.
This will be the higher of the following two calculations:

 15% of total domestic and non-domestic consumption;
 10 m3/d/Km of network in dense urban or 5 m3/d/Km in other areas
1.7 Water Used by PAEW in its Normal Operations (after leakage)
The PAEW will use water during its normal day-to-day operations for such activities as mains
cleansing and running hydrants for water quality sample analysis.
Normally, the water used is minimal and can be considered as included within the technical
losses. If there is known to be specific problems in the area, for example with debris settling in
the mains due to the condition of the mains or as sand “carried over” from the treatment/source
works, an allowance of 2% of customer demand can be assumed.
1.8 Fire Fighting
Oman’s statutory requirements should be ascertained, and met.
In Oman the Directorate General of Civil Defence set the requirements for fire fighting.
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The design of new distribution network should incorporate fire hydrants in accordance with the
Directorate General of Civil Defence requirements. Each project must get their approval for the
location of fire hydrants.
The additional ground service reservoir capacity for fire fighting is as follows:
3
Population (Capita) Capacity (m )
Less than 5,000 50
Less than 10,000 100
When designing the flow capacity of a distribution system, the following fire flows shall be
incorporated, depending on the population of the area served.
Population Fire flow

(Capita) (m3/min)
Less than 5,000 1
Less than 10,000 2
Less than 20,000 4
Less than 40,000 6
Less than 60,000 8
Less than 80,000 9
Less than100,000 10
1.9 Commercial Losses
Commercial losses are generally included at design stage within domestic and non-domestic
consumptions.
Meter and other income determination errors
In addition to the recorded flow of water to a customer, there might be an additional flow not
recorded by the meter due to wear of the meter; the meter being incorrectly installed or, in
extreme, the meter has become blocked or has stopped recording for some other reason.
A key consideration can be the type of meter installed being one that is not capable of recording
very low flows that can occur when a customer’s inlet valve to a cistern is not closing off.
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It should be noted that the meter error is included within the above per capita consumption
rates. Thus, meter error normally affects the income received by the PAEW and the historical
records of consumption in a given supply area, not the quantity of water that it has to supply.
Unknown Connections and Theft
These are obviously not known as they would be stopped, disconnected or converted into a
legitimate connection. As such no specific allowance need to be made, unless it is known that
the mains are to be laid in an area where illegal connections may be made.
1.10 Peak Factors
Water demand of customers can vary by the hour, by the day and seasonally.
The total quantity of water supplied or drawn for 365 days, divided by 365 is the average daily
demand. This is the normal reference flow.
Domestic per capita figures quoted relate to the annual average demand.
At various times of the year and as a result of seasonal needs, people will use more water in
some days. A similar higher demand can occur at weekends when customers are at home. This
is known as the peak day demand. The peak can vary from one area to another. Past records
of the study area, or a similar one, should be consulted to determine the historic peak day factor
to be used in the design.
People draw water according to the needs. The PAEW has to meet the instantaneous water
demand when many people wish to draw water at the same time e.g. in the morning before
going to work. This is known as the peak hour demand. The peak hour demand can be
extremely variable, depending as it does on the actions of people in an area. Within a
predominantly residential area where all the customers leave at around the same time each day
to go to work, take children to school, the peak hour factor can be as much as 5 times the
annual average. The peak hour demand can be significantly reduced where water goes first into
a storage tank, and people draw from the storage. The flow to a property is then limited by the
capacity of the service pipe; not the quantity of water used instantaneously.
The amount by which a peak demand exceeds the annual average demand is known as the
peak day or peak hour factor. The peak factors do not apply to all categories of demand. For
example, leakage will not vary. Industrial demand is usually more consistent – indeed the
PAEW can ensure a consistent draw-off by requiring the industrial premise to have storage and
by limiting the size of the service pipe to the premise.
Where there is no historic data available, the following can be used as a guide:
Peak day flow = 1.3 × annual average demand (based on the average day demand in the peak
week) excluding leakage or 1.24 times water in to supply i.e. inclusive of leakage
Peak hour flow = 2.5 × peak day flow.
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2. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
2.1 Future Water demand – Design horizon and phasing of Assets
2.1.1 General
Any design must take into account the likely growth in demand in the areas that will be fed from
the new main(s).
Whilst it is normally not desirable to lay a second pipe in the future to allow for future growth,
there can sometimes be an advantage. For example, if the development is to be staged it might
be cost beneficial, if space permits, to lay one main for the immediate development and to
follow this with a duplication when subsequent development takes place. An alternative would
be to convert a gravity main to a pumped main to “force through” more water.
Such phasing is only likely to be cost effective for large diameter mains and when there will be a
significant time difference between the development phases. The justification can only be after
a cost benefit analysis is made.
A more likely, and advantageous, scenario would be to lay one main along one route and then
duplicate the main along a second, separate route.
In some instances, short sections of main across roads have been installed and left blanked off
allowing an additional main to be laid in the future picking up these blanked off mains. This
allows an extra parallel main to be laid at minimal cost as the difficult sections have been
installed at the time of the original main being laid.
The design horizon for PAEW projects is 25 years. However for consistency issues, horizon
currently used is year 2040.
2.1.2 Water Demand
See above.
2.1.3 An `` All-In`` figure for preliminary estimating
Surprisingly and consistently, a “rule of thumb” all-in peak day design flow that can be used for
preliminary estimating within an area, is found to be between 300 and 350litres/head/day.
2.2 Pressure in the network
In a distribution system water should be supplied with adequate pressure and flow. However,
pressure is lost by the action of friction at the pipe wall and in pipe line components such as
valves. The amount of pressure loss is also dependant on the water demand from customers,
pipe material, length, gradient and diameter.
To deliver sufficient quantities of water the pressure head in the network should, wherever
possible, be at least 1.5 bar (15 m.w.c., worst point peak day, peak hour) in all parts of the
network, including the remotest and highest points. The maximum pressure should not exceed
6 bar (60 m.w.c.).
In case of fire fighting flows, pressure in the network shall be maintained as minimum positive
value i.e. negative pressure should not be developed in the network.
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3. TRANSMISSION AND TRUNK MAIN DESIGN
3.1 Headroom
Not used in the design of distribution mains, but used for source/treatment works, pumping
stations and transmission mains, is the concept of “headroom”.
Following a major incident, the PAEW’s reservoirs and mains will be depleted. The quantity of
water to be supplied by the PAEW in these conditions must be such as to not only meet
demand, but also to refill the reservoirs and re-charge the mains.
Customers may have been without water for a considerable time. They will want to use water
for a backlog of purposes, and their storage will need to be re-filled.
In order to provide for this addition demand, a treatment works etc. is designed to meet the
average daily flow not over 24 hours, but over 21 hours i.e. the works are designed to supply
24/21 (1.14) times the annual daily flow or, put another way, with 15% extra capacity than would
otherwise be provided. This ratio can be refined for large systems where several sources of
water or pumping stations may be used concurrently to supply the demand.
3.2 Route and elevation

In consideration of the route of a pipeline, a number of factors must be taken into account:
1. The hydraulic gradient along the pipeline;
2. Where there is space to lay a main and to subsequently maintain the pipeline;
3. Ground conditions;
4. Obstructions are other difficulties to be overcome both in the laying and continued
operation of the main, such as wadis;
5. Major road crossings;
6. Environmentally sensitive areas;
7. Safety of the PAEW staff in gaining access to the pipeline, and
8. The proximity of areas that could be serviced from the main.
9. Other existing or planned utilities (sewer, oil/gas pipelines, cables) should be taken
into consideration;
10. Roads easements standards should be considered.
Sometimes it will be necessary to consider alternative routes and also intermediate boosters to
re-lift the pressure.
Sometimes it is necessary to tunnel under obstacles with a relatively short section of smaller
diameter main. Directional boring of large diameter pipes can be a major cost and so reducing
the size of the main at such crossing points is often desirable. Often for security of supply such
crossings are duplicated. For example a 400mm main could cross a major road with 2 parallel
300mm diameter mains. If this action is taken, the twin bores should be suitably distanced apart
so that an incident to the first bore does not affect the second. The water carrier pipe should be
laid within a sleeve to enable a failed pipe to be readily removed and replaced. For the same
reason, two adjustable couplings with a connecting piece should be provided.
All crossings of major obstacles should be guarded by in-line valves either side of the obstacle.
All branches off a transmission and trunk mains should be metered, as required by the PAEW
Non-Revenue Water Manager, within the Planning and Asset Management Department.
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No service connection should be taken directly off a transmission or trunk main. A fault with the
connection may require the main to be shut down, with possible consequences on maintaining
supplies. If a connection is required, it should be taken from a tapping drilled into a blank flange
on a branch tee, “guarded” by a valve.
3.3 Desired pressure
The pressure within a pipeline is determined by the pressure at the start of the pipeline and at
the terminal point. Pressure at various points along the pipeline is shown on the hydraulic
gradient that must be prepared for all transmission or trunk mains during preliminary design at
the latest.
The hydraulic gradient can be used to determine the pressure rating of the pipe to be used.
It is important to ensure that:
1. Pipeline profile should go above the gradient line at any point;

2. The pipeline does not empty into a receiving reservoir due to the hydraulic
conditions at the end of the pipeline;
3. At no place must the pressure within the pipeline exceed the manufacturer’s
pressure rating for the pipe.
To avoid the above happening, a break pressure tank may be required, or an elaborate control
system installed at the terminal reservoir.
If branches are to be taken off the main under design, the adequacy of the pressure at the take-
off must be determined and, if necessary, a booster pump(s) or a pressure reducing valve
installed.
Normally the aim of the design is to transfer a desired flow down the main whilst achieving a
minimum pressure at the far end. This minimum pressure could be the top water level of a
service reservoir or water tower. The pressure could be a service level required to feed
properties or the desired suction pressure of a transfer pump at the end of the main being
designed.
3.4 Velocity
Normal design velocity is 1 m/s. This figure is the point at which particles in the main will be
picked up. This helps to ensure that the main is self-cleaning and reduces long term build up
inside the main.
A peak velocity as high as 2.5 m/s is possible but is seldom considered due to the high stresses
this can cause and high pressure loss than can be generated over short distances. A peak
velocity of 2 m/s is more common but will depend on pipe diameter (more acceptable for large
pipes than small diameters).
3.5 Surge
Surge is a specialist subject for which advice should be taken.
All transmission and trunk mains, pumped or gravity, should be evaluated for the risk of
excessive surge pressures developing. If required, anti-surge measures should be adopted and
necessary protection provided to the pipeline.
3.6 Valves
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Valves should be installed so that, where possible, all parts of the network can be controlled
without adversely affecting another part. As a minimum valve shall be installed:
 On all branch connections,
 On all branches from feeder mains,
 Between feeder pipes and hydrants;
 Not more than 2 valves at a tee,
 Preferably at a uniform distance from pipe intersections;
 Not more than 3 valves at a cross,
 Washouts at all valley points.
The frequency of in-line isolation valves should be determined for each pipeline and shall be
located strategically. A maximum spacing of line valves for transmission main should not
exceed 5km and 2 km for primary trunk mains and maximum 1 km for distribution lines.
The following types of valves are used in a water supply system:
 Isolating valves (Gate valves, butterfly valves);

 Non-return valves;
 Air release valves;
 Washout valves;
 Pressure regulating valves;
 Flow control valves.
Gate valves with flange joints shall be used on pipelines ≤ DN 400. For pipelines > DN 400
butterfly valves shall be used.
All valves must be located with due concern for the safety of the PAEW staff/contractor during
their operation.
Valves can be buried or installed in a chamber. The criteria for chambers are given in the
Design Guidelines for Transmission and distribution pipelines TET/DG/5005.
The chambers should be constructed to take the end thrust of the pipe against the closed valve.
Some in-line valves may be electrically operated and some provided with a by-pass
(systematically above DN 400).
3.7 Air valves
In order to prevent an air lock in the pipeline, an adequate number of suitably designed air
valves need to be incorporated into the pipeline design.
See TET/SS/5008 for technical specifications of air valves.
Air valve design is a special subject but generally air valves require to be located:
1. At high points on a pipeline;

2. Where the gradient of a pipeline significantly increases or decreases;
3. On pumping mains close to the outlet from a pumping station;
4. Between inline valves to allow for mains to be drained and re-charged.
3.8 Pipe materials
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Consideration needs to be given to the pipe material.
PAEW recommend the following:

 Distribution pipes
o HDPE up to 300 mm diameter (OD 110mm, 180mm and 225mm shall be
used);
o Ductile Iron above 300 mm diameter;
o And DI for special locations like road/wadi crossings.
 Transmission Lines
o Ductile Iron up to 600 mm diameter;
o Above 600 mm dia comparison should be made with MS pipes (generally
epoxy coated in and out or 3 layers PPE);
o In special cases like high pressure, small diameter pipes MS pipes may also
be used.
Pre-stressed Concrete, GRE and GRP are not in use yet.
3.9 Thrust blocks
Where a pipeline contains flexible joints, concrete thrust blocks must be designed and
constructed at all changes in pipe direction horizontal and vertical. The thrust block must be
capable of resisting the pipe test pressure; not the operating pressure which will be lower.
3.10 Energy considerations
Sometimes along long sections of trunk main it is necessary to re-lift the pressure.
For a pumping main, there is normally a choice between a large pipe diameter with a
corresponding low pumping head – a high CAPEX/low OPEX option - or a smaller pipe
diameter with a larger pumping requirement – a low CAPEX/high OPEX option.
In order to evaluate the options and determine the most suitable, a cost benefit analysis is
required considering both OPEX and CAPEX, over the whole life of the assets. The cost of the
booster maintenance, replacement and running costs should be considered.
Having a transfer booster mid-point along a transmission main can have a dramatic impact on
pressures along the length of the main. It is possible to use mains with lower pressure rating
and background leakage may also be reduced. Additionally future mains breaks should be
reduced as a result of operating at a lower average operating pressure along the length of the
main.
4. WATER QUALITY
Consideration to water age should be made at design stage. Increased residence may lead the
deterioration in water quality e.g. reduce chlorine content, taste ,odour and microbiological
growth.
Hydraulic modelling should be used to assess age and potential water quality impact.
Designing pipeline`s future growth should consider range of flows (retention time) over the life
time of the pipe e.g. initially residence time may be significant due to low demand.
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5. CONTROL PHILOSOPHY
There are numerous methods of controlling a transmission main:
Simple transmission main to a demand area
In this instance the demand from the customers determines how much water will flow down the
main. There is little control that can be used on such a system other than pressure control.
The main will have been sized to meet peak demand usage however at night demand is much
lower. Therefore the pressure loss across the main will be lower and the pressure on the main
and within the demand area will increase.
It is possible to install a pressure reducing valve at a point along the new main that will reduce
pressures at night to minimize leakage and burst rate.
In most PAEW systems, transmission main do not feed directly distribution zones.
Transmission main into storage
Within PAEW the water is generally not directly sent to distribution mains in demand areas.
Generally all the water reaches the storage service reservoir and is distributed by gravity.
In this case the normal method of control is to install a control valve on the inlet to the reservoir.
This can be controlled in three ways:
1. A valve – When water level in the reservoir falls below certain level the valve opens
automatically and allowing unrestricted flow into the reservoir. If the level exceeds an
upper control point the inlet valve shuts. This can be a Floating valve. However this
system is not desired as it often generate overflow if the valve is not closing properly. An
electrical valve controlled by the level in the reservoir is therefore preferred.
2. Flow Control – A modulating control valve on the inlet to the reservoir operates such that
a set flow is allowed into this reservoir. This control can be adjusted remotely from an
operational control room.
3. Pressure Sustaining Valve – A modulating control valve on the inlet to the reservoir that
maintains a set pressure upstream on the transmission main. This form of control is
most common where there is a high point on the transmission main that prevents
unrestricted flow from going into the reservoir. A PSV will ensure that positive pressure
always exists on the transmission main.
Transmission main to the suction of a booster
This can occur if there is a high point at the end of the transmission route which requires a
booster to lift the water or if the transmission main is of such a long length that a simple
transmission system with realistic mains diameters is not possible.
It is possible that an economic assessment of mains capacity vs. boosting energy indicates that
this is the preferred solution.
The size of the transmission main will influence the suction and delivery at the transfer booster.
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It is possible to combine all these elements and controls to ensure that it is possible to transfer a
given amount of water along any feasible construction route.
6. SECURITY OF SUPPLY – RISK MANAGEMENT
See also the Emergency Response Manual.
Wherever possible, risk should be designed out of the water supply system.
Reservoir provides adequate security of supply to a network allowing enough time for a
transmission repair to take place, or a treatment works failure rectified. All supply areas should
have a minimum of 48 hours storage located after the transmission system and as close as
possible to the area of supply.
Whenever possible and providing a significant risk reduction effect compared with additional
costs the design of the system will take into account the following considerations:
 Alternative supply routes;
 Limiting repair time through the use of standard pipe diameters and adequate provision
of inline valves and corresponding fittings (washout and air valves);
 Parallel pipes or ring main arrangements.
15/15
Design Guidelines TET/DG/5002
Date: 14/05/2015
WELLS AND ACCESSORIES Issue: 1.1
1.0 03/12/12 First Issue
1.1 14/05/15 Few typo errors corrected
Contents
1. GENERAL .................................................................................................................................................... 2
2. WATER SOURCES .................................................................................................................................... 2
3. GROUNDWATER IDENTIFICATION ..................................................................................................... 2
3.1 Hydrogeology ........................................................................................................................................... 2
3.2 Surface Geophysics .................................................................................................................................. 3
3.3 Subsurface Geophysics ............................................................................................................................ 3
3.4 Well site location ...................................................................................................................................... 3
3.4.1 Desk study ................................................................................................................................................ 3
3.4.2 Site survey ................................................................................................................................................ 4
4. WELL DRILLING ....................................................................................................................................... 6
4.1 Drilling Techniques .................................................................................................................................. 6
4.2 Drilling Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 6
4.2.1 Core Drilling for Surface Casing ............................................................................................................. 6
4.2.2 Installation of Surface Casing and Concrete Protection.......................................................................... 6
4.2.3 Well Core Drilling .................................................................................................................................... 6
5. WELL CASING AND SCREEN ................................................................................................................. 7
5.1 Physical and Chemical Qualities of Casing and Screen Materials ........................................................ 7
5.1.1 Physical..................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.1.2 Chemical ................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.1.3 Joints ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.1.4 Screen ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
5.1.5 Dip Tube ................................................................................................................................................... 9
5.1.6 Gravel Pack .............................................................................................................................................. 9
6. WELL DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................................... 11
7. PUMPING TEST ........................................................................................................................................ 11
7.1 Step-Drawdwn Test ................................................................................................................................ 11
7.2 Constant Discharge Test ........................................................................................................................ 13
8. GENERAL PROTOCOL TO MAINTAIN DURING MONITORING PUMP TESTS .......................... 13
9. METHODS TO MEASURE DISCHARGE .............................................................................................. 14
10. DTH VIDEO LOGGING ....................................................................................................................... 15
11. WELL HEAD FACILITIES .................................................................................................................. 15
12. WELL DISINFECTION ........................................................................................................................ 15
13. WELL HEAD PLATFORM AND ACCESSORIES ............................................................................ 16
14. PUMPING SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................. 16
15. WELL COMPLETION REPORT ......................................................................................................... 17
16. REGULATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE GROUND WATER ......................................... 17
Attached to: TET/PRO/5002 1/18

Sultanate of Oman, Public Authority for Electricity and Water
Date: 14/05/2015
1. GENERAL
This document in general, is a Guideline detailing the standards and specifications that are
recommended to be followed for ''Bore Well Drilling'' in the works related to Public Authority for
Electricity and Water.
This document includes overall information, criteria and practices for construction of wells in
different aquifers (formations).
2. WATER SOURCES
Though ground water is one of the major sources of water in Sultanate of Oman, due to the
poor quality and quantity of available ground water in certain areas, sea water desalination is
carried out to meet the potable demands of the citizens. But as a reserve, ground water is used
as and when needed on emergencies and hence this exercises to standardise the abstraction
techniques of the ground water.
Ground water is abstracted by the following conventional techniques:
a. Open Wells
b. Bore Wells
Of the above, Open wells are not much suitable for bulk abstraction due to the limitation in
depth. Instead, deep drilled Bore wells are widely used by Water Supply Agencies and hence
this document focuses mainly on the Bore Well construction and its related Techniques.
3. GROUNDWATER IDENTIFICATION
Be it open well or bore well, the well location is a prime factor which would very much influence
the performance of the well. Selection of the aquifer/well location depends upon the following
aspects:
1. Hydrogeology
2. Surface Geophysics
3. Subsurface Geophysics
3.1 Hydrogeology
In groundwater resource identification, the objective is to locate deposits of ''water bearing sub-
strata'' with relatively high permeability. Such a water bearing sub-strata is called ''aquifer''. The
potential of an aquifer is mainly determined by:
 its geometry - extent , thickness etc.,

 its hydrodynamic characteristics - transmissivity, stored volume of water
 its influencing boundaries - presence of surface water bodies (rivers, lakes, wadi
courses) or tight boundaries (rock, clay as per existing geological setup)
 proximity of sea-line
 its natural recharge - effective rainfall, extent of the catchment area.

Date: 14/05/2015
In order to classify them as potential aquifers such deposits should meet the following
requirements.
 Occurrence in sufficient thickness

 Enough areal extent to provide large storage volumes
 Enough annual recharge ( rains )
A thorough analysis of the underground stratification, buried topography, inflow and outflow,
rainfall, evaporation etc. of the related area needs to be carried out to determine the quality and
quantity of water that can be abstracted for a considerably a long time from any aquifer. The
performance and the available data from the nearby wells in operation could also provide
information on the aquifer under study.
3.2 Surface Geophysics
Surface Geophysical surveys are of major importance to assess the status of underlying water
aquifer. The survey is carried out on the ground surface prior to reconnaissance drilling in order
to define areas with greatest potential and to find the best locations for water abstraction. Two
types of geophysical surveys are widely in use:
 Electric Resistivity Method.

 Electromagnetic methods.
3.3 Subsurface Geophysics
Subsurface Geophysics study requires drilling of Pilot Bore hole to conduct certain studies at
the depths of the aquifer. This operation consists of running special probes upward/downward
in the borehole in order to identify water bearing strata. A 100 mm reconnaissance borehole
down to the bedrock is drilled to make sure the entire thickness of the aquifer and its
characteristics. Two types of Subsurface geophysical surveys are widely in use :
 Electric logging – this is good for locating shallow aquifers.

 Gamma-ray logging – good for hard strata
From the borehole observation the geological strata, ground permeability and water salinity can
be assessed. Figure No: 1 shows samples of boring logs.
3.4 Well site location
With the acquired data and information from the above, the suitable well location shall be
identified following the sequences of activities as below:
3.4.1 Desk study

 Geological data and information,
 Topographic maps and aerial photography,
 Surface and Sub-surface geophysics,
 Existing data on wells and or boreholes (borehole logs),
 Existing data on down-hole geophysics and pumping tests,
 Hydro-geological information (groundwater levels and piezometric maps),
 Groundwater quality data (chemistry and salinity contours).

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3.4.2 Site survey

 Accessibility of drilling rigs,
 Geotechnical and geological features,
 Co-ordination with authorities (right-of-way, ownership, other users, etc)
Anyhow, in the Sultanate, most of these exercises are done by Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources and the final recommendation on the well location and the
depth to drill are provided along with the ''Well Drilling Permit'' which is mandatory before
commencing the works.

Date: 14/05/2015
Fig 1. Drilling
Logs

Date: 14/05/2015
4. WELL DRILLING
As a general rule, after finalising the well location and the parameters, the production bore well
shall be drilled around 50 m away from the pilot bore well to avoid interferences. The choice of
method of drilling depends primarily upon the geological strata and the depth to drill.
4.1 Drilling Techniques
Following are the Drilling Techniques that are commonly used :
1. Rotary Percussion drilling used for aquifers with consolidated hard strata such as
limestone, sandstone, plutonic or volcanic rocks. This technique would involve using
foam to remove the drill cut materials.
2. Rotary drilling adapted to drill through unconsolidated loose strata. This technique
would involve using ''Bentonite'' mud to stabilize the loose wall while drilling and to flush
out the drill cut materials.
3. Percussion Drilling with bailer is suitable for both but not used generally by PAEW.
4.2 Drilling Procedure
Drilling Procedure in general includes the following steps :
1. Core Drilling for Surface Casing

2. Installation of Surface Casing and Concrete Protection
3. Well Core Drilling to the designed depth
4. Installation of Casing and Screen
5. Installation of Dip Tube
6. Gravel Pack Surround and installing centralisers
7. Well Development
8. Pumping Test
9. Well Disinfection and Flushing
10. Chemical and Bacterial water Analysis
11. Well Head Platform Construction
4.2.1 Core Drilling for Surface Casing

For all the wells, Core Drilling for Surface casing shall be 16 to 18 inch diameter drilling to a
minimum depth of 6 m to accommodate the Surface casing.
4.2.2 Installation of Surface Casing and Concrete Protection

Material of surface casing shall be Mild Steel, Stainless Steel or HDPE as per the design. This
casing shall be concreted to the full depth to give stability to the well and as well as to act as a
seal against sub-surface pollution. The exposed head shall have a concrete base of a minimum
of one Square meter.
4.2.3 Well Core Drilling

Well core drilling shall be in accordance with the finished diameter of the bore well.
For the finished bore well diameter of 6 inch (150 mm) the drilling shall be 225 mm.
For the finished bore well diameter of 8 inch (200 mm) the drilling shall be 325 mm.

Date: 14/05/2015
This shall be to the full depth of the bore well.

Suitable Technique of drilling based on the strata shall be followed – either hard rock or loose
strata and corresponding techniques shall be followed. Compressed air foam lift shall be used
for removing the cut bits and in case of un-consolidated strata 'Bentonite Mud Clay' shall be
used to stabilise the wall.
Following data shall be recorded as a must while carrying out drilling operation to the full depth:
 Time of start and stop of each session

 Depth of start and stop at each session
 Rate of penetration
 Soil samples at every meter – collected, numbered and bagged
 Depth at which water strikes
 Water sampling and analysis at every meter after water strike – pH and EC
 Rate of water flow measured through 'V' Notch at every 5 minutes or as required
At this stage, with the available data on quality and quantity of water the suitability of the well to
continue further shall be decided. If found suitable further steps in well construction shall be
continued or else in the unfortunate event of poor quality and or poor yield the well construction
shall be discontinued and filled back as instructed by the Site Engineer.
5. WELL CASING AND SCREEN
Well casing and screen go together in a well construction. Well casing is basically a solid
impermeable lining for the drilled hole to act as a wall to maintain the open hole from collapsing.
The material of the casing shall be as per the design and the commonly used are Mild Steel,
Stainless Steel (type 304, 316, duplex), High Density uPVC etc., In certain hard rock formation
well is left without casing but it is preferable to have well casing. This casing shall run through
the entire depth of the well excepting for the places of the screen.
Well Screen shall be made of similar material as the casing but shall have permeability in the
form of slots to allow water from the aquifer to enter into the well chamber with a minimum of
resistance and without letting the passage of sand during pumping. Casing and Screen shall
run through the entire well depth alternatively or in sections as per the well design based on
water bearing strata.
5.1 Physical and Chemical Qualities of Casing and Screen Materials
5.1.1 Physical
 Material should be in compliance with International Standard Specifications
 Shall have greater strength to weight ratio
 Uniform wall thickness
 Uniform ND and OD
 Shall be straight without buckling and bending
 Shall be unruffled with the inner and outer diameter
 Shall with-stand a maximum ambient temperature of 80 deg C
 Shall have homogeneous texture and have smooth finish in and out to avoid hydraulic
friction
 Shall be Fire Resistant

Date: 14/05/2015
 Shall Stand against Abrasion, Erosion Pitting and Encrustation

 Should be bad conductor of Electricity in case of HD uPVC
 Immune to Galvanic and Electrolytic erosion
 Good in Hardness
 Good in Compression Strength
 Good in Tensile Strength preferably 500 (+/-) 50 Kg/cm2
 Specific Gravity preferably around 1.4 in case of HD uPVC
 Linear Expansion around 0.05 mm/m at 0 oC in case of HD uPVC
 Impact Strength preferably 7 ksc in case of HD uPVC
5.1.2 Chemical
 Withstand pH range 2-12
 Chemically Resistant
 Acid and Alkali Resistant
 Oil and Fat Resistant
 Anti Bacterial
5.1.3 Joints
Casing and Screen shall have threaded joints preferably with ''Trapezoidal'' threads as per BS
Standards. Joint length shall be a minimum of 200 mm.
5.1.4 Screen
Selection of Screen depends upon the ground strata, soil type, grain size, available water
quantity, rate of abstraction etc., Salient Parameters of Screen Slots:
 Screen slots shall be commensurate with rate of abstraction of water

 Combined slot area should not exceed 60% of the total surface area of the pipe surface.
 At any horizontal layer along the circumference, slots should not exceed 60%
 Slot size shall be such that the flow through velocity does not exceed ( 0.1 fps) or
should be in the range 1 – 6 cm/sec.
 ‘‘Ribbed Screens" shall be preferred.
 In case of ''perforated-slot screens'' opening area shall be 10 - 12 %
 In case of ''continuous slot wire wound screens'' opening area shall be 30-50 %
Pictures for reference are as below :
rounded slots vertical slots bridged slots wire-wound PVC screen with
slots horizontal slots

Date: 14/05/2015
The installed Casing and Screen shall be straight and truly vertical in status and any deviated
casing shall result in disapproval of the well.
Open Area of Slotted Screens
Slot Type Bridge Slot Slotted Plastic Continuous Slot
Diameter
Slot Size
8'' 10'' 12'' 8'' 10'' 12'' 8'' 10'' 12''
Slot No. MM
20 0.5 4 18 18 14
30 0.8 3 2 3 8 6 25 25 16
40 1.0 8 8 30 30 21
50 1.3 10 35 35 24
60 1.5 6 5 6 14 11 11 41 33 28
90 2.3 48 43 37
100 2.5 21 16 16 52 46 39
125 3.2 13 12 13 51 51 45
5.1.5 Dip Tube

A ''Dip Tube'' to the full depth of the well along the outer side of the main casing shall be
installed to facilitate the water level measurements ( SWL and RWL )without interfering with the
pump riser pipe and the power and sensor cables. This tube shall be of 25mm ID HD uPVC
solvent jointed and shall have perforations at equal intervals – preferably 2 Nos. 6 mm holes at
1 m c/c all along - to allow water raise through the tube. It is preferable to have this dip tube tied
along with the casing while lowering the same.
5.1.6 Gravel Pack
Gravel pack around the casing and screen is necessary in all cased wells. It shall be of broken
stone – preferably rounded - of nominal size 25 mm. Not lesser than that and not greater than
that. To have optimum performance of the well the gravel pack shall not be lesser than 75 mm
thick around the casing and screen.
Gravel shall be homogenously filled along and around the casing/screen. Packing shall be from
the bottom to the top without any gaps. Verticality of the casing and screen should be
maintained and ensured all along while gravel packing. While doing the gravel packing ''Well
Centralizer Rings'' shall be installed at a minimum of 10 m centre to centre or as frequently as
it may be required for the full depth of the well to maintain the verticality of the well. Top of the
gravel pack shall be concrete sealed at the level of surface casing.
A finished cross section Well shall have the following features as shown in the Sketch below:

Date: 14/05/2015
Typical cross section of a completed bore well
Commonly used diameters are:
Surface casing : 16”/400 mm

: 20”/500 mm
Casing / screen : 8” / 200 mm

: 10” / 250 mm
: 12” / 300 mm
Observation wells : 4” / 100 mm

6” / 150 mm

Date: 14/05/2015
6. WELL DEVELOPMENT
After installation of the casing, screen, gravel pack, centralisers and dip tube, the well shall be
developed in order to:
 improve the productivity

 get rid of the drilling fluid and fine particles that may have remained in the well
 adjust the level of gravel if necessary
 provide clear water with no suspended solids or turbidity.
Preferred methods of development shall be :
 air-lifting
 pumping from low to high discharge rate (over pumping)
 pumping by steps
 jetting and swabbing
 Chemical cleaning - adding acids, polyphosphates
 air-flushing -injecting pressurized air in to the well
Two main parameters shall be monitored to assess the efficiency of the well development:
 solid content (sand particles),

 specific capacity (i.e. comparison of drawdown at constant pumping rate before/after
development) .
Upon completion of well development, pumping tests shall be can be carried out to assess the
recommended yield of the well.
7. PUMPING TEST
Pumping tests are usually performed once the well is completed and properly developed so as
to get a clear concept of how the well would behave and it's performance and efficiency. It also
helps in arriving at the recommended pumping rate and pumping pattern of the well.
Two types of Pumping Tests which are in vogue and shall be used:
 Step-Drawdown Test
 Constant Discharge Test
7.1 Step-Drawdwn Test
A step draw-down test shall involve pumping at different steps - a minimum of 3 steps - for a
duration of 60 to 120 minutes each. It shall be performed at increasing discharge rates as
detailed in the following indicative sketch. Before commencing the test it is mandatory to
observe and record the Static Water Level with reference to a fixed datum and with date and
time stamp. The same reference point shall be used in all the tests at any time.

Date: 14/05/2015
Concept of Step-Drawdown Test:
Temperature, Electrical Conductivity, Salinity and pH of the water shall be measured and
recorded during each step with time stamps
The ''Critical Flow Rate'' is defined as that particular pumping rate beyond which the turbulent
flow tends to increase the drawdown of the well in a geometric progression.
All the findings and observations of the tests shall be clearly recorded figuratively and
graphically for future reference and as a permanent history record of the well. These data shall
be stored in hard copy and as well as in soft copies.
After completion of step draw-down test enough time shall be allowed for the well to regain its
original status before starting subsequent test. and prior to starting the constant discharge test

Date: 14/05/2015
the water level must be allowed to return to its original level which is recorded prior to
commencing of the Step Drawdown Test.
7.2 Constant Discharge Test
This test will enable determine the ''Hydrodynamic characteristics'' of the aquifer in general and
well in specific.
During the test pumping rate shall be kept constant. The rate at which Constant Discharge Test
needs to be conducted shall be arrived at from the observed data from the Step-Drawdown test
conducted earlier. The constant discharge test must be continued without any interruption for a
minimum of 72 hours – draw down permitting.
Dynamic water levels/groundwater levels, Temperature, Electrical Conductivity, Salinity and pH

of the water must be measured at pre-fixed intervals and recorded with date and time stamping
during the pumping test.
The recovery must be measured at pre-fixed smaller frequencies for at least 12 hours as soon
as the pump stops and at the same time intervals as when pumping.
8. GENERAL PROTOCOL TO MAINTAIN DURING MONITORING PUMP TESTS
 The water level must be taken with an accuracy of a centimetre from a fixed reference
point whose reduced level is known.
 Water levels shall be measured before pumping starts - Static Water Level - SWL
 Water levels shall be measured during pumping - Dynamic Water Level - DWL,
according to the following frequency :
Elapsed time since the beginning of pumping or

Frequency of measurement
recovery
From 0 to 15 min 1 min
From 1 to 2 h 15 min
From 2 to 4 h 30 min
From 4 to 8 h 1h
>8h 2h

Date: 14/05/2015
9. METHODS TO MEASURE DISCHARGE
Following methods are widely in use for measuring the discharge rate while performing a
pumping test.
 Mechanical water meter

 Electromagnetic flow meter
 Ninety degree V-notch weir
Though V notch measurements have been widely used earlier, the most common used
methods nowadays are mechanical flow meters and electromagnetic flow meters.
Items 1 and 2 are direct reading equipments and the measurement of flow in a 'V-notch' is done
as below.
For flow measurements a 900 V-notch shall be used
Calculate the discharge 'Q' in terms of m3/s
H = head in m.

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10. DTH VIDEO LOGGING
Down The Hole Video logging shall be carried out to confirm interior of the well. This operation
allows to check if the inner structure of the well is in conformation to the design and
expectations. Problems like bad position of the screen, deformation of the structure, or
defective screwing, premature clogging or sanding can be detected at this stage. Very
importantly verticality of the well can be confirmed.
11. WELL HEAD FACILITIES
Concrete Well head shall be constructed to prevent polluting intrusions from the surface in to
the well. The different elements constituting a typical well head shall be as below:
See also standard drawing of typical Bore well Details TET/SD/5001
12. WELL DISINFECTION
The most commonly used disinfectants are Sodium hypochlorite and Calcium hypochlorite.
The outline disinfection procedure shall be carried out as described briefly below:
 Calculate the volumes
 Add chlorine + contact time
 Check residual of chlorine
 Flush and take sample

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13. WELL HEAD PLATFORM AND ACCESSORIES
The Well head platform and the fencing/compound protection shall be as below:
 The plot limits of the well site shall be at least 10 m x 10 m for 150 mm dia wells and
15m x 15 m for 200 mm and above dia wells
 Concrete slab 150 mm thick around the well casing over a minimum surface of 5 m²
with a 45 degree slope with a platform height of 100 cm above ground level
 Top of casing extending 30 cm above finished well platform level with drilled flanged
end.
 Cover designed to prevent all kind of intrusion into the well
 Lockable Fencing/Compound to prevent unauthorised access and equipped with a
proper security device.
 A PVC coated chain linked fence of 2000 mm high with 3’’ GI tubes shall be installed
with fence holding concrete base of 400 mm deep all around (200 mm above and 200
mm below ground) with a width of 200 mm
 Fence top shall have a single armed barbed wire
 A Block work compound wall with similar dimensions and safety features
 Around the wall water weep holes of 2 inch PVC pipe at 3 meter intervals shall be
provided
 In case of compound wall a grilled window shall be provided near the well head to
facilitate crane operation during maintenance works.
 Well head platform shall be placed towards one side of the fence/compound to facilitate
crane operation during maintenance works.
14. PUMPING SYSTEM
After calculating the Specific yield of the well from pumping tests, pump and control system can
be designed. In Oman submersible pumps are mostly in use. Submersible pumps are quicker
and easier to install and are more efficient for deep wells as mechanical losses are limited.
The Pumping System in general shall consist of the following appurtenances.
 Upstream Single Air Valve

 Upstream Pressure Gauge
 Wash-out System
 Strainer
 Downstream Pressure gauge
 Flow meter
 Non-return valve,
 Downstream Double Air valve,
 Gate valves in appropriate locations
 Pressure Gauge with Cut-off Switch
 Water Sampling Point
The standard installation of well pumping installation is given in the standard drawings.

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15. WELL COMPLETION REPORT
In general the Well Completion Report Shall have the following Documents in detail.
 Krookie ( Land Sketch )

 Mulkiya ( Land Ownership)
 Well drilling Permit (Given by Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources )
 Drill Logs
 Soil Samples
 Well Development Documents
 Lithology - Report
 Lithology - Graphics
 Pump Test Observations and Recordings
 Pump Test Interpretations
 Recommended Yield and Pumping Pattern
 DTH Video Logging – Report and Softcopy
 Water Quality Analysis Report – Chemical Analysis
 Water Quality Analysis Report – Bacteriological Analysis
 Well Location Map with Grid Reference
 Recommended Maintenance Schedule
 Work Photographs.
16. REGULATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE GROUND WATER
In the Sultanate of Oman water resources are limited and groundwater resources are subject to
over exploitation due to growing needs. The protection of the ground water became a major
stake.
In 2000, Water Wealth Protection Law was issued by the Royal Decree no 29/2000 (replaced
the Royal Decree No 82/88) which declares water resources to be part of the national wealth
and contains a specific article dealing with protection of groundwater resources.
Furthermore, the law on Conservation of the Environment and Prevention of Pollution is the key
law on environmental protection and the prevention of pollution in Oman issued by the Royal
Decree No 114/2001 (replaced the original Royal Decree No 10/82).
The pollution protection of the wellfields is under the responsibility of the Ministry of
Environment and Climate Affairs (MECA).
The law on Protection of sources of potable water from pollution is issued by the Royal Decree
No 115/2001 which addresses the protection of drinking water resources from pollution and
empowers the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs (MECA) to identify drinking water
protection zones. Activities likely to pollute drinking water will be prohibited in these zones.
The overall objectives of wellfield protection are to safeguard and protect the existing
groundwater reservoir against over extraction, pollution, and to prohibit and eliminate
unauthorised land and water uses that might adversely affect the wellfield.
Wellfield Protection Zones are designated by the Ministerial Decisions. Initially three Ministerial
Decisions were published in 1988/89. These regulations were modified, updated and amended
in 2003.

Date: 14/05/2015
The well fields are drilled and operated by the Public Authority of Electricity and Water (PAEW).
The list of Ministerial Decisions for wellfield protection zones are following:
Ministerial Decision name Ministerial Decision No. Issued date

Ad Dakhliyah region MD 191/2001 16/06/2001
Adh Dhahirah region MD 192/2001 16/06/2001
Al Batinah region MD 193/2001 16/06/2001
Ash Sharqiyah region MD 194/2001 16/06/2001
Al Wusta region MD 195/2001 16/06/2001
Dhofar Governorate MD 196/2001 16/06/2001
Musandam Governorate MD 197/2001 16/06/2001
Addition to Salalah wellfield MD 308/2001 14/11/2001
to MD 196/2001
Muscat Governorate MD 309/2001 14/11/2001
Addition of Wadi Al Batha MD 230/2005 24/09/2005
wellfield to MD 194/2001

Date: 14/05/2015
DESALINATION BY REVERSE OSMOSIS Issue: 1.2
1.1 03/12/12 The word ‘’ REVERSE’’ added in the title of the document
1.2 14/05/15 Few typo errors corrected
Contents
1. GENERAL.................................................................................................................................................. 2
1.1 Principle of Reverse Osmosis ............................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Field of application ............................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Different Stages in RO Treatment System … ....................................................................................... 5
2. RAW WATER SOURCE AND QUALITIES ............................................................................................ 6
3. PRE-TREATMENT DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 7
3.1 Pre-treatment performance .................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Pre-treatment processes ......................................................................................................................... 7
3.3 Chemical conditioning before RO ......................................................................................................... 8
4. RO STAGE DESIGN ............................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 General lay-out .................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Main process parameters ..................................................................................................................... 11
4.3 Energy recovery device ....................................................................................................................... 13
4.4 Cleaning in place (CIP) ....................................................................................................................... 14
5. POST TREATMENT DESIGN ................................................................................................................ 14
5.1 Final disinfection................................................................................................................................. 14
5.2 Remineralisation and Correction of pH............................................................................................... 15
6. CHEMICALS HANDLING, STORAGE, PREPARATION AND DOSING .......................................... 16
6.1 Chemical waste disposal ..................................................................................................................... 17
7. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL ............................................................................................... 17

Date: 14/05/2015
1. GENERAL
1.1 Principle of Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis is a natural process involving fluid flows across a semipermeable membrane barrier. It
is selective in the sense that the solvent passes through the membrane at a faster rate than the
dissolved solid. When two solutions with different concentrations of dissolved salts are
separated by a semi permeable membrane, a flow of solvent from the less concentrated
compartment to the other one occurs, tending to balance the concentration gap. This flow
creates a differential pressure between the two compartments, called “osmotic pressure” –
which depends mainly on the salinity gradient and on the temperature (for a given type of
membrane).
If a pressure higher than that of the osmotic pressure is applied on the compartment filled with
the saline (high TDS) solution, the direction of the flow of solvent will change: solvent (pure
water) will flow from the high TDS compartment to the low TDS side . This phenomenon is
called “reverse osmosis” and may be used to produce soft water from salty water.
The following sketches illustrates the reverse osmosis process:
Note : Horizontal arrow lines show the direction of solvent molecules flow
Net applied in the Reverse Osmosis shall be higher than the normal Osmotic Pressure.
From a pure hydraulic point of view, a reverse osmosis is similar to a tangential filtration: a flow
of pressurized feed water is divided into a part of permeate (recovered on the other side of the
membrane, at low pressure) and a part of concentrate (flowing out of the system from the same
side of the membrane, as the feed water, and still at high pressure).
Key operating criteria to Reverse Osmosis are:
 The recovery rate: ratio between permeate and feed water.

 The actual working pressure – which must be higher than the osmotic pressure of the
concentrate and much higher to squeeze the water molecules through membrane pores

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 The flux through the membrane: flow of water through the membrane, expressed in
cubic meter per square meter of membrane per hour. ( m3/m2/hour or m/h)
 The salt rejection: is a measure of salt or TDS that is rejected by the membrane (not
allowed to go with the permeate) and is expressed in terms of percentage:
% Rejection = (( Feed TDS – Product TDS )/Feed TDS)) x 100
For a given salinity:
 The higher the feed pressure, the higher will be the recovery rate.
 The higher the temperature, the lower will be the osmotic pressure.
 The higher the temperature, the lower will be the salt rejection rate.
 The higher the flux, the higher will be the salt rejection at constant temperature.
There are numerous types of membranes available in the market differentiated by the material
composition. These all have different properties.
1.2 Field of application
RO plants are meant to produce potable quality water either from sea or brackish water.
It is a reliable process, suitable for a wide range of production capacities, well adapted to
modular design; it can be supplied in containerised skids and quickly.
Main aspect of RO plant design depends upon:
 Raw water quality and variability.

 Performances and reliability of the pre-treatment.
Distillation process can cope with significant variations in raw water quality without major
operational issues. But the RO membranes are sensitive to water quality parameters, for which
excess values may affect the performances of the treatment or even damage the membranes.
The design of the pre-treatment is therefore the most critical part of a RO plant design.
Membrane failures or bad performances result from a lack of accurate knowledge of the raw
water quality and poor or inappropriate design of the pre-treatment.
The RO performance and energy consumption are directly linked to the salinity of the feed
water. Lower salinity levels require less energy than high salinity levels i.e. brackish water is
more energy efficient per cubic meter of potable water production than sea water.
The ''rate of permeate recovery is an important parameter’’ in an economical system design

and the efficient functioning of the system depends further on the following parameters:
 Energy consumption
 Feed Water consumption
 Concentrate disposal
 Permeate salinity and
 Consumption of chemicals.

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Problems which arise in the Reverse Osmosis manifest themselves in two ways:
 Reduction in water flux (production);

 Reduction in salt rejection (permeate high salinity).
The three main causes are:
1. Compaction;
2. Degradation;
3. Fouling/ Scaling.
For Reverse osmosis system sizing:
 Select system parameters resulting in the most cost effective design and economical
operation.
 Select the design which will produce the required quantity and quality of permeate at
the highest possible recovery rate.
Parameters affecting the Reverse Osmosis system sizing are:
 Permeate recovery rate;

 Flux rate;
 Feed pressure;
 Numbers of membrane elements;
 Arrays.

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1.3 Different Stages in RO Treatment System …
A reverse osmosis water treatment plant typically consists of five major process stages as
below :
1. pre-treatment,
2. pressurization,
3. membrane filtration,
4. disinfection
5. remineralisation and pH correction.
Pre-treatment:
The incoming feed water is pre-treated to be compatible with the membranes by removing
suspended solids, adjusting the pH, pre-chlorination, De-chlorination and adding a threshold
inhibitor to control scaling resulting from precipitation of various salts (calcium sulfate, barium
sulfate, calcium carbonate).
Pressurization:
The high-pressure pump raises the pressure of the pre-treated feed water to an operating
pressure appropriate for the membrane and the salinity of the feed water (in practice, this
pressure is higher than the osmotic pressure). The pressurization system may also include the
energy recovery device - transferring the energy from the brine concentrate to the feed water.
Filtration :
Two types of membranes are currently used for RO Systems.
1. Spiral wound and

2. Hollow fine fiber membranes.
They are generally made of cellulose acetate, aromatic polyamides, or thin film polymer
composites. Both types are used for brackish water and seawater desalination,
although the specific membrane and the construction of the pressure vessel vary
according to the different operating pressures used for the two types of feed water and
the product water quality requirement.
Outlet of permeate
Feed water inlet
Outlet of reject
Figure 1: spiral wound membrane

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Disinfection: Although RO removes (x log) bacteria, viruses and other pathogens if it is

working correctly, the water is still disinfected as a precaution to membrane failure and other
contamination sources and to provide a free residual chlorine during storage, transmission and
distribution.
Remineralisation and pH correction: The disinfected permeate requires remineralisation and

pH correction with the aim of producing a stable water (one which is non-corrosive to materials
in the water supply system i.e. metal and concrete). Remineralisation may be accomplished by
blending with high mineral content water (typically less than 3% of feed water) followed by
disinfection. pH correction is always the last stage after disinfection and prior to final water
storage or distribution.
2. RAW WATER SOURCE AND QUALITIES
There are basically three types of raw water used for drinking water production through RO in
Oman:
 Ground water (brackish Water)

 Sea water from beach wells
 Sea water from direct intake
Note - TDS can range from 2000 to 45 000 mg/l in the above waters influenced by either costal
salinity or local geology.
For the design of a RO plant, it is of high importance to have an accurate knowledge of raw
water quality and its variability. Full water quality analysis should be done for the following:
 Microbiological parameters
 Physical parameters
 Organic and inorganic parameters
 Ionic balance
For design considerations, percentiles are typically used and depends on the water quality data
set. Now in Oman particular attention must be given to new sources as geology has a
significant impact in certain areas.
In addition to the water quality data an environmental / catchment survey should be carried out
to identify all potential point and non-point, pollution sources .Mitigation of these issues should
be included in the proposed design. Earlier experience has shown that use of beach wells
provides significant protection against marine algae blooms (red or green tide), jelly fish. The
use of water safety plan methodology should be followed.

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3. PRE-TREATMENT DESIGN
3.1 Pre-treatment performance
Typical feed water quality after pre-treatment should be within the following ranges:
 SDI < 3
 Organic matter < 1 mg/L
 Turbidity < 0.2 NTU in average, and always less than 0.5 NTU.
3.2 Pre-treatment processes
The design of the pre-treatment depends on the source or raw water characteristics and
variability.
A Water Safety Plan study for identifying the risks & mitigation should be carried out when
selecting the preferred option to ensure whether any loss of production capacity is acceptable.
Cost benefits of the various options may also be studied:
Option 1 - For good quality sea water, with open intake:
The basic treatment process stages may include:
 Screening;
 Continuous / Shock pre-chlorination (to avoid bio fouling). Please note continuous
chlorination is discouraged other than in MSF;
 Flash mixing and coagulation with ferric chloride;
 First stage dual media (sand and anthracite) filtration;
 Second stage dual media filtration.
The two stages of filtration may be replaced by Micro Filtration or Ultra Filtration; coagulation is
always necessary.
Typical Standard design parameters are:
 Retention time in flash mixing coagulation tank: minimum 60 seconds

 Hydraulic loading on dual media filters: less than 8 m/h – with one filter being
backwashed.
Option 2 - For sea water, with open intake, subject to green or red tides:
If algae blooms present a risk to production (as is the case of the coasts of Oman
occasionally), dissolved air floatation facility may be included before the filtration stage as it is
easier to ‘float’ algae than to settle flocs and particulates ( as opposed to option 1).
Option 3 – Deep sea intake:
This option starts to mitigate the impact of algae, oils, jelly fish etc., as raw water would typically
be drawn from a depth at which impact would be marginal. Care must be taken on depth, a
figure of 10 to 15 meters (draw off 2 to 5 meters above sea bed) at low tide may be a safe
depth at which Algal blooms will not affect the intake. It must be noted that at the end of a

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bloom, the dead algae (or mass jelly fish death) may present an issue if they accumulate of the
sea bed around an intake structure. Environmental considerations and law may prevent this
option.
Option 4 - For sea water from submerged sea wells or beach wells and (brackish)
ground water:
The raw water coming from submerged sea wells, beach wells and brackish ground water may
mitigate many risks and provide a more secure raw water supply from both a quality & quantity
perspective. Environmental constraints may present limitations. Submerged sea wells, although
not currently in practice in Oman, may be a possible option.
For these options pre-treatment requirements may be much simpler compared to other intake
systems . A simple mechanical filtration with MMF may be enough to reach the required SDI
(< 3) for the RO feed. Best practice is to include a single or multimedia filtration to protect the
membranes.
Hydrogen Sulphide is sometimes present in well water (costal or other locations), or even in
sea water, with much decomposing weed in it, if it becomes oxidized it can produce colloidal
sulphur, which can have disastrous effect on membranes.
H2S may be dealt by one or two methods; the feed can be degassed, and then treated with
chlorine, if the feed is hard it may require acid dosing before the degasser.
In many locations odour control is used to get rid of the gas by air strippers, typical techniques
included counter current scrubbing with sodium hypochlorite or caustic soda.
Origin of water Basic Solution Alternative solution
Sea water – Open intake Chemical Coagulation + Chemical Coagulation + UF /

MF
Without red tide MMF
Sea water - Open intake Chemical Coagulation Chemical Coagulation

+
With red tides DAF + MMF DAF + UF / MF
Sea water from deep sea, Chemical Coagulation Mechanical filters

beach wells and ground water +
MMF
Table 1 : Summary of pre-treatment options
3.3 Chemical conditioning before RO
In addition to the physical processes, pre-treatment must include a series of chemical

conditioning of raw water to get acceptable feed water. The two types of fouling i.e. chemical

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fouling (e.g. by carbonates) and organic / bio-fouling (e.g. bacteria, algae, jellyfish) must be
addressed to protect the membranes and as well as from chemical damage (e.g. by chlorine).
Typical treatments are:
 ( continuous chlorination is discouraged) / Shock – pre-chlorination (pre-filtration for

Organics & biological control)
 De-chlorination, by sodium metabisulfite (SMBS) injection (for membrane protection
from chlorine damage)
 pH adjustment: generally by acid injection (Protection for Chemical fouling & anti-
scalant optimisation)
 Anti-scalant injection (Typically a phosphate based substance )
The combination of the targeted pH and the anti-scalant requirement is a key parameter of the
design, as it impacts the operational costs. The lower the required feed water pH, the less anti-
scalant will be required. Although it will increase in the amount of acid required. The choice of
the most suitable anti-scalant depends on the chemical composition of the water, on the brine
concentration rate and on the water temperature. A cost comparison needs to be done
between acid (including caustic soda for pH correction on the permeate) and anti scalant uses.
Pre-treatment process
Sea Open intake
Continuous / Shock prechloration
Coagulation / Floculation
Ultra filtration
One or Two stage dual media DAF
filtration
Dechlorination
Chemical
pH adjustment
Conditioning
Anti scalant
Figure 2 Summary of pretreatment processes for sea open intake

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Pre-treatment for bore holes, wells (Brackish water) may include aeration, before Coagulation
and Flocculation to get rid of dissolved gases.
4. RO STAGE DESIGN
4.1 General layout
The RO System includes the following stages:
 Cartridge filters;
 Pressure pumps;
 RO membranes;
 Energy recovery devices;
 Booster pumps;
RO membranes (elements) are housed in pressure vessels or tubes.

A maximum of 7 or 8 membranes per vessel / tube is considered as reasonable with the
existing available types of membranes. Smaller installation may house 3 or 4 membranes per
vessel / tube.
A number of pressures vessels / tubes are installed on skids. One skid can be considered as an
operational unit: all the pressure vessels / tubes of one skid are operated as a single unit i.e.
run together, or washed together.
The number of parallel skids or units is determined as a trade-off between investment costs and
operational flexibility. A plant may be designed such that a capacity upgrade in future can be
achieved by adding an additional skid or unit to a parallel process train.
Each skid or unit is fitted with its own pressure pump and its own energy recovery device.
All the above mostly depend upon the recommendations of the membrane supplier.
Number of passes:
To filter out certain special elements such as Boron it may be necessary to implement two
successive passes. In this case, the partial/ full permeate of the first pass is pumped to a
second pass on order to increase the total salt rejection rate.
In the case of boron treatment, the pH is often adjusted between the first and the second
passes, as boron rejection rate is higher at high pH.
The second pass can be designed for a part only of the permeate flow of the first pass,
depending on the expected efficiency of both passes. In this case, the permeate of the second
pass is blended with the by-pass first pass permeate.
The concentrate of the second pass has generally a low salinity compared to raw water; then, it
can be recycled in the feed of the first pass. This must be taken into account in the general salt
balance, when designing the first pass.

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Figure 3 Configuration of two passes RO unit. Figures represent recovery rate at each step
Number of stages:
In brackish water, the TDS content of the concentrate may be relatively low. In such a
condition it can be economical to implement a second stage of reverse osmosis; it consists in
sending the concentrate of the first stage to a second stage of RO membrane, to increase the
total recovery rate. (Unlike the two passes configuration, the two stages design does not
improve the salt rejection rate, but only the recovery rate).
A Three stages design may be possible when initial salinity is low.
Figure 4 Configuration of two stages RO unit. Figures represent recovery rate at each step
4.2 Main process parameters
The choice of the membrane type and design of the RO skids are based on the following
parameters:
 Salt rejection rate;

 Recovery rate: ratio between the quantity of produced water and the quantity of feed
water;

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 Feed pressure;
 Flux through the membranes;
 Average age of the membrane;
 Yearly performance decaying rate of the membranes;
 Longitudinal pressure drop;
 Chemical and biological resistance;
 Membrane cleanability.
Salt rejection rate:
The choice of the optimum salt rejection rate depends on the quality of the raw water and on
the targeted standard for the permeate. Drinking water is never “salt free” water: hence, a very
high salt rejection is not always necessary.
The higher is the feed temperature; the lower is the salt rejection rate. For each project, the
required minimum rejection rate must be specified at the higher possible temperature.
Typical figures are:
 For brackish water ( TDS is feed water < 3 000 mg/l) : > 90 % Rejection rate;
 For low TDS sea water (mix of brackish and sea water, with TDS around 25 000 mg/l) :
> 98 % Rejection rate;
 For sea water ( TDS > 35 000 mg/l) : > 99 % rejection rate.
In addition a high rejection rate for boron may be required.

(Note WHO guidelines for Boron have changed (July 2011) from 0.5 mg/l to 2.4 mg/l,
Discussions are on-going (2011) to revise the Oman standards).
The membranes are designed for different feed (raw) water characteristics and permeate
characteristics depending on the application. Three different membranes are available for
Brackish water, sea water, boron rejection, as well as other applications.
Feed pressure:
The feed pressure is directly linked to the type of membranes (permeability), and to the
targeted recovery rate, feed TDS and target TDS. Typical figures are:
 Brackish water ( TDS < 10,000mg/l) : 12 to 18 bars;

 Sea water (TDS > 35, 000 mg/l) : 40 bars and above.
The feed pressure changes with the temperature and salinity. High pressure pumps are fitted
with VFD to control within to set pressure limits to protect the membranes.
Impact of age of the membranes
With the ageing of the membranes, their performances decreases and the required feed
pressure for a steady recovery rate tends to increase. Salt rejection rates tend to decrease.

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The actual feed pressure can be assessed against the design feed pressure to give an
indication of deterioration. The expected life span and performance guarantees should be
clearly documented so that on-going performance measurements and assessments can be
made so that an early indication of quantity or quality deterioration can be identified.
Longitudinal pressure drop:
The pressure drop across the membranes is dependent on type and on the number of
membranes per pressure vessel. A standard figure of 1 bar of pressure drop along the entire
length of the membrane is common and acceptable. An increase in the longitudinal pressure
drop may be the clue of abnormal membrane fouling; Cleaning in Place (CIP) is then required
to recover the membranes performances.
4.3 Energy recovery device
The pressure of the concentrate at the outlet of the membranes is equal to the feed pressure
minus the longitudinal pressure drop. This represents a considerable amount of hydraulic
energy, which must not be wasted.
Three technologies are in use in recovering this energy:
 Turbo-pumps,
 Pelton turbines
 Work-exchanger.
The best recovery efficiency is achieved with work exchangers. A design efficiency of more
than 95 % may be achieved. Typical energy savings from 7.5 kW/Hr/m3 to 3kW/Hr/m3 have
been observed on small scale plants.
Figure 5: work exchanger

Date: 14/05/2015
The benefits of Energy recovery devices are less on low TDS brackish (10,000 mg/l) water RO
plant; it would be theoretically possible to recover a significant amount of energy on the
concentrate of these plants, but, given the current economic conditions (cost of recovered
energy, cost of the Energy recovery system), it is generally not considered beneficial
4.4 Cleaning in place (CIP)
Even with a correct pre-treatment and anti-scalant injection, the performances of the
membranes tend to decrease, due to the fouling and scaling mechanisms. Recovery back to
design membrane performances by chemical cleaning (without dismantling the membranes)
should be carried out in accordance with manufactures recommendations. It is not good
practice to skip cleans which are typically required on a three month basis. Although marginal
deterioration in performance may be seen over a short time period, the rate of fouling becomes
exponential. There is a point of no return, at which the membranes cannot be recovered,
leading to premature replacement of membranes. Failure to recover membranes to an
acceptable level can also indicate changes in raw water quality, which can, in some instances,
mean that the anti-scalant being used is no longer effective and needs changing.
Membranes cleaning is usually performed with the following kinds of chemicals:
 Citric acid;
 Caustic soda;
 NaDDS ( Sodium dodecyl sulfate);
 Hydrochloric acid;
 Ammonia;
 EDTA.
The waste solution from CIP must be neutralized before disposal. Disposal requirements in
Oman are legislated under various environmental laws and Royal Decrees.
5. POST TREATMENT DESIGN
The post treatment is aimed at:
 Final disinfection;
 Correcting the pH and mineralisation of the RO permeate.
5.1 Final disinfection
Final disinfection can be achieved by injecting gaseous chlorine or solutions from On Site
Electrolytic Chlorine (OSEC) generation system, sodium hypochlorite liquid or calcium
hypochlorite (powdered made up into a solution)
Each type of chlorination system has pros and cons. A significant concern is for safety of the
operator and local community. Prime importance is ensuring that the water is successfully
disinfected, and free form disease causing organisms. It is equally important to maintain a free
chlorine residual into the water supply system to maintain a healthy water to the customer tap.

Date: 14/05/2015
 To ensure the appropriate Concentration x Contact Time ( CT ) values are achieved;

 To control within 0.1 mg/l of the required set point.(After a period of stabilisation);
 To dose within the range of 0.2 mg/l and 1 mg/l;
 To have alarms to identify loss of disinfection and excess dosage;
 To ensure disinfection is carried out AFTER blending for re-mineralisation (if in place);
 To ensure disinfection is carried out BEFORE pH correction. (Or alternative
arrangement by agreement only if CT values and log inactivation are achieved within
the process constraints).
5.2 Remineralisation and Correction of pH
After the Reverse Osmosis process, the pH of the permeate is acid – because of the initial
acidification to prevent scaling, and because of the retention of the HCO3- and CO3 ions by the
membrane. The pH must be corrected.
Ideally, the goal of remineralisation and pH correction is to reach the calco-carbonic equilibrium
(Langellier saturation Index equal to 0, or slightly positive 0 to 0.2.
Depending upon the characteristics of the raw water, there may be an excess or deficit of CO2
content in the permeate water.
In the case of brackish water with low salinity it is recommended to carry out :
 Aeration in order to raise the pH;

 An additional pH correction, by injection of lime water or caustic soda.
If there is a deficit of CO2 in the permeate (which is generally the case with sea water), the
chemical post treatment would comprises the following:
 CO2 injection;
 Final pH correction, by injection of lime water or caustic soda.
Lime should be injected as lime water form (maximum concentration: 1.5 to 2.0 g/L) and never
under lime slurry form, as slurry can significantly raise the turbidity of the produced water. i.e a
settling and decanting stage is required.

Date: 14/05/2015
Figure 6 Summary of post treatment processes
pH correction includes Remineralisation.
6. CHEMICALS HANDLING, STORAGE, PREPARATION AND DOSING
The types and quantities of chemicals used within an RO plant depends on the characteristics
of the raw water and on the design of the plant.
The reliability of the operation, the consistency of the treated water quality and the life of the
membranes are directly linked to the accuracy of the chemicals dosage, which depends on a
proper monitoring of the injection pumps, a precise preparation of the solutions, and a good
management of the chemicals stock.
Health, Safety and environmental laws, royal decrees and international best practice MUST be
followed. A HAZOPS (Hazard identification and mitigation) review should be carried out as a
part of the design process.
Examples include:
 The condition of chemicals storage: easiness of access for delivery, sufficient handling
equipment (cranes, monorail, forklift, etc.) for heavy bags and drums, safety provisions
(retention bunds) in case of leakage of spillage;
 Chemical solution preparation; Transfer, make up, transfer, storage volumes and
containment;
 Chemical dosing; Duty / standby dosing pumps (rotational operation), secondary
containment of dosing lines, catch pots and calibration pots.

Date: 14/05/2015
6.1 Chemical waste disposal
Chemical waste from RO plants includes commissioning wastes, pre-treatment chemicals,

Cleaning chemicals, Brine and post treatment chemicals, as wells as emergency disposal of
chemical leaks etc.
In Oman there are environmental laws and Royal Decrees covering the management and
disposal of such chemicals.
Typical methods of disposal are:
 Lined evaporation ponds;

 Deep well injection;
 Disposal in surface bodies;
 Sea outfalls (Dispersal characteristics and Environmental Impact Study would need to
meet Oman & International best practice requirements / objectives).
Other option may be:

 Concentration into solid salts
Typically lined evaporation ponds, deep well injection, and disposal to Sea are practiced in
Oman.
7. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
The level of instrumentation and automation will depend on the size of the plant.
The minimum of on-line instrumentation must be implemented, for a correct and steady
operation of the plant. This should include:
Raw Water
 Raw Water Temperature

 Raw Water pH
 Raw Water Turbidity
 Raw Water Flow
 Raw Water Discharge pressure
 Raw Water Conductivity
 Chlorine Dosage
 Pre-Filtration.
 Post Filter Turbidity.

 Post Filtration Chlorine
 Differential Pressure MMF/CF

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Feed Water (Location dependent on chemical application)
 RO Feed ORP
 RO Feed Residual Cl2
 RO Feed pH
 RO Feed water temperature
 RO Feed pressure
 RO Feed water conductivity
 RO Feed water Flow
 PX Feed water flow

 PX Feed Pressure
 PX Outlet water Flow
 PX Outlet Water Pressure
Permeate
 RO Concentrate Pressure
 RO Permeate Conductivity
 RO Permeate pH
 RO Permeate Turbidity
 Permeate Flow
Treated Water.
 Treated Water pH
 Treated Water Residual Free Chlorine
 Final Water Flow
 Discharge Flow & applicable quality instruments.
All instrumentation must be fitted with data logging and out of range alarm management
systems for local operational control & management.
The requirements for Instrumentation, Control and Automation will be detailed in a separate
document.
All instruments should have a digital output, with sufficient de-bounce for manual logging
purposes.
All instruments should have supplies in accordance with manufactures equipment

recommendations e.g. dual (shared) feed water supplies may not be suitable in some cases.
All instruments should be clearly labelled.
Process flow diagrams must be provided with full detail of process stage conditions and criteria.

Date: 14/05/2015
LIST OF REFERENCES.
WHO Safe Drinking Water from Desalination 2011
WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality 4th Edition 2011
USEPA guide Membrane filtration final Nov 2005
PRODES Guidelines for the Regulation of Desalination
HYDRONAUTICS Overview of Reverse Osmosis
HYDRONAUTICS Optimization of SWRO systems design
FILMTEC™ Reverse Osmosis Membranes Technical Manual
FILMTEC Membranes Product Information
CSM Reverse Osmosis Technical Manual

Date: 14/05/2015
PUMPING STATION Issue: 1.2
- Page 12/24 : Section 2.5 : Last formula corrected
1.1 05/05/2013 - Page 13/24: Section 2.7 Pump performance testing added.
- Generally updated with added technical information

1.2 14/05/2015 - Section-1 modified and other sections are re-arranged
Contents
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Pump Station Types .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Site Infrastructure .................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.1 Location ................................................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Access Road .......................................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Materials Of Construction ..................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1 Pump Station Building .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Pumps .................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.5 Pump Selection ..................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Pipework arrangement and valving ....................................................................................................... 8
1.7 Future Expansion/Up-gradation .......................................................................................................... 10
2. Pump Design ........................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Field of use .......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Number of impeller (s) ........................................................................................................................ 11
2.3 Shaft position ...................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Surface / Immersed / Submersible / Line Shafting .............................................................................. 12
2.4 Type of impeller .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.5 Type of Casing .................................................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Number of Entrances........................................................................................................................... 13
2.7 Specific speed ..................................................................................................................................... 13
3. Components of pump .............................................................................................................................. 13
3.1 Impeller ............................................................................................................................................... 13
3.2 Casing ................................................................................................................................................. 13
3.3 Seals .................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.4 Coupling .............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.5 Bearings .............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.6 Suction pipe......................................................................................................................................... 15
3.7 Foot valve with strainer ....................................................................................................................... 15
3.8 Delivery pipe and delivery valve ........................................................................................................ 15
4. Motors ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
5. Hydraulic calculations for pump ............................................................................................................. 16
5.1 Specific speed ..................................................................................................................................... 16
5.2 Pump design parameters ..................................................................................................................... 16
5.3 Operating point ................................................................................................................................... 18
5.4 NPSH and cavitation ........................................................................................................................... 20
5.5 Motor drive ......................................................................................................................................... 22
5.6 Points to note ....................................................................................................................................... 22
5.7 Pump Performance testing .................................................................................................................. 23
5.7.1 Factory Test......................................................................................................................................... 24
5.8 On site Testing .................................................................................................................................... 25
6. Design of pumping station ....................................................................................................................... 25
6.1 General Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 25
6.2 Access and maintenance ..................................................................................................................... 26

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6.3 Over Head Hoist.................................................................................................................................. 26

6.4 Access and Protection ......................................................................................................................... 26
6.5 Health, Safety and Environmental Requirements ............................................................................... 27
6.5.1 Alarm systems ..................................................................................................................................... 27
6.5.2 Lighting including Emergency lighting .............................................................................................. 27
6.5.3 Emergency exits .................................................................................................................................. 28
6.5.4 Health and Safety signage ................................................................................................................... 28
6.5.5 Fire fighting equipment ...................................................................................................................... 29
6.5.6 Confined Spaces .................................................................................................................................. 29
6.5.7 Welfare facilities ................................................................................................................................. 29
6.6 Other facilities ..................................................................................................................................... 30
6.7 Ventilation ........................................................................................................................................... 31
7. Hydraulic equipment ............................................................................................................................... 31
7.1 Schematic layout of a pumping station ............................................................................................... 31
7.2 Pipes .................................................................................................................................................... 32
7.3 Valves ................................................................................................................................................. 32
7.4 Flow meter .......................................................................................................................................... 32
7.5 Disinfection ......................................................................................................................................... 32
7.6 Electrical equipment............................................................................................................................ 32
7.7 Emergency Power ............................................................................................................................... 33
7.8 Fire Protection ..................................................................................................................................... 33
7.9 Safety Shower and Eye Wash ............................................................................................................. 33
8. SCADA ................................................................................................................................................... 34

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1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to provide a brief guideline for the design of small to large
sized pumping stations for the Public Authority for Electricity and Water (PAEW). The
secondary objective is to provide a standardised guide containing requirements relating to the
design of potable water pumping stations and reduce the variability in designs and improve
overall the efficiency.
The principle function of pump station is to transfer water from lower elevation to higher level; in
some instance it is required to boost the flow/pressure or even both.
The principle goals of the design are to ensure that the water pumping station is functional,
reliable, fit for purpose, cost effective, able to be maintained and complies with the
requirements of PAEW.
In principle, the pumping system shall:

1. Fulfil the design criteria
2. Comply with HSE requirements.
3. Minimise energy consumption by efficient operation.
4. Have reliable and long service life with minimal maintenance and least whole of life
cost.
5. Provide adequate storm water (surface runoff) management.
6. Provide vehicular and personnel access for maintenance.
The complete system should be well planned and designed with particular reference to the
following:
Planning and Design Factors for Water Pumping Stations

Factors Requirements
Functionality Efficiently deliver water from a defined extraction system to an
appropriate receiving system
Pump a range of flows from minimum to maximum of present and
future demands
Have minimum visual impact
Incorporate remote monitoring, control and telemetered alarms
Provide safe working conditions for operation and maintenance
personnel
Satisfy regional Civil Defense requirements
Maintainability Be designed for minimal operator attendance and low maintenance
Be easily maintained using standard maintenance practices
Incorporate features to allow for flexibility of operation
Utilise standard components that are readily available and
interchangeable
Reliability Operate reliably, effectively and automatically (i.e. normally
unattended)
Have redundancy so that failure of any one item shall not cause total
failure
Incorporate adequate security measures

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Where technical constraints allow a choice in the type of pumping station arrangement or type
of pumping equipment, the final choice will normally be determined as the most cost-effective
method. Cost effectiveness should be determined by a net present value analysis.
Factors to be considered are:
a. Cost of pumping station structure and its life.

b. Energy cost over the life of the pumping station.
c. Maintenance cost.
d. Life and replacement cost of pumping equipment/parts, including ancillary items such
as switchgear, controls, EOT crane, and surge suppression equipment.
e. Risk costs
f. Net present values of alternatives.
The net present value analysis shall allow for the different efficiencies for each suitable pump,
the variation in pump duty required for different pipe materials and class of pipe and the
economic life of different pipe materials
The key points emphasized in this guideline are:
a. Pumping station types

b. Site Infrastructure
c. Access road
d. Materials of construction
e. Pump selection
f. Pipework arrangement and valving
g. Future expansion/up-gradation
1.1 Pump Station Types
PAEW operates a wide range of pumping stations of different configurations and capacities. A
number of these are major pumping stations, most of which draw potable water from reservoir
and pump to service reservoirs/elevated tanks. Most pumping stations are located strategically
within the distribution system.
• fixed speed pump operation

• variable speed drive pump operation
All stations shall contain at least two pumps (one duty and standby). Duty pump(s) shall be
sized to deliver up to the maximum design demand. The standby pump is programmed to
operate in the event that the duty pump fails or unavailable. Major pumping stations may have
more than two pumps but will always incorporate a standby pump(s). The standby pump(s)
must have at least the same capacity as the largest duty pump(s).
Pumping stations are generally found at the following locations:
 Off-shore : to transfer sea water from beach wells to desalination plant

 On-shore: to transfer water to sea water intake to desalination plant for further
treatment.
 Bore wells: to transfer water to storage sites, treatment plant or distribution
system;
 Storage: to transfer water from main storage locations to distribution storage
reservoir/service reservoir;
 Network: to boost the pressure within the distribution system.

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The design of pump station depends on techno economical and geographical considerations.
A pumping station that supplies water to the distribution system is ideally located near to a
water treatment or water storage facility. Booster pumps are required to increase the pressure
within the distribution network. The pumping stations can either be required for full time
operation or only to operate during periods of high demand or low system pressure.
Dimensioning the pump Pump selection is a key factor; the information on pumps (design, type,
size etc...) is detailed in the document below.
This document is a guide only and sound engineering judgement must be applied at all times. It
remains the designer’s responsibility for all aspects of the design and the designer must justify
any variation from these guidelines.
Typical layout of pump building (small and big pump stations) are annexed at the end of the
document. The drawings show typical building layouts, along with pump, pipework and other
electro mechanical arrangements. These layouts are for the information as a guidance, the
design consultant/contractor shall develop in detail to suit design and site requirements.
1.2 Site Infrastructure

1.2.1 Location
The location of a pumping station is strongly influenced by hydraulic considerations so that the
pumps and pipeline operate satisfactorily under the design demand conditions. Adequate
positive suction/flooded suction is preferred.
The choice of site is usually determined by the system requirements, land availability,
availability of electrical infrastructures and aesthetic conditions, but the location should allow for
a suitable layout for the incoming and outgoing water-mains. There should also be sufficient
clearance from surface and subsurface obstructions to allow for construction. Sites located
under electrical power lines should be avoided. Consideration should also be given to the
potential likelihood of future development.
To ensure that the proposed pumping station location and layout are acceptable, the proposed
site shall be approved in advance by PAEW during concept/preliminary design stage. Pump
pedestal level or building floor is to be located above maximum flood level, with the floors being
a minimum of 300mm above the 1:50 year flood level. And the electrical transformers/ pad
mounted substation or emergency generator on the site must also be located at least 300mm
above 1:50 year flood level. The design consultant should fully acquire the site info and
meterological data during the preliminary/detailed design stage; properly design the
surface/stormwater management considering the 1: 50 ARI.
The size of a pumping station site is primarily depending upon the number of pumps
(present+future) and site pipe works. In most cases, pumping station is associated within the
reservoir compound which is located adjacent to road or at Jabel. If the pumping station is to be
located adjacent to road, its entry and exit position should be determined in conjunction with the
Ministry of Transport & Communication and ROP. As much as possible, it shall be located
away or far apart from the residential area and sensitive areas like hospitals, Mosques etc.,
If the pump station is situated adjoined to the jabel (mountain), suitable protection measures to
be considered to protect the pump station from unstable boulders / loose soil that may fall often
from jabel.

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During preliminary design stage, the design Consultant should consult with the various regional
stakeholders like MoH, power distribution company (MEDC, Mazoon, Majan, RAECO),
Municipality, MoTC, Ooredoo, Omantel, PDO/OGC, OBC, ROP, Falaj crossings etc.,. This
should be commended early stage of project as getting approvals/NOC can become prolonged
that directly affects/delay the commencement of project execution unintentionally.
Consideration must be given to key issues associated with the project and relevant
stakeholders associated with these issues and bring to the notice of PAEW as and when
required.
Copies of relevant approvals from authorities/stake holders shall be included in the detailed
design report shall be annexed with the Tender Documents.
The following factors shall be considered during the site selection process:
Location Factors Requirements
Site selection Must be located within the plot, ownership of which is dedicated
to PAEW including the easements
Provide all weather access road to pumping station for routine,
emergency operation and normal maintenance activities
Power facilities should be available or able to be economically
provided to the site
Site should have safe access and consideration should also be
given to construction requirements.
If it is located within the reservoir compound, the external pipe
works should not affect/hurdle the future compound expansion
and its pipe works.
Amenity and environment Provision of sufficient buffer from nearby existing built-up areas
and future developments
Adequate entry and exit shall be provided with ascending and
descending bay in consult with MoTC and ROP
Design Proximity to pipeline and reservoirs
Accessibility
Site slope and soil conditions
Flooding Ensure that adequate storm water management drainage from
the pumping station and site including access roads is designed
so that flooding of the facility is avoided
The pumping station site, electrical infrastructures, access road
shall not be liable to flooding during a 1 in 50 year ARI
Supporting Systems In conjunction with determining the requirements for the site
infra-structure, the designer shall consider the requirements for
supporting systems to enable efficient and safe operation of the
pumping station, as
Requirements follows:
− Electrical power and on site generator (if required)
− security
− fire alarm with fire-fighting facilities
− SCADA
− Adequate Turning radius for maneuvering of maintenance
vehicle
− Access road and compound lighting

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1.3 Access Road

A access is to be provided from the closest public road to the pumping station. Where access
from a public road is not available then a suitable access road shall be created. The design of
the access road shall reflect the size and operating requirements maintenance vehicles. The
road shall be an all weather sealed road and have a suitable turning area for a 5 tonne
maintenance truck or as required for a larger vehicle. The minimum road width shall be as
stated below with local widening as required at bends. Allowance for the parking of two 5t
trucks shall be provided adjacent to the pumping station.
Minimum access Road Requirements
• Minimum pavement width 5 metres

• Desirable maximum grade 12.5%
• Preferred crossfall 3%
The access road shall be designed in one of the following materials:

1. Concrete pavement
2. Compacted gravel pavement with two coat bitumen seal
The surfacing of the pumping station site and access road is site specific.
1.4 Materials Of Construction
The design /supervision/Project Management consultant shall adopt careful materials

selection based on application, design, worst environmental conditions and protection
measures to minimise material degradation and frequent maintenance.
Preferably approved products and suppliers registered with PAEW shall be used.
1.4.1 Pump Station Building

Mostly, PAEW Pumping station buildings shall primarily consist of RCC framed structure,
reinforced concrete floor and cavity block wall construction with RCC flat roof. In some
cases, the roof shall be metal roofing. The exterior wall paint of the pump station shall be in
RAL code 9010.
1.4.2 Pumps
There is a choice of materials depending on the environment the pump will be working in. The
principal materials are ductile iron, stainless steel, bronze, nickel, titanium alloy and plastics.
Material selection shall vary based on the below major parameters in water (salinity, total
dissolved solids, conductivity, pH and temperature).
1.5 Pump Selection

Selection of the type and size of pump will be determined from the system duty requirement
and will determine the final arrangement of the electro mechanical and other ancillary
equipments within the pumping station.
A pump is required to provide a range of flows over a range of system pressures in order to
satisfy system demand criteria. The main criteria when selecting a pump is operating
efficiency.

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The design consultant is to ensure that there is a commercially available pump which
satisfies the required duty with high efficiency from at least three well reputed suppliers.
Selection of a pump suited to the application, requiring an acceptable level of maintenance and
efficient in operation is critical to achieving minimum whole-of-life costs.
Each pump and drive unit is to be suitable for pumping water and for performing the duty
throughout the specified range. The operating (flow and head) requirements are to be
determined by the design consultant and should be approved by PAEW.
Consideration is to be given to:
• System flow and head for initial and ultimate requirements (where applicable)
• Pump efficiency within the normal duty range
• Pump speed
• Standby capacity required
• Best efficiency point to be as close as practical or within the normal operating range.
• Availability of spare parts, supported by adequate local service agent
1.6 Pipework arrangement and valving
At the pump station the following pipe arrangement and valving are common
a) Suction pipework
b) Delivery pipework
c) Miscellaneous fittings
d) Pipework for surge suppression devices
Suction Pipework
The suction manifold should be sized according to the maximum flow demand, including future
flow demands, if any with a velocity limit of 1.0m/s. The branches from this manifold to the
individual pumps are to be similarly sized according to the range of flows for the pumps.
Flow is to be directed into the suction of the pumps in a uniform manner without turbulence.
Valves, tapers and changes of direction or pipe section are to be no closer than three times
of pipe diameters upstream of the pump suction intake.
Inlet tapers (reducers) are to be eccentric, with the obvert horizontal in order to prevent an
air pocket developing. The sides of all tapers are to be straight and the taper is to be gradual
with an included angle not greater than 15 degrees (ie butt weld tapers are not to be used on
the suction).
The inlet pipe which connects directly to the pump is to be horizontal, straight and of the
same internal diameter as the pump inlet and of three pipe diameters in length. Puddle
flanges are to be incorporated to take thrust on suction pipework when passing through a
wall.
Delivery Pipework
The delivery pipework is to be sized in order to allow for the maximum flow (i.e, future
demand flows, if any) through the pipeline within a velocity limit 2.0 m/s.

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Tapers used on the pump delivery may be concentric or eccentric but are to be straight
sided.
Delivery pipe work is to be restrained so that there is no loading back onto the pump flange.
Puddle flanges are to be incorporated to take thrust on delivery pipework when passing
through a wall.
Miscellaneous fittings
Non-Return Valve (NRV)

A non-return valve allows for flow in one direction only. Non-return valves are required in
order to prevent water from running backward through the pump when the pump stops. In
PAEW, the most commonly used non-return valve (non-slam) are swing flap type, tilting disc,
dual plate, and axial flow type etc. Non-return valves shall be provided on pump delivery.
Preferably NRV shall be mounted in horizontal sections of pipe rather than vertical pipe.
NRV shall be installed in the delivery pipework downstream of the pump and upstream of the
delivery isolation valve
Dismantling joint
A dismantling joint is to be provided adjacent to at least one pump flange to allow removal
and re-installation of the pump without significantly disturbing the pipework. As a minimum
the Dismantling joint is to connect the straight section of inlet pipe to the inlet flange of the
pump. Flange thicknesses are to be rated for the test pressure of the system.
Thrust Restraint Fittings

The design consultant is responsible for the provision of adequate thrust restraint. Pipework,
fittings and anchorages (including straps, puddle flanges and thrust blocks) must be able to
sustain maximum pressures, including surge.
Thrust restraint for pipework can also be achieved by the use of thrust restrained type
dismantling joints. The use of adapter type flange is not permitted. Within the pumping
station particular care is to be taken to ensure that there is no loading onto the pump flanges
caused by poor installation or pressure generated forces as this can cause distortion of the
pump body and lead to premature failure of components such as mechanical shaft seals.
The pump is not to be used to support the pipework. Flexible jointed pipes and fittings are to
be adequately restrained. Flange thicknesses are to be rated for the test pressure of the
system.
Where an existing pumping station is being upgraded, pipe pressure class, thrust restraint
and possible fatigue of existing reticulation pipes due to cyclic loading must be checked.
Pressure Gauges
Pressure gauges are required to measure the pipeline suction and delivery pressures.
Tapping points complete with ball type isolation valves are to be located on the
common/individual suction pipe and common/individual delivery pipe.
Flow meter
The flow meter is to record all pumped flows, an electromagnetic flow meter is to be installed
at the common delivery pipework only; flow meter is not required at delivery of each pumps.

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The flow meter is to be located so that there is ideally 10 and 5 but no less than 5 clear pipe
diameters upstream and a minimum of 3 clear pipe diameters downstream of the flow meter
from any disturbance (for example, valve, tee, bend, change of direction etc.) in the
pipework. The flow meter is to be flanged and sized as per the manufacturer’s
recommendation (i.e. no tapers are to be used) so that the inside diameter of the flow meter
matches that of the pipework. At least one of the pipe flanges joining the flow meter must be
a dismantling joint to the flow meter to allow removal of the flow meter.
The signal converter and LCD display unit is to be located above the flow meter and
readings displayed in flow rate (m3/h) and cumulative total flow (m3/h). Where the flow meter
is used for control purposes, it is important to specify the required flow range. The flow rate
reading shall be sent to local control room as well as regional SCADA control station.
Flow meters are to be installed according to manufacturer’s instructions and shall

incorporate earth connections as required by the manufacturer.
Testing of Pipework
All pipework within the pump station is to be tested to the design test pressure. Design test
pressure is to be nominated by the design consultant and is to consider operating conditions
(present/future), surge and shut off head.
1.7 Future Expansion/Up-gradation
In general, pumping station is planned to be expandable in the future. The design consultant
ensures that adequate space is provided to accommodate the installation of future pump(s)
and allied equipment (including surge suppression) for smooth expandability. The suction
and discharge pipework is sized and arranged to accommodate future flows without having
to take the pumping station out of service when expansion is required. If it appears to be
impractical or uneconomical to construction the pumping station building to house future
pump(s), the design consultant shall submit a comparative evaluation of cost, operability and
constructability issues at appropriate design stage. This evaluation address alternative
means of providing the desired capacity to meet future capacity requirements. Based on this
analysis, PAEW may direct the design consultant before proceeding with final design of
pumping station relative to future expansion.

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2. PUMP DESIGN
This section provides some information on each component of the pump.
In a water supply system centrifugal pump is most commonly used. A pump is a hydraulic
machine which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy or pressure energy. A
centrifugal pump is also known as Rotodynamic pump or dynamic pressure pump. It works on
the principle of centrifugal force. In this type of pump the liquid is subjected to whirling motion by
the rotating impeller which is made of a number of backward curved vanes which cause partial
vacuum to suck the water from pump suction. The liquid enters this impeller at its centre or the
eye and gets discharged into the casing enclosing the outer edge of the impeller. The rise in the
pressure head at any point / outlet of the impeller is proportional to the square of the tangential
velocity of the liquid at that point. Hence, at outlet of the impeller where the radius is more the
rise in pressure head will be more and the liquid will be discharged at the outlet with a high
pressure head. Due to this high pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to a higher level.
A centrifugal force is defined as the action that causes something to move away from its
access of rotation.
A centrifugal pump uses an impeller and volute (or casing) to create the partial vacuum to suck
water in and discharge pressure necessary to move water through the pump casing. The
impeller and volute are the essential parts of the pump and help determine its flow, delivery
pressure and suction capability.
There are four main major characteristics to describe a centrifugal pump are as below:
 Field of use (type selection);
 number of Impellers or stages (single stage pump or multistage or multi impeller pump);
 Shaft orientation (vertical shaft or horizontal shaft) orientation;
 Type of impeller (closed ,semi open or open impeller);
 type of Casing (Volute or Diffuser);
 number of entrances (Single suction pump or Double suction pump);
 specific speed (Low specific speed or radial flow impeller pump, Medium specific speed
or mixed flow impeller pump, High specific speed or axial flow type or propeller pump)
2.1 Field of use
It is important to know the type of water (raw sea water or potable water). The choice of the
pump also requires knowledge of characteristics of the pumped water (hardness, pH,,
conductivity, sand content etc.).
2.2 Number of impeller (s)
There are two types of pumps:

 Single stage pump: is composed of one volute with a single impeller;
 Multi stages pump: is composed of more than one impeller, each increasing pressure
above its predecessor.

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2.3 Shaft position
 Horizontal pump: The shaft of the pump is horizontal or parallel to the ground. Entire
pump unit would be installed on the ground level;
 Vertical pump: The shaft of the pump is vertical or perpendicular to the ground. Motor is
located above the pump head or at a higher level with an extended shaft.
2.3.1 Surface / Immersed / Submersible / Line Shafting
 Surface pump : The pumping unit (motor + pump) is situated outside of the liquid to be
pumped, both motor and pump are above ground level;
 Immersed pump: Pump unit is in liquid but motor is above the liquid;
 Submersible pump: The pumping unit is immersed in the liquid to be pumped. Both
pump and motor are inside the liquid and they can work only in the liquid medium for
the sake of cooling and cannot work outside;
 Pump with line shafting: The motor is situated outside of the liquid to be pumped and
the pump is immersed and they are connected by a shaft.
2.4 Type of impeller
The type of impeller depends on the type of water to be pumped, the total head and the
discharge.
There are different types of impellers.
 Open;
 Semi open;
 Closed.
Suction can be either single suction or double suction. A single suction impeller allows liquid to
enter the centre of the blades from only one direction. A double suction impeller allows liquid to
enter the centre of the impeller blades from both sides simultaneously.
Pumps can be classified according to the suction and delivery of the liquid with reference to the
position of the access of the impeller.
1. Radial Flow–Normally a centrifugal pump is of radial type in which liquid enters at

access and flows out radially. In radial flow pressure is developed wholly by centrifugal
force;
2. Axial Flow–In axial flow liquid enters along the access and flows out along the access.
In axial flow the pressure is developed by the propelling or lifting action of the vanes of
the impeller on the liquid;
3. Mixed Flow–This is a combination of radial and axial flow in which the pressure is
developed partly by centrifugal force and partly by the lift of the vanes of the impeller on
the liquid.
2.5 Type of Casing
In case of a volute pump a spiral casing is provided around the impeller. The water which
leaves the vanes is directed to flow in the volute chamber circumferentially. The area of volute
chamber gradually increases in the direction flow. Thereby velocity reduces and hence
pressure increases. As the water reaches delivery pipe a considerable part of kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy. However, eddies are not completely avoided, therefore some

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loss of energy takes place due to continually increasing quantity of water through volute
chamber.
In case of a diffuser pump a guide wheel containing a series of guide vanes or diffuser is the
additional component. The diffuser blades which provides gradually enlarging passages
surround the impeller periphery. They serve to augment the process of pressure built up that is
normally achieved in volute casing.
2.6 Number of Entrances
Normally all centrifugal pumps will have single suction entry for water inlet. In case of double
suction, two impellers are set back to back. The two suction eyes together reduce the intake.
The two suction eyes together reduce the intake velocity reduce the risk of cavitation. Mixed
flow type double suction axial flow pumps besides are capable of developing higher heads
2.7 Specific speed
A radial flow impeller has small specific speeds (300 to 1000) & is suitable for discharging
relatively small quantities of flow against high heads. The direction of flow at exit of the impeller
is radial. The mixed flow type of impellers has a high specific speed (2500 to 5000), has large
inlet diameter D and impeller width B to handle relatively large discharges against medium
heads. The axial flow type or propeller impellers have the highest speed range (5000 to
10,000).
3. COMPONENTS OF PUMP
Major components of pump are as below:
 Impeller
 Casing
 Seals
 Coupling
 Bearings
 Suction pipe
 Foot valve with strainer
 Delivery pipe and delivery valve
3.1 Impeller
Impeller is the rotating component of the pump. It is made up of a series of curved vanes. The
impeller is mounted on the shaft connecting an electric motor
3.2 Casing
Casing is an air tight chamber surrounding the impeller. The shape of the casing is designed in
such a way that the kinetic energy of the impeller is gradually changed to potential energy. This
is achieved by gradually increasing the area of cross section in the direction of flow.

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3.3 Seals
Seals are leakage control devices. Seals are basically meant to control escape of liquid from
the volute along the shaft. The seals are designed to ensure that the point where shaft passes
from the inside to the outside of the pump does not leak.
They are of two types:

 Gland packing;
 Mechanical seals.
Packings are made of woven fabrics impregnated with various lubricating substances in order
to lower friction. It is packed within a gland housing that needs manual adjustment to prevent
leakage but still ensure lubrication by the liquid to be pumped.
Mechanical seals are another key component of pumps. They consist of two faces, one
stationary on the outer side and the other rotating inner side and are located on the shaft
between the impeller and the rear casing.
3.4 Coupling
It is a device used to connect pump and motor shafts together for the purpose of transmitting
torque. The coupling is a unit which connects the motor shaft and the pump shaft enabling the
transfer of torque energy from water to pump.
The coupling must full fill several functions such as:

 Absorbing and accommodating torque irregularities (shocks);
 Allow some misalignment between the shaft of the motor and the pump;
 Separate the critical systems (avoid the problem of resonance).
The choice of coupling requires knowledge of the following parameters:

 Nominal transmission torque;
 Stiffness, permissible misalignment, offsets;
 Dimensions;
 Atmosphere, temperature;
 Safety coefficient, nominal torque of the coupling.
3.5 Bearings
Bearings are intended to provide smooth friction free rotation of the shaft of motor and pump.
A wide variety of bearings is available.
Bearing must be able to:

 Support the loads between the rotor and the pump casing;
 Ensure a minimum friction with good lubrication;
 Ensure proper alignment.
Bearings consist of:

 Two rings: outer one linked to a fix element (body of the pump) and inner element
related to a rotating part (shaft);
 A cage: to position and maintain the rotating balls in the bearing rings;

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 Rolling body: Balls or rollers ensure proper contacts between the rotating and the
stationary rings.
The lubricant must full fill the following functions:

 Reduction of friction torque;
 Reduction of the wear;
 Transfer of heat (oil lubrication);
 Reduction of operating noise;
 Protection of the bearing against corrosion;
 Quench of the bearing (grease lubrication) to prevent penetration of solid or liquid
bodies;
 Compatibility with the seals;
 Tolerance or repellence to moisture.
There are two types of lubrication:

1. Oil lubrication: when speed and temperature are high;
2. Grease lubrication: when speed is restricted (the maximum speed permitted for grease
lubricated bearings is 20% less than the maximum speed permitted in oil lubrication).
When protection against corrosion is important and to provide life-lasting lubrication.
3.6 Suction pipe
It is the pipe connecting the pump to the sump, from where the liquid has to be lifted up.
3.7 Foot valve with strainer
The foot valve is a non-return valve which permits the flow of the liquid from the sump towards
the pump. In other words, the foot valve opens only in the upward direction. The strainer is a
mesh surrounding the valve, it prevents the entry of debris and silt into the pump.
3.8 Delivery pipe and delivery valve
It is pipe connected to the pump to the outlet delivery connection and delivery valve is fitted on
the discharge line to regulate the flow of liquid from the pump.
4. MOTORS
The selection of the motor is done according to the capacity of the pump. Motor selection shall
be based on the impeller size, maximum capacity, specific gravity of the fluid, and service
application. The selected motor shall be capable of operating the pump in any range on
selected pump curve. Motor capacity shall have sufficient margin min 10% over the maximum
operating point. Motor shall be designed with proper overloading service factor minimum of
1.15%.
For the selection of a motor the following factors should be considered:

 Selection of the speed of rotation: depends on number of poles;
 Selection of the motor power: nominal power of the motor is the power delivered by the
motor to the shaft. The efficiency of the motor is at its maximum at a point between 75%
and 100 % of its maximum load.

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Different types of motors:

 Fixed speed;
 multi-speed (generally two);
 variable speed.
 Protection index: provides the correct security level;
 Insulation class: determined by motor overheating capacity and room temperature;
 Selection of type of cooling: cooling by pumped liquid, cooling by circulation of oil and
cooling by oil filled jacket.
When determining a motors size, safety margins should be considered. Safety margins
normally vary between 10 and 15 %.
For large motors, soft-starters should be used in order to reduce the electrical current intake.
Variable frequency drivers (VFD) may be used to adapt the pumping regime to output
parameters (pressure, flow rate…). VFD should be limited to the range of 50% to 120% of the
nominal frequency of the motor.
5. HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS FOR PUMP
5.1 Specific speed

The specific speed of a pump is the speed at which the pump will rotate when discharging
1m3/s under a head of 1 m at its highest efficiency.
Specific speed is a number characterizing the type of impeller in a unique and coherent manner
and is determined independent of pump size. This factor can be useful when comparing
different pump designs.
Specific speed can be expressed as:

Ns = N .
N = Actual speed (RPM),
Q = discharge (m3/s),
H = Total head (m of water column.)
The variation of Q, H and power P, with N are given by the following expressions:
2 3
Q' = Q; H' = .H; P' = .P
A wide variety of impeller types are available. Depending on the quality of the fluid and the Q/H
desired a choice must be made.
Specific Speed or Suction specific speed indicated by Ns and it’s a dimensionless quantity,
Specific speed is a number which indicated whether the suction condition of pump are sufficient
to prevent cavitation.
5.2 Pump design parameters
For the selection of pump size the flow rate or capacity Q (m3/h) and pump head H (m.w.c) are
needed at the required duty point.

Date: 14/05/2015
The capacity of a pump is the amount of water pumped per unit time. Capacity is also called
discharge or flow rate (Q). In metric units it is expressed as litres per minute (l/min) or cubic
meters per second (m3/sec).
Head is the net work done on a unit weight of water by the pump impeller. It is the amount of
energy added to the water between the suction and discharge sides of the pump. Pump head is
measured as pressure difference between the discharge and suction sides of the pump.
Expressed in feet (ft) or meters (m) of the liquid. Pressure and head are two different ways of
expressing the same value. Usually, when the term "pressure" is used it refers to units in
kilopascals (kPa), whereas "head" refers to meter’s (m). A column of water that is 2.31 ft high
will exert a pressure of 1 psi.
These variables are determined for the pumping regime that occurs the most frequently. The
correct pump size and speed can then be selected from pumping group (pump + motor)
performance curves. Other parameters such as efficiency η, input power P and N.P.S.H. of the
selected pump can be found from its individual curves.
The main pump curve of a pump gives the relationship between the two variables Q and H. A
typical pump curve of a constant speed centrifugal pump is given below.
Fig 1. Pump Characteristic Curves
A characteristic feature of the curve of a centrifugal pump is the increase of the flow rate Q
while decreasing head H.
The pump has a self-regulating capacity for varying heads.
The selection of the appropriate pump curve depends on the specific duty point requirements.
For the same value of (ΔH) the value of (ΔQ) changes considerably between flat and steep
curves of the pump.
To assess the necessary pump head H, the system head, Hs, must be determined.
Hs = hsta + Ʃ hf
Where
hsta = static head: height difference between the suction and the discharge fluid levels.
Ʃ hf = The sum of all pressure head losses caused by friction in pump and pipeline systems, for
a given flow rate.

Date: 14/05/2015
5.3 Operating point
Pump characteristics are known from the pump curve.
The system characteristics, i.e. the Q – H relationship of the pipe system have a form as can be
seen below (fig 2).
Fig 2: System Curve
The point of intersection between system curve and the pump curve is the operating point.
Fig 3: Pump Performance individual and combined

Date: 14/05/2015
The operating point changes based on the arrangement of the pumps (individually or
combinedly).
There are several ways to change this operating point.
One way is to change the pump curve. This can be achieved by:
 Parallel operation of more pumps (more discharge );
 Serial operation of more pumps (higher. head).
Fig 4: Changing operating point by pumps in parallel / pumps in series
Another way is to change the system characteristics by:
 Altering pump speed;

 Throttling of valves;
 Changing pipe diameters;
 Altering impeller diameter.

Date: 14/05/2015
Fig 5: Changing operating point by changing pump speed / valve position
5.4 NPSH and cavitation
Centrifugal pumps will only operate satisfactorily if there is no build-up of vapour within the
pump.
The required net positive suction head (NPSHr) is the amount of energy required to prevent the
formation of vapour-filled cavities of fluid within the eye of impeller. The formation and
subsequent collapse of these vapour-filled cavities is called cavitation and is destructive to the
impeller. The NPSHr to prevent cavitation is a function of pump design and is usually
determined experimentally for each pump. The head within the eye of the impeller, also called
net positive suction head available (NPSHa), should exceed the NPSHr to avoid cavitation.

Date: 14/05/2015
Cavitation on the impeller blades should always be avoided. This phenomena is caused by
carried air or water vapour being released from the water. The developed bubbles (of a very
small size) move inside the pump and collapse when entering a higher pressure zone. The
continuous collapsing of bubbles on the tip of an impeller blade causes the metal to be eroded.
The lifting of water by suction should be avoided as far as possible. The pump parameter
N.P.S.H. (Net Positive Suction Head) must be evaluated. The N.P.S.H. can be roughly defined
as the static head above vapour pressure.
It is important to accurately differentiate the required N.P.S.H. indicated on the characteristic

curve of the pump and the available N.P.S.H. that is determined from the characteristic of the
network.
To avoid the phenomena of cavitation, it is necessary to comply with the rule:

 Available N.P.S.H. > required N.P.S.H;
 For safety, the available N.P.S.H. must always be greater than the required N.P.S.H. of
at least 0.5 m to 1 m.
NPSH available from the system
NPSH required by the pump
The intersection of two N.P.S.H. curves reveals the point of cavitation.
NPSH could be calculated as below:
Where
p0 = pressure at the water surface;
pv = vapour pressure for the fluid at the temperature T1 at 1;
∆z = difference in height (z1-z0) from the water surface to the location;
ρ = fluid density;
g = gravitational acceleration

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5.5 Motor drive
Electric motors operate at their peak power factor and efficiency when fully loaded.
The power delivered to the pump shaft is known as brake horsepower (BHP)
There are three different types of motors. These are:

 Fixed speed: one speed, used in most cases;
 Multi-speed: generally two choices of speed, rarely used in pumping;
 Variable speed: constantly adapting to the pumping need (direct delivery system with
variable flow and constant pressure). These motors are coupled to a Variable
Frequency Drive (VFD).
The speed of rotation depends on the number of pairs of poles

Rotation frequency =
Where
n = number of pole per phase
F = Frequency (50 or 60 Hz)
The Common values for a frequency of 50 Hz are:
 2900 rpm with 2 poles

 1450 rpm with 4 poles
 960 rpm with 6 poles.
The pump power input P of the pump is the mechanical energy at the pump coupling or pump
shaft absorbed from the drive. P can be calculated using the following formula:
P=
Where
P = power (kW),
= mass density of the fluid (kg/m3)
= gravitational constant (m/s2)
Q = pump capacity (m3/s),
H = pump head (m)
= pump efficiency
When determining the required power of the motor drive an overall efficiency must be used:
= pump × motor × cable × transformer ×( VFD if any)
5.6 Points to note
 Never oversize a pump but select with the required duty point considering limited
margin;
 Selected motor shall be capable of running the pump in any point on the pump curve.
 Choose a motor with sufficient power reserve but not too oversized;

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 Respect the maximum number of starts per hour depending on motor power:
P < 4 kW 15 starts / hour
P from 5 to 11 kW 12 starts / hour
P from 15 to 30 kW 10 starts / hour
P > 30 kW 6 starts / hour
 Prefer a motor running 1500 rpm rather than 3000 rpm to maximise longevity and
reliability;
 Power on the motor plate is the nominal power delivered by this motor;
 Minimize head loss at the suction side, prevent the possibility of air intake to avoid
cavitation;
 Never control the pump from the suction side;
 The discharge flow should be a straight as possible (avoid Tee and 900 elbow);
 For the installation of pressure gauges and flow meters comply with manufacturers
recommendations.
5.7 Pump Performance testing
A pump test is performed to measure various aspects of the pump's operation. The end result
of a pump test is an estimate of the overall efficiency of pump and to authenticate the
manufacturer design guarantee are attaining at rated parameters.
The pumps shall be designed, manufactured and tested in accordance with the last edition of
one of the following appropriate standards:
 ISO
 BS EN
 DIN
 API
 Hydraulic Institute Standards (HIS)
The pumps and associated equipment shall be designed and suitable for the climatic conditions
in the Sultanate of Oman.
The pumps shall be of a type as indicated in the particular requirements of the specifications.
The pumps shall be designed for continuous duty at rated parameters and should be capable of
pumping the flow ranges specified in the specifications.
The pumps and associated equipment shall include all necessary provisions to prevent
contamination of the drinking water being pumped.
The Contractor/Manufacturer shall produce material test certificates for all components making
up the pump in accordance with ISO 10474 3.1B certificate.
PAEW reserve the right for shop inspection / stage inspection by their authorised
representatives. The Manufacturer / Contractor shall provide full assistance and co-operation
for such inspections. Transport conditions to safeguard all parts of the pump, motor including
the bearings and seals should be clearly defined.
The Contractor / Manufacturer shall make suitable provisions for detailed shop testing of the
pump and inform PAEW sufficiently in advance to enable their representatives to witness the
tests.

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The pumps shall be tested in accordance with the ISO 9906 or relevant equivalent standard to
be approved by PAEW or their representative, at the Manufacturer premises to witness the
pump performance as per the designed guarantee points as detailed in the specifications
/contract.
5.7.1 Factory Test
The factory test for each variable speed pump shall include, but shall not be limited to the
below:
 Mechanical running test

 Measurement of capacity Q
 Measurement of Head
 Measurement of velocity head
 Measurement of Losses
 Measurement of absorbed power
 Measurement of speed
 NPSH required
 Discharge characteristics including power consumption and efficiency
 Water leakage measurements
 Bearing temperature measurement
 Noise measurement
 Vibration measurement
The above tests shall be conducted at minimum, maximum and average speed.
Motors
All motors shall be given a standard commercial test as defined by IEEE and the all tests shall
confirm the followings:
 Temperature
 Efficiency
 Torque
 No load, full voltage vibration level
 Noise test
 Power consumption
All listed tests shall be detailed and procedures shall be included for every test along with the
acceptable tolerances according to international standards.
All instruments used during shop tests at Manufacturer’s premises shall be duly calibrated by
recognised laboratories and the calibration certificates shall be inspected and certified by
PAEW’s representatives prior to starting the shop tests. The equipment for testing pump
performance corresponds to the most common pump test standards ISO, HIS and DIN.
The calibration certificates should not be more than six months old. (required to be calibrated
periodically).

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5.8 On site Testing
After installation and before commissioning, the Contractor shall be carry out site test to be
witnessed by PAEW, their representative (Consultant), contractor and manufacturer’s
representative.
The site tests for individual and parallel pump operation shall include but not be limited to the
following measured over the entire specified range:
 Discharge characteristics
 Head measurement
 Water leakage measurements
 Vibration measurements
 Bearing temperature measurements
 Noise measurements
Any problem or defect detected during these tests shall be promptly rectified by the
Contractor/Manufacturer at no additional cost.
The Contractor shall include in his bid, as a minimum, consumables and spare parts for
commissioning and spare parts for guarantee period operation. The Manufacturer/Contractor
shall guarantee the availability of spare parts for a minimum duration of 10 years.
6. DESIGN OF PUMPING STATION
The required capacity of pumping station and its location is determined from hydraulic network
analysis.
A pumping station should have at least shall have minimum but not limited to below:
 Pump hall room ;
 Overhead cranes / hoist / monorails
 Control room (optional);
 Electrical room;
 Automation room;
 Office (Optional);
 Maintenance and workshop facilities (Optional);
 Storage for spare parts and equipment (Optional);
 Storage for chemical and substances (Optional);
 Welfare facilities (including PPE changing area).
All equipment must be protected from climatic conditions.
6.1 General Recommendations
The architectural design should harmonize with the surrounding environment and respect the
natural landscape as far as reasonably practicable.
The foundations of structures depend on the results of geotechnical investigation. Usually, the
structure is of reinforced concrete, steel and masonry construction.
The building should be designed considering both the initial requirement and the potential need
for space to accommodate future equipment for expansion.

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The impact of noise on houses or other buildings near the station must be considered.
Windows should not be included in unattended locations or chemical storage including chlorine
gas.
All equipment must be installed or built in such a way that flooding or other spillages cannot
jeopardise the operation or running of such equipment. All electrical panels must also meet
these requirements so as to prevent failure or electrocution.
Floors should slope to a sump fitted with a pump. The floor should be non-slippery to avoid
accidents.
Welfare needs of operators, operations / maintenance, cleaning and security of employees

should be considered in the design.
In line with MD 286 the Design team must carry out an assessment of all potential Hazards
during construction and operation phases. This must include a risk assessment detailing the
future requirements for fire fighting, manual handling, electrics, lone working, confined spaces,
chemical control etc. PAEW HSE is to be consulted at all stages of the design.
6.2 Access and maintenance
A paved road access for maintenance vehicles should be provided. All equipment should have
horizontal and vertical clearances to allow for repairs and maintenance to be carried out
efficiently and safely. Pumps, motors and equipment should be installed after finishing civil
works.
Stepped platforms should be installed if necessary to access equipment.
If the pumping station has different floor levels, stairs and safety railings should be installed.
To avoid the need to climb over pumps, motors or pipes, stairway shall be provided to provide
access to all sides of pump and motor. Where required lifting equipment specific to fitting new
parts i.e. A frames or block and tackle must meet all HSE requirements
6.3 Over Head Hoist
If temporary or portable hoisting is not practical, crane rails and electrical hoists should be
installed for maintenance or repair works. These should cover all heavy equipment and allow
for offloading of Trucks etc.
Hoists should be designed so that the equipment located inside can easily be taken outside for
heavy maintenance or replacement. Hoists must be marked and included in routine inspections
by the relevant competent authority at least annually for the hoist and every 6 months for hoist
equipment i.e. chains, straps, strop, hooks, shackles and D rings.
6.4 Access and Protection
The protection of access to water facilities is important. Metal fences must be provided to
prevent trespassing, theft and from act of domestic and non-domestic aggression.

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The following elements could be installed:

 Secured hatch, doors or covers to direct access points;
 Direct access door to the pumping station or technical room (s);
 Ventilation grilles;
 Access ladders.
Pumping stations are normally completely enclosed by high fences. These could be of the
chain-link or iron railings type, depending on architectural requirements and risk level.
Alternatively a masonry wall could be constructed to meet architectural requirements.
The security fence is generally adjacent to the property line. Each site should have a boundary/
perimeter fence which should comply with regulations and PAEW’s security and HSE Policy.
6.5 Health, Safety and Environmental Requirements
Emergency equipment must be set on the risk of the hazards on the site. The following are
some mandatory emergency equipment:
 Alarms;
 Signage;
 Lighting/Emergency lighting (powered through UPS);
 Exits / Emergency exit ;
 Fire extinguishers;
 Confined spaces;
 Welfare facilities.
6.5.1 Alarm systems
Emergency alarms must meet the requirements governing the hazards and the risk. As a
minimum all sites including pumping station must have a fire alarm system capable of
evacuating the site safely in a minimum of time, be it electrical or mechanical.
Other alarms to consider in pump room and treatment works would be:
 Pump alarm normally blue flashing;
 Telephone alarm normally white flashing;
 Chlorine alarm normally orange flashing;
 Fire alarm normally red flashing.
All alarms are normally backed up with audible high pitched sound. Staff must be trained and
aware of what to do in the event of any alarm.
6.5.2 Lighting including Emergency lighting
Interior and exterior lighting facilities must be provided where necessary and automatically
operate emergency lighting system must be installed as part of the normal lighting and must
last for a minimum of 30 minutes on automatic action during an emergency. It must also
illuminate the safe route to a final exit from any part of the building structure.
Where exterior lighting is requited it shall be equipped with an automatic presence detector
lasting not less than 5 minutes.

Date: 14/05/2015
6.5.3 Emergency exits
Emergency exists must be provided so that staff can evacuate the building during an
emergency by the fastest safe route and all final exits must have push/paddle bar release.
Where required, dependent on volume of staff these may need to be double doors.
6.5.4 Health and Safety signage
All emergency exits, walkways, staircases, hall ways must have emergency signage dictating
the direction of travel to the emergency exits including pictograms on what actions to carry out
on route or at the exit i.e. push bar release.
Other signage required on the site should follow best international practice and the following
categories must be observed:
 Mandatory;
 Prohibition;
 Emergency and warning;
 Danger;
 Information.
All signage will be worked out on the hazard identified risk assessment and may change with
further building design or alteration. For example see followings chart.

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6.5.5 Fire fighting equipment
Fire fighting equipment can only be decided on the recommendations from a fire risk
assessment in line with the completed design from the designer and further improved during
the course of construction. Only with this information and in line with Oman HSE regulations
and guidance by external authorities i.e. ROP, municipality can the right equipment per location
be decided upon. This may include but not be limited to fire extinguishers, suppression
systems, fire blankets etc.
6.5.6 Confined Spaces
In a pumping station confined spaces are normally found where chemicals are stored or dosing
i.e. chlorine or in an area with limited access and egress, or where there is a risk from flooding,
free flowing solids or the design of the building or structure dictates.
Mandatory equipment requirements should be used in these areas and the following list should
be included but is not exhaustive:
 Gas monitors;
 Tripod and Winch;
 Harness;
 Breathing apparatus;
 PPE.
This would be decided on a thorough and comprehensive confined space risk assessment.
6.5.7 Welfare facilities
Welfare facilities must be included in all pumping stations for the benefit of staff and operational
requirements. They should include the following as a minimum but this may change on the use
of the site or risks that develop:
 Toilets and washing facilities;
 Changing areas;
 Pantry/Canteen facilities (depending on size of site);

Date: 14/05/2015
 First aid facilities including a minimum of a 10 man first aid kit with 2 eye wash bottles;
 On all sites where chemicals or substances are to be used a safety shower (s) must be
fitted (see requirements in Other facilities).
6.6 Other facilities
Doors giving access to the facilities and equipment must be equipped with anti-intrusion system
providing access only through use of a code or badge. The doors must opened in an outward
direction.
A chain must be installed across access ladders as a means of preventing further entry and as
a visible sign unless authorised not to go beyond. In this instance, the chain must be replaced
after the entry and exit.
Sump covers should be installed and be of the gridded type each grid not exceeding 30 x 30
mm.
The sump shall be equipped with float level controllers '' Pear shape type '' and a drainage
pump that initiates automatically when the sump is full.
For the security of the pumping station an independent flood alarm system shall also be
installed. This system shall consist of a level controller '' Pear shape type '' positioned 20 cm
above the floor which will inform the Control room.
A telephone booth shall be provided inside the building adjacent to the pump room with a vision
panel in to the pump room. A flashing white light shall be installed to indicate the phone is
ringing in the pump room. The operator must go into the telephone booth to operate the phone.

Date: 14/05/2015
6.7 Ventilation
Ventilation will be provided to protect against over heating equipment, and will be either air
conditioning, heat extraction or a mixture of both and shall be designed for internal (motor,
lighting etc...) and external loads (structure, climatic conditions). A specific ventilation study is
required for each installation.
7. HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT
7.1 Schematic layout of a pumping station
Manometer
Pressure
sonde
Anti-ram
PI Sondes
temperature & Meter
Suction vibration Discharge
WM
Sonde
temperature &
vibration
A typical pumping station has at least the following equipment:

 Suction pipe;
 Discharge pipe;
 Motorised Operated Valves (gate valves, non-return valves and butterfly valves) with
electrical actuators;
 2 pumps (minimum or 33 % standby) with temperature and vibration sensors (for
pumps above 20kW);
 Pressure gauges;
 Surge vessels (bladder/air compressor type);
 Anti ram / Surge Tank;
 Air compressor (depends on type of surge vessel);
 Secondary or post chlorination (optional);
 Online water quality monitoring (optional);
 Sampling points (on inlet and outlet);
 Flow meter;
 Pressure transmitters;
By-pass for booster stations only.

Date: 14/05/2015
7.2 Pipes
The type of pipe depends on the fluid being transported and the environment in which it is
installed. Usually, suction and discharge pipes are made of steel (cast or carbon steel).
7.3 Valves
 Isolation valves are installed on suction and discharge pipes, and, by-pass pipelines.
 The discharge valve(s) should be modulating type and motorized.
 Pump controls must have an emergency shutdown power check feature for surge
protection when power fails.
 Air release, air vacuum release or combination of air release and vacuum valves are to
be provided at critical locations in the pumping station piping.
Unless otherwise required, the discharge side of all pumps is to be provided with flow control
valves as well as check valves
Drain valves should be also installed on the suction and discharge pipes of each pump.
Tapping points for pressure monitoring should be installed at the suction and delivery sides of
each pump as well as on the common header of suction and discharge.
7.4 Flow meter
In order to measure the flow at outlet of pumping station, an electromagnetic or ultrasonic flow
meter shall be installed at the discharge line
7.5 Disinfection
Water quality studies are necessary to choose the type of disinfection, its installation, control,
storage, handling and transport requirements.
For the disinfection see TET/DG/5007 design guidelines for Disinfection and Secondary
Chlorination.
7.6 Electrical equipment
For the fixed speed pump soft starter should be installed.
For the variable speed VFD should be installed.
All electrical panels, switchgear and electrical control equipment should be located in the
electrical room. Good visibility of panels is necessary as is proper warning and danger signage
on the equipment. The electrical panels should have at least 30% extra capacity for extension.
Every electrical panel shall be equipped with command buttons with three positions (Manual,
Automatic and stop).
The main parameters (power, power factor, power totalizer, voltage, current, temperature, hour
running meter etc.) should be displayed.
The electrical equipment room shall be separated from pump room. It could be either in a
separate building or physically separated from the pump room by a structurally sound dividing

Date: 14/05/2015
wall with a viewing pane. Normally the second internal door to the room should have no
windows. This room should be air conditioned.
Emergency push isolation button or dead man’s switch should be provided.
The general electric supply must be dual and able to take a permanent or temporary stand by
generator. Switch over arrangements, automatic or manual, need to be decided.
The medium/high voltage electrical cells should be equipped with an automatic restart system.
The power supplied to the Pumping station should have the capacity to run all the pumps
including stand-by pump if needed.
7.7 Emergency Power
Pumping stations should be equipped with an emergency un-interrupted power supply with
sufficient capacity to provide electric output in case of main power failure.
7.8 Fire Protection
After checking the fire protection regulations authority, the following fire detection/suppression
systems should be installed: Heat/ smoke detection in all rooms. Suitable Fire extinguishing /
suppression appropriate to the installed equipment and size of the site. For example CO2 for all
electrical equipment, dry powder for generators and foam for fires on liquid fuels and oils. This
will be established by a risk assessment of the blue print by HSE Department PAEW. Alarm
should be both, audible on site and relay back to the operations centre.
7.9 Safety Shower and Eye Wash
Safety showers must be available in all areas where there is a high concentration of chemicals
or substances with the potential to harm. This could be one or more on larger sites. The shower
must be constructed of steel and rise from the floor at least 2.5 metres with a shower arm at
right angle to the main body “length of 0.5 metres” and a shower head 20 cm wide. It must
have a pull handle activation that will release abundant amounts of water from a free flowing
main or tank that is at normal body temperature between 16 and 26 ° C. The water must run for
a minimum of 30 minutes. Around the base of the shower must be an interceptor that can take
the residue chemical or substance away to safe storage (Remember that this storage must be
emptied after emergency use). The shower must be green with white striping and must be
signed above and from any substance source it must be a maximum of 10 meters from any
substance.
Attached to the safety shower fitted to the main stem at about 1.2 metres should be an eye
wash which is activated on opening allowing the injured person to places eyes in the flow of
water which must be controlled a reasonable speed so as not to cause further damage. This
should also empty to the interceptor.

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8. SCADA
The Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) shall supervise, monitor and control the pumping station. For more detailed information
of control and automation refer latest version of TET/DG/5009.
All the data shall be collected from the different units and transferred to the Regional Control
Room.
The following represents the basic minimum which should be monitored in the SCADA system.
 Electrical actuated valves: Open, intermediate, Closed, % opening;
 Pump: Start, Stop, running, trip;
 Pressure alarm: low , high, normal;
 Pump Temperature control;
 Pump discharge control;
 Pump operation mode (automatic/manual)
 Vibration sensors;
 Pressure control;
 Level: Low , high, normal;
 Water quality parameters;
 Energy consumption for each pump;
 Number of hours in operation (for maintenance );
 Flood alarm;
 Doors access control;
 Situation of electrical power;
 Historic.
The following indicators shall be present in fault inquiry status:

 MCC/Local
 Auto Stop; Auto Running
 Auto Trip
 Fault/ Out of service
 Manual Stop; Manual Running
 Manual Trip

Date: 14/05/2015
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION Issue: 1.4
PIPELINES
- Page 8 : 1.9: last point corrected ‘’risk of water hammer
1.3 26/03/14 (surge’’ removed and integrated by-pass allowed also.
- Page 40: 4.2.1: last point corrected ‘’risk of water hammer
(surge’’ removed and integrated by-pass allowed also.
1.4 14/05/15 - Section 1.3 added

- Section 1.10.10 and 5.3.3 amended
- Table added in section 5.4
- Few typo errors corrected
Contents
1. GENERAL.................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Sizing .................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Location of pipe and equipment ............................................................................................................ 3
1.3 PAEW pipeline and OBC duct .............................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Identification ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.1 Warning tape ......................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.2 Marking ................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Pipe laying Techniques ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Accessibility .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Materials ............................................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Pipeline connection ............................................................................................................................... 7
1.8.1 Self anchored joints ............................................................................................................................... 7
1.8.2 Anchor (Thrust) blocks ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.9 Joints ..................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.9.1 HDPE pipes ........................................................................................................................................... 8
1.10 Valves ................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.10.1 Isolating valve ................................................................................................................................... 9
1.10.2 Manual Valve.................................................................................................................................... 9
1.10.3 Motorised Valve ............................................................................................................................... 9
1.10.4 Equipment for operating valves ........................................................................................................ 9
1.10.5 Non-return valves .......................................................................................................................... 10
1.10.6 Air valves ........................................................................................................................................ 10
1.10.7 Washout valves ............................................................................................................................... 10
1.10.8 Pressure regulating valves .............................................................................................................. 10
1.10.9 Metering .......................................................................................................................................... 12
1.10.10 Fire hydrants ................................................................................................................................... 13
1.11 Network protection.............................................................................................................................. 13
1.11.1 Protection against corrosion for pipes ............................................................................................. 13
1.11.2 Cathodic protection for steel pipes ................................................................................................. 13
2. HYDRAULIC CALCULATION ............................................................................................................. 14
2.1 Basic equations ................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 Darcy – Weisbach equation................................................................................................................. 16
2.3 Empirical formula ............................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Hazen – Williams formula .................................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Manning formula ................................................................................................................................. 19
2.3.3 Head losses through fittings and valves .............................................................................................. 19
2.4 Hydraulic thrust ................................................................................................................................... 20
2.5 Self Anchoring Joints .......................................................................................................................... 21
2.5.1 Calculation of anchoring lengths ......................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Anchor (Thrust) blocks ....................................................................................................................... 23
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2.6.1 Anchor (Thrust) block calculation ...................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Anchor (Thrust) Block Standards ....................................................................................................... 24
2.8 Water hammer (surge)......................................................................................................................... 24
2.8.1 Water hammer (surge) protection ....................................................................................................... 25
3. PIPE INSTALLATION ............................................................................................................................ 26
3.1 Excavation ........................................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Trench width ....................................................................................................................................... 28
3.3 Trench depth ....................................................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Safety in excavations........................................................................................................................... 29
3.5 Trench Safety (Battering) .................................................................................................................... 29
3.6 Trench safety (Shoring) ....................................................................................................................... 30
3.7 Pipe bed ............................................................................................................................................... 30
3.8 Pipe laying........................................................................................................................................... 30
3.9 Nuts, bolts and washers ....................................................................................................................... 31
3.10 Gaskets and joint rings ........................................................................................................................ 32
3.11 Pipe storage ......................................................................................................................................... 32
3.12 Backfilling ........................................................................................................................................... 32
3.13 Road and wadi crossings ..................................................................................................................... 33
3.13.1 Road crossings ................................................................................................................................ 34
3.13.2 Crossing through existing ducts / culverts ...................................................................................... 34
3.13.3 Wadi crossings ................................................................................................................................ 35
3.14 Valve chambers and surface boxes ..................................................................................................... 35
3.15 Hydraulic testing ................................................................................................................................. 38
3.16 Disinfection and flushing .................................................................................................................... 39
4. DESIGN OF WATER TRANSMISSION PIPELINES ............................................................................ 39
4.1 Recommended materials ..................................................................................................................... 40
4.2 Valves on transmission systems .......................................................................................................... 40
4.2.1 Isolating valves ................................................................................................................................... 40
4.2.2 Air valves ............................................................................................................................................ 41
4.2.3 Washout valves ................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.4 Pressure regulating valves ................................................................................................................... 41
5. DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES ............................................................................. 41
5.1 Pipe size .............................................................................................................................................. 44
5.2 Pressure ............................................................................................................................................... 44
5.3 Methods of supplying potable water ................................................................................................... 45
5.3.1 Metered House connections, ............................................................................................................... 45
5.3.2 Tanker distribution .............................................................................................................................. 46
5.3.3 TFS Location....................................................................................................................................... 46
5.3.3.1 Control Panel .................................................................................................................................. 47
5.3.3.2 Control Unit .................................................................................................................................... 48
5.3.3.3 Data Transmission .......................................................................................................................... 49
5.3.3.4 Water delivery point (bay) .............................................................................................................. 50
5.3.3.5 Data Report to Control Room ......................................................................................................... 51
5.4 Water meters ....................................................................................................................................... 52
5.5 Leakage and wastage control .............................................................................................................. 53
5.6 Recommended materials ..................................................................................................................... 54
6. SCADA..................................................................................................................................................... 55
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1. GENERAL
1.1 Sizing
The design of a pipeline is to be validated systematically by a hydraulic study. The design will
be done taking into account:
 Design criteria;
 Pipeline material;
 Meteorological conditions;
 Location (geographical) / Purpose (transmission or distribution);
 Soil conditions;
 Operating conditions.
The following factors should be considered when sizing a pipeline:

 Minimum and maximum pressure;
 The designed capacity (present and projected demand);
 Fire protection;
 Optimum diameter to reduce pipe laying costs;
 Risk of stagnation due to low velocity or water hammer due to high velocity;
 Impact on the upstream and downstream network;
 CAPEX vs OPEX considerations.
Appropriate consideration must be given to the pressure ratings of pipe materials however all
hydraulic calculations carried out during design shall be based upon nominal diameters.
1.2 Location of pipe and equipment
The location of the pipeline and associated equipment must ensure that:
 They are adequately protected (against outside attacks such as traffic, ground
contamination by chemical spillage, physical impact, weather conditions);
 The pipe will not be exposed to ultra violet light during transport and storage where this
would impair its integrity and projected operating life;
 Away from all existing and proposed utility infrastructures specially wastewater;
 accessibility for the safe operation and maintenance of equipment;
 accessibility for later maintenance and extension works without adverse impact on other
networks belonging to PAEW or others;
 minimum impact on the operation and integrity of the existing network during
construction work;
 In case of future mains failure the risk of flooding and third party damage is minimized.
Based on the direction of flow, pipeline profiles with gradual ascents and rapid descents
facilitate air collection at high spots, whilst preventing any air entrainment and the ready
evacuation of the pipe for maintenance. And also high points after pumps.
Washouts provide for the discharge of water from a pipeline to facilitate emergency repair /
maintenance works, periodical drain to clear deposits and stagnation.
These appurtenances must be sized to allow for the rapid evacuation of air / water. Air valves
are meant for both letting air in and out at the time of refilling and emptying.
Consequently the following precautions should be taken:
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 Provide the main with a gradient to facilitate upward movement of the air (install with a
minimum gradient of 2 to 3 mm/m);
 Avoid excessive gradient changes caused by following ground contours wherever
possible, particularly for large diameter pipes;
 If the profile is flat, create as many artificial high and low spots as possible, to give
gradients of:
 2 to 3 mm/m in ascending sections;
 4 to 6 mm/m in descending sections.
Extreme care must be taken to ensure that air valve chambers are not flooded as this will
permit contaminated groundwater to enter a pipeline.
Pipeline installations should incorporate:
 Appropriately sized automatic air vents at every high point, single/double/combined;

 Adequate wash-out / drain facilities at every low point (if flooding of the washout / drain
point is possible mitigating action must be taken to ensure their ready availability for
use).
 In general, air valve must be provided at regular interval of every 500m - 750 m.
The position of pipe and accessories must be such that:
 Future operational activities can be performed safely;

 Emergency intervention is possible without special equipment;
 The assets (such as valves and hydrants) are accessible at all times.
Pipes should be installed along a pre-arranged route. The preferred location for distribution
mains in urban areas is under the footpath. Transmission mains must be carefully sited to avoid
risk of damage to third party property in the event of pipe burst. If possible pipes should not be
installed under storm drains, sewers, major roads, vegetation or parking areas and minimum
5m away from the compound premises.
Sometimes mains will cross but in no case should they be installed in a way that makes future
intervention impossible.
The depth of pipeline should be chosen in such way that the slope of the pipeline is as constant
as possible. Unless it is unavoidable the cover over the crown on a pipe is to be as equal as or
greater than 1.0 m. A deeper profile is justified if the environment requires it so as to avoid
distortion of the pipe due to external stresses or the operating conditions is such that it may
cause the pipe to be lifted upwards if there is insufficient weight on it. And to provide the
required gradients referred to above.
Normally DI pipe is able to withstand normal ground pressures. If a HDPE pipe is being laid, the
design of the bedding and backfill is an essential element of the pipe design.
1.3 PAEW pipeline and OBC duct
The OBC (Oman Broadband Company) is determined to provide broadband services all across
Oman. In order to expedite the implementation of duct and reduce the project managerial
process, OBC joined hands with PAEW. For OBC 110mm dia uPVC pipeline shall be laid
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along with PAEW pipeline in the same trench (including transmission and distribution).
However, the requirements of OBC and its detail layout/requirements should be discussed with
PAEW/OBC during the commencement of each project.
1.4 Identification
1.4.1 Warning tape

Warning tape indicates the presence of a pipe and the type of liquid being transported. It must:
 Be immediately recognizable;
 Be visible before excavation reach an area where there is a direct threat of exposing
the pipeline;
 Be installed throughout the length of pipeline;
 Be detectable by pipe locating equipment;
 Have some identification / warning markings on it.
The warning grid should be detectable by a metal detector or pipe locating equipment.
Fig. Warning Tape
Detailed specification of warning tape is given in Standard Specifications TET/SS/5017.
1.4.2 Marking
Marking and numbering of valves and hydrants should be done in an acceptable level. The
marking should indicate all necessary information (such as distance and direction) to ensure
traceability.
This will help to identify ,hydrants and valves, during any subsequent maintenance intervention
and to assist the emergency services.
1.5 Pipe laying Techniques
The choice of pipe laying technique is based on the following criteria:
 Pipe diameter;
 Soil types ( mountain, gravel plain, tidal etc...);
 Obstacles (highway, wadis etc...);
 The length of underground structure requiring access;
 Traffic constraints and traffic loads;
 Proximity of other utility networks;
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 Operating constraints of the network;
 Cost.
The different types of execution technique available includes:
 Standard Open Cut Trenching : because of its simplicity and low cost this technique is
the most common;
 Narrow trenching: A variation of the open cut technique but using specially designed
excavators to minimise the surface area disturbed;
 Trenchless technologies such as micro-tunnelling, horizontal direct drilling, thrust boring
etc... and is especially useful in urban areas;
1.6 Accessibility
Every pipe and its associated valves, hydrants etc. should be accessible for maintenance. In
these latter circumstances consideration must be given and documented to the ability to
provide alternative supplies of water in the event of pipe failure. During the planning and design
stages of a project operations staff must be consulted to obtain local knowledge with respect to
this issue.
For large diameter pipes ( DN ≥ 1200mm) accessibility not only includes access to the outside
of pipeline but also the inside.
The purpose of this internal accessibility is to:

 Facilitate the diagnosis of external and internal pipe condition in the future;
 Allow the repair and maintenance of the pipe.
Pipes of diameter ≥ 1200 mm must be fitted with blanked off branch tees so that access to the
inside of the pipe is possible for a man and / or an automated machine carrying a camera
without the need to cut the pipe wall.
1.7 Materials
The choice of material must consider the following:
 Meteorological conditions which may lead to ground movement / exposure to direct

sunlight;
 Soil condition that could cause external corrosion;
 Hydraulic capacity (internal diameter);
 Lifetime of the main to ensure an adequate return on the investment;
 Maintenance and repair of the pipe material;
 Possibility of the future installation of additional branch connections, valves etc;
 Suitability to use in potable water;
 Cost.
The pipe materials widely used in Oman are Ductile Iron and Mild Steel for transmission
pipelines, Ductile Iron and HDPE for distribution networks. In the past other materials such as
PVC, Asbestos Cement, Galvanised iron and MDPE were used but these are no longer in use.
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Each type of main has a pressure class also known as a pressure rating (normally measured in
bar). This is a measure of the maximum operating pressure that a pipe can withstand without
failing.
Mains can normally survive transient pressures in excess of this for short periods of time.
These higher pressures are normally the result of pressure surge caused by sudden changes
of rate of flows on the network associated with pumps switching on and off or valves suddenly
opening and closing.
If operating pressures, pumping conditions etc. are likely to cause surges of pressure in excess
of the pipe rating then surge protection facilities should be considered.
1.8 Pipeline connection
The connection between pipe elements must make a water-tight joint and, if a flexible pipe,
allow for movement between the pipes :
 Ensure the sustainability of the installation;

 Be consistent;
 Minimise space requirement (space taken by the installation);
 Allow for future maintenance.
1.8.1 Self anchored joints

The thrust are generated in water supply system where pipe changes in direction, varying cross
section, branch off-takes and dead ends. In general, volume of thrust block (for acute bends
and high pressure) is more and size may not fit in especially in urban areas where the space is
a constraint self-anchoring is an alternative to using concrete anchor blocks to absorb hydraulic
thrust forces.
It is an attractive option when there are restrictions, notably in urban areas, when it is difficult to
obtain sufficient quantities of concrete. It is also time saving when pipe laying and allows pipes
to be tested immediately after being laid as there is no need to wait for concrete to set.
1.8.2 Anchor (Thrust) blocks

If self anchoring are not used then anchor blocks must be provided at each change of direction,
horizontal and vertical, and pipe termination (bends, tees, end plugs, etc). Also at in-line valves
these are to be made of concrete, designed to withstand the test pressure of the system and
take into consideration the depth of pipe and type of soil against which the block is to thrust.
Care must be taken to ensure that the soil behind a thrust has not and will not be disturbed by,
for example, another service trench and any other nearby property.
The block is to be designed for submerged ground conditions, if appropriate. For large diameter
pipes, thrust blocks are structural elements and should be designed as a structure.
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1.9 Joints
Joints should be flexible when the pipe elements are installed in unstable soil.
1.9.1 HDPE pipes

The connection will be made by using electro fusion weld fittings (couplers, elbows and tees) or
butt fusion welding.
1.10 Valves
Isolating valves (gate valves, butterfly valves) allow for the operation of the network, its
protection and its hydraulic isolation when necessary. Gate valves with flanged joints shall be
used on pipelines ≤ DN 400. For pipelines above DN 400 butterfly valves shall be used.
Specifications of all valves are given in the Standard Specifications.
Valves should be installed so that, where possible, all parts of the network can be controlled
without adversely affecting another part. As a minimum requirement valves shall be installed:
 On all branch connections;

 On all branches from feeder mains;
 At intervals of 1 kilometre;
 Not less than 2 valves at a tee;
 Not less than 3 valves at a cross.
The following types of valves are also used in a water network:
 Non-return valves;
 Pressure regulating valves;
 Flow control valves;
 Dismantling joints shall be used at each valve to facilitate the easy removal of a valve
from pipeline. This ensures consistency of equipment used on the network to facilitate
maintenance;
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 Valves shall be operable from the surface using the means by which they were
designed to be operated and equipped with a protection tube / chamber and surface
box.
 For DN > 400 the valve must have a smaller diameter by-pass valve. This allows ease
operating of the valve and the main to be filled with minimum risk after repair or
maintenance. Valves with integrated by-pass are also acceptable.
1.10.1 Isolating valve

Isolating valves shall:
 Be readily accessible for operations at all times;

 Be easily operable by the means they were designed to be operated (secure and safe
when operating );
 Always have the same direction of closure;
 Be operated in a way that does not create water hammer.
1.10.2 Manual Valve

All manual valve should be clockwise operation for closing.
1.10.3 Motorised Valve

In cases where:
 Operation of a valve could cause risk of injury to the operator;
 Remote control of a valve is desirable for control purposes.
Then the operation of valve using an electric actuator shall be considered.
If electric actuators are used following conditions are to be considered:

 Identify if there is any flood risk to cables and switchgear;
 Provide electrical isolation switches in a position that permits their safe operation;
 Have the electrical system accessible for maintenance and verification;
 Make operation and testing simple and convenient.
1.10.4 Equipment for operating valves

All valves must be capable of being operated with a standard operating ``Tee`` key with
standard square cap. Where this is not possible the square operating cap of a valve should be
equipped with a telescopic / fixed length operating units.
Fig. operating ``Tee`` key
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The valves could be also hand operated with manoeuvre wheel.
Fig. Operating unit
1.10.5 Non-return valves

The non-return valves permits a fluid flow in one direction only. They are used in pumping
stations in the pressure line to prevent a reverse flow in the pumps, and to ensure the correct
flow of water into and out of storage reservoirs.
1.10.6 Air valves

Air valves are designed to perform the following:
 During filling, to remove the air present in the pipelines;
 Under working conditions to remove air that accumulates at high points;
 When a pipeline is emptied air must be admitted to break the vacuum and allow the
water to be drained rapidly.
Air valves are located at high points of pipelines, and in long ascending stretches of moderate
slope at 500- 750 m intervals. Also where abrupt changes of slope exist an air valve is to be
installed.
1.10.7 Washout valves
Washout valves should be installed at all low points and at the termination point of dead-ends
to make water disposal easier and more convenient. (if flooding of the wash out / drain point is
possible mitigating action must be taken to ensure their ready availability for use).
1.10.8 Pressure regulating valves

Pressure reducing and pressure sustaining valves are installed following detailed modelling of
anticipated pressures in the system. They are used to control the pipeline pressure
downstream and upstream of the valve respectively and facilitate the management of pressure
to prevent over pressurisation and/or to maintain the adequate supply pressures
For example in distribution networks with large differences in ground level the water pressure at
low points can be higher than desired leading to higher rates of water loss and increased
numbers of leakages.
Specifications of all valves are given in the Standard Specifications.
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Fig. Gate Valve
Fig. Butterfly Valve
Fig. Different types of non-return valves
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Fig. Different types of air valves
Fig. Regulating valve (flow / pressure)
1.10.9 Metering
Metering is essential if the performance of transmission and distribution of the networks are to
be calculated. The results of these calculations can then be used to prioritize where field
investigations need to be carried out based upon the performance level of the associated
networks.
Meters should be installed at the following locations in order that the performance of the
networks can be calculated.
 Production sites;
 Reservoir inlet and outlet;
 Pumping station outlet;
 Tanker Filling stations;
 Bulk off takes;
 District Metered Areas inlet.
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1.10.10 Fire hydrants
Fire fighting demands should be taken into consideration in the design of water distribution
networks.
Fire hydrants should be installed on water distribution systems.
For each project, the location of a fire hydrant is determined in coordination with the Public
Authority for Civil Defence and Ambulance (PACDA).
After installation each fire hydrant shall be checked and approved by the competent authority
and certificate from PACDA to be obtained by the Contractor
Pillar type hydrants shall be installed adjacent to public roads.
Fire hydrant shall be on a pipe not less than 100 mm diameter. The operating pressure of the
nearby line should not go less than 1.5 bar when the fire hydrant is used at the rate of 60 m3/h.
Fig. Fire Hydrant
Specification of fire hydrant is given in the Standard Specifications TET-SS-5024.
1.11 Network protection
1.11.1 Protection against corrosion for pipes

This is a highly specialised area so the following points are only general guidelines. If corrosion
protection in addition to that provided by the manufacture of the pipe / components is believed
to be needed, expert assistance should be employed during the design stage.
Otherwise all pipes and other pipeline components susceptible to corrosion shall be provided
with adequate protection during manufacture. (For example coating or resin with PPE layers).
During installation great care must be taken to avoid damaging protective coatings.
1.11.2 Cathodic protection for steel pipes

Cathodic protection is a technique used to control corrosion of a metal surface by making it the
cathode of an electrochemical cell.
If necessary a cathodic protection system shall be installed to protect and monitor the pipeline.
All work related to cathodic protection systems shall be designed and supervised by a
specialist. The work shall be based upon the guidelines for best practices as detailed in
International Standards.
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2. HYDRAULIC CALCULATION
Hydraulic design of pipelines is to be done using a recognised hydraulic formulae such as

Hazen Williams or using manufacturer`s tables or graphs. Detailed calculations are required to
assess headloss through fittings etc.. within pumping stations and similar locations.
2.1 Basic equations
The most useful of basic equations is Bernoulli’s equation:
P+ ρ.g.z.+ 1/2 ρ.v2
Where
P = pressure (N/m2 );
ρ = mass density of liquid (Kg/m3);
g = gravitational constant (m/s2);
z= height above datum line (m);
v= flow velocity (m/s).
The limitation of the equation are :
 Water flow is a steady flow along a streamline;

 There is no energy lost through friction.
In reality, however a certain energy loss due to friction, hf , will occur, and the equation now
becomes (see Figure 1):
Figure 1 Hydraulic gradient
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p1 v12 p v2
  Z1  2  2  Z 2  h f
g 2 g g 2 g
Where
= the velocity head (kinetic energy of movement),
z = the elevation head (the position energy above some given datum line in a gravitational
field),
= the pressure head,
The velocity of flow, v , is the average velocity. In a pipeline, which is not partially empty its
value equals , which is the discharge (m3/s) divided by the cross sectional area of the pipeline
bore (m2).
The modified equation of Bernoulli can be used for flow in pipelines which are not partially
empty. If the pipeline has a uniform diameter throughout the length considered, then v1 = v 2
and the kinetic energy term is constant.
The equation reduces to:

p1 p
 Z1  2  Z 2  h f
g g
If, furthermore, the pipeline has the same level at point 1 and at point 2 then:
p1 p 2
  hf
g g
This means that the pressure lost in a straight pipe is equal to the energy lost through friction.
The total loss of head during transportation in a pipeline system is summation of the following
losses:
 Friction losses ( h f );
 Entrance losses (α 1);
 Losses in bends and curves (α 2);
 Losses resulting from diameter changes (α 3);
 Losses in valves, elbows, union (α 4);
 Exit losses (α 5).
These losses are proportional to the velocity head .

The total loss of head (H) equals:
H = ( f. + α1 + α2+ α3+ α4 + α5 ) .
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2.2 Darcy – Weisbach equation
The Darcy – Weisbach equation is an expression for the head losses by friction when water
flows through a circular pipe. The expression is dimensionally correct as opposed to the
empirical formula which will be discussed in the paragraph 2.3. The latter type of formula has a
lesser accuracy.
f  l  v2
hf 
2 g  D
Where
h f = friction losses in meter head of water (m.w.c);

f = friction factor (dimensionless);
l = Length of pipe (m);
D = internal diameter of pipe (m);
v = flow velocity (m/s);
g = gravitational constant (m/s2).
The friction factor (f) is dependent on the type of pipe and flow, assessed by the Reynolds
number (Re), upon the roughness of the interior surface of the pipe or wall-roughness (k), and
upon the diameter of pipe (D).
One of the expressions for the determination of the friction factor is Colebrook expression:
Where
Re = Reynolds number
k = Wall roughness coefficient (mm),
The Reynolds number indicates the type of flow, which can be a laminar or smooth type of flow
(Re <2000 ), a turbulent flow (Re > 4000), or a transitional type of flow (Re = 2000 to 4000).
For circular pipes which are completely filled, the Reynolds number equals:
Where
= flow velocity (m/s);

Ʋ= kinematic viscosity (m2/s).
Through the Kinematic viscosity the Reynolds number is dependent upon the temperature.
Figure 2 shows the friction factor being dependent upon the Reynolds number and the relative
wall-roughness.
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The roughness coefficient of several pipe materials is shown in Table 1. When using a formula
the determination of the friction factor can only be done by iteration because of the Colebrook
expression being an implicit expression. As a first estimation of (f) a value of 0.025 is taken.
In practice two first-estimate values of the roughness (k) are used:
1.Smooth non-corroding piping with scaling unlikely, e.g. plastic, asbestos cement, centrifuged
cement: theoretical value for materials in new condition, k = 0.03 mm. In practice, k = 0.1 mm.
2.Corrodible piping and probable scaling:

Piping carrying water which is relatively aggressive or corrosive, scale producing, or turbid, k =
2 mm.
Non-aggressive, non scale forming, k = 1 mm,
Figure 2 : Friction factor (f)
Table 1 Roughness Coefficient (k)

Usual value index of roughness (k) in mm
Nature of interior surface Index roughness k
1 Copper, lead, brass, stainless 0,001 to 0,002
2 PVC pipe 0,0015
3 Stainless steel 0,015
4 Steel commercial pipe 0,045 à 0,09
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Usual value index of roughness (k) in mm
Nature of interior surface Index roughness k
5 Stretched steel 0,015
6 Weld steel 0,045
7 Galvanized steel 0,15
8 Rusted steel 0,1 to 1
9 Smoothed cement/ DI 0,3
10 Ordinary concrete 1
11 Coarse concrete 5
A first estimation of the head loss by friction can be obtained using Table 2. In this table values
are given of the f/D ratio, being the friction factor divided by the pipe diameter. The values can
be substituted in the Darcy-Weisbach formula:
f  l  v2
hf 
2 g  D
Where
h f = friction losses in meter head of water (m.w.c);

f = friction factor (dimensionless);
l = Length of pipe (m);
D = internal diameter of pipe (m);
v = flow velocity (m/s);
g = gravitational constant (m/s2).
2.3 Empirical formula
Several empirical expressions exists to determine the friction loss. This type of expression is
more convenient to handle, though less accurate.
2.3.1 Hazen – Williams formula
hf = . ( )1.85
or
R0.63 . J 0.54
Where
= is the conversion factor for the unit system (k = 0.849 for SI units);
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R = hydraulic radius;
C = roughness coefficient, which take in to account some increase in roughness as pipe ages
are as follows.
VALUES OF THE HAZEN WILLIAMS COEFFICIENT C FOR VARIOUS KIND OF PIPE
Material C Factor low C Factor high

Cement-Mortar Lined Ductile Iron Pipe 140 140
Concrete 100 140
Copper 130 140
Steel 90 110
Galvanized iron 120 120
Polyethylene 140 140
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 130 130
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) 150 150
2.3.2 Manning formula
hf = . .
or
= . R2/3 . J ½
The Manning formula has the advantage that H is proportional to v2, the coefficient (n) being
constant for a given type of pipe.
Since the friction loss caused by fittings is usually expressed as α . v2. This formula is used for
lengths of pipelines involving many fittings.
2.3.3 Head losses through fittings and valves
The head losses due to the flow through bends, tees, entrances, sudden enlargements, sudden
contractions, valves etc are generally expressed as:
hf =α.
The value of α for various types of obstacles is given in table below.
Friction loss through constrictions in pipelines.
The factor is dependent on the Reynolds number and in case of turbulent flow also on the
roughness of the material. For smooth surfaces and a turbulent flow some theoretical values of
the friction factor are given in this table.
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FRICTION LOSS FACTOR α
Theoretical value
1 Entrances / exits of α
Standard bellmouth pipe 0.050
Pipe protuding, Broad entrance 1.000
Ordinary entrance 0.500
Gradual exit 0.15 - 0.75
2 Bends
r/D 45° 90°

1 0.14 0.29
2 0.09 0.14
3 0.09 0.13
4 0.08 0.11
3 Tees, 90°, equal diameter
In line flow 0.350
Branch to line or reverse 1.200
4 Sudden enlargement
H = 0.051 (v1- v2 )2
D2/D1
4/3 0.20 (v1)
1.5 0.35 (v1)
2 0.60 (v1)
5 1.00 (v1)
5 Sudden contraction
D2/D1
2/3 0.30 (v1)
0.5 0.35 (v1)
0.2 0.50 (v1)
6 Valves
Gate valve fully open 0.17 - 0.25
Butterfly valve open 0.200
Swing check valve 0.80 - 2.5
Nozzle type check valve 0.16 - 0.23
2.4 Hydraulic thrust
Hydraulic thrust forces occur at changes in direction, reductions in diameter (bends, tees,
tapers) and at the end of pipelines carrying water under pressure. Thrust pressures can be high
and, to prevent failure of the pipeline, must be counterbalanced by appropriately anchored
jointing systems, or by anchor blocks.
The forces can be calculated by the general formula:
F = K.P.A.
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Where
F : thrust force (N);
P: maximum internal pressure (site test pressure) (Pa);
A: cross section (internal for flanged joints, external for all other types) (m2);
K: coefficient which is a function of the shape and dimensions of the pipeline component
concerned.
For Blank flanges, tees: K = 1;
For Reducing tapers : K = 1- where S` being the smaller;
Bends of angle θ K = 2 sin
K = 1.414 for 90° bends;

K = 0.765 for 45° bends;
K = 0.390 for 22½° bends;
K = 0.196 for 11¼° bends.
2.5 Self Anchoring Joints
The utilisation of self-anchoring systems is growing all over the world. These solutions are
taking the place of concrete anchor (thrust) blocks.
These self-anchoring technologies offer the following advantages:
 Limited space required underground;

 Reduction of logistic constraints;
 Quick installation;
 Proven stability and durability;
 Sustainable development.
2.5.1 Calculation of anchoring lengths
The technique is based on the principle of anchoring joints over a sufficient length on both sides
of a region of hydraulic thrust, such as a bend, in order to harness soil/pipe friction forces to
counteract the thrust force.
The calculation of the length to be anchored does not depend on the anchoring system used. It
depends on the test pressure, the pipe diameter and the parameters shown in the two figures,
C & D.
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Situations requiring anchoring of pipelines
Parameters used to calculate anchoring length
The following formula is used to calculate the anchoring length:
L= x x ) xc
Where
L : anchoring length (in m);
P : on-site test pressure (in Pa);
S : cross section (in m2);
n : bend angle (in radians)
c : safety coefficient (generally 1.5);
Fn : frictional force per meter of pipe (in N/m).
Fn = K. (2.We + Wp + Ww)
Wp : weight per meter of empty pipe (in N/m);

Ww: weight per meter of water (in N/m);
K : coefficient of earth fill pressure distribution around pipes
(depending on compacting, K = 1.1 to 1.5)
f : coefficient of soil/pipe friction;
We : weight per meter of earth fill (in N/m);
We = .HD 1
α1 = 1, for test with joints with earth fill;
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α1 = 2/3, for test with uncovered joints;
D : pipe outside diameter (in m);
H : covering height (in m).
A safety coefficient may be applied to the length to be anchored, depending on:
 the laying conditions;

 the quality and compaction of the earth fill;
 the uncertainty regarding the physical characteristics of the earth fill.
2.6 Anchor (Thrust) blocks
Various types of concrete anchor blocks can be designed, depending on the configuration of
main, strength and type of soil, presence, or absence, of significant amounts of ground water.
The anchor blocks must be designed to withstand the thrust force, either by bearing on side of
the trench if the soil is sufficiently resistant or by their own weight.
2.6.1 Anchor (Thrust) block calculation
Thrust T = 2 pS .sin
Where
p = hydraulic test pressure;

s = cross sectional area of the pipe;
α = angle of the bend;
Horizontal reaction force concrete block soil
U= .M
Where
= allowable horizontal soil pressure;
M = area of vertical contact surface of concrete block/soil.
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Friction concrete block / soil
V=βN
Where
β = friction factor concrete soil;

N = weight concrete block;
U + V shall be greater than T.
2.7 Anchor (Thrust) Block Standards
The thrust force can be calculated using the following formula:
For Bends:
T = 2 P .S .sin
Where
T = Thrust force in Newton (N);

P = hydraulic (test ) pressure in Pa (N/m2);
S = cross sectional area of pipe (m2);
α = angle of the bend.
For tees and blanks:
T=P.S
For Reducers:
T = P (S1 – S2)
The area of the thrust block (A) required to sustain the thrust force (T) is to be related to the
safe bearing capacity (ϕ) of the soil concerned.
When the pipeline lies in a horizontal plane the thrust force is sustained by the horizontal soil
pressure together with the friction between the concrete block and the soil.
Standards for anchors and thrust block are shown in the Standard Drawings.
2.8 Water hammer (surge)
If the flow rate of a liquid in a pipe is abruptly altered, there is a violent change in pressure. This
transient problem, known as water hammer or surge, generally occurs when ancillary
equipment is interrupted or operated (pumps, valves etc...). Waves of pressure surges and
pressure drops sweep through the main until an obstruction stops them. The pressure
generated is destructive and has to be released. If no protection systems are in place the surge
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seeks out the weakest part of the pipeline and causes a catastrophic failure at that point. Water
hammer can occur equally well in gravity and pumping mains.
There are four main sources of water hammer:

 Pump starting and stopping;
 Opening and closing of valves, fire hydrants, wash outs rapidly etc.;
 The presence of air;
 Inadequate functioning of protective equipment.
Five factors determine the severity of water hammer:
 Velocity of the water;

 Modulus of elasticity of the pipe material;
 Inside diameter of the pipe;
 Wall thickness of the pipe;
 Valve opening / closing time.
The velocity of the pressure wave can be determined from the formula:
0.5
c=
Where
c = velocity of the pressure wave;

ρ= density of the fluid (kg/m3), for water ρ= 1000;
K = modulus compression of the fluid (N/m2), for water K = 2,03.109 N/m2;
D = inside pipe diameter (m);
t = pipe wall thickness (m);
E = modulus elasticity of pipe wall material (N/m2).
Esteel = 2,1.1011 N/m2; EDuctile Iron = 1,05.10 11 N/m2; EPe = 1,2.10 8 N/m2; EPVC = 3,1.10 9 N/m2
2.8.1 Water hammer (surge) protection

Although some pipe materials are able to resist certain values of water hammer surges. It is
usually more economic and reliable to provide the pipe system with a surge protection device.
These protective systems are installed to limit water hammer to an acceptable level. There is a
variety of systems and each must be adapted to suit a specific situation. They act by slowing
the change in fluid velocity or by limiting the pressure surge in relation to the pressure drop.
The user must determine the pressure surge and pressure drop envelope created by water
hammer and judge, according to the pipe profile, the type of protection to be installed:
 Pump inertia impellor;

 Pressure relief valve;
 Air or “automatic air control” bladder (surge vessel);
 Auxiliary suction;
 A balancing column.
The anti-water hammer bladders mostly frequently used. It has two functions:
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 Limit the pressure surge (head loss controlled by a check valve);

 Prevent cavitation (balloon drainage).
In the event of a sudden pump shutdown, the pressure drop is offset by a flow rate provided by
draining the balloon.
When the direction of water flow reverses, the energy in the water mass is transformed into a
head loss by filling the bladder through a calibrated check valve.
Where surge vessels are used for surge protection, the pipeline pressures shall not fall below 5
m gauge at the pipe centreline level except at location closer than 20% of the total pipeline
length to a control such as a delivery reservoir or a surge feed tank where the pressures shall
not fall below 2 metres gauge.
The surge tank volume can be determined from the graphs or from computer programs.
The best protection against surge is the careful operation of pumps and valves to avoid the
creation of pressure surges in the first place.
VFD are also used to control the surge at the time of stopping of pumps.
3. PIPE INSTALLATION
Any project should be subject to geotechnical study prior to its commencement. This study
allows for difficulties to be anticipated and technical proposals to be submitted to counter them.
Pipeline route approval shall be obtained from the concerned authorities and land owners and
those who rent.
A survey shall be undertaken to show the locations, dimensions and level of all services and
obstructions in the pipeline route.
A resistivity survey (every 500 m) shall be undertaken along the pipeline route and at all wadi
crossings.
Representative soil surveys shall be carried out along the pipe route to identify contamination
that may cause undue deterioration to the pipeline or contamination of the water it transports.
3.1 Excavation
All required authorizations from local authorities or other utilities should be obtained before
starting excavation work. Based on information gathered from local authorities / utilities
exploration and excavations should be made to determine the precise location and scale of
obstructions and other utilities.
However before any excavation can be carried out the ground must be checked for the
possibility of other utilities, third party intrusions or other risks, soft ground, shingle, proximity of
structures etc., this is normally undertaken at the planning stage where necessary utility plans
and drawings must be obtained if this is impossible due to restrictions or lack of records the
following should be carried out.
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 Visual Inspection of the Area to ensure that there are no drains, manholes, telegraph or
overhead cable poles, ditches, trees or other obstacles that can cause problems during
excavation. Move up to 100 meters away in a circular motion where practicable when
checking;
 Cable location devices (cat and gen) should be used and any findings must be drawn
on the ground prior to excavation;
 Trial Holes should be dug on the line of excavation by hand at intervals of 5 meters or
less if traversing major roads, junctions, paths etc;
 Only when this is carried out should the ground be deemed safe to dig. Where obstacle
is found digging should be by hand only.
Bulk excavation is usually carried out by a machine. When this is not possible then hand
excavation must be used. PAEW’s Consultant shall decide whether and where hand
excavation is required in line with international guidelines set out in chapter 8 (NRSWA new
road and street works). Where utilities or other buried services are known then hand digging
should occur within the last 500 mm of the buried service ensuring that the service is dug
around and supported by straps or strops every 2 meters in an open excavation.
All required authorizations from local authorities or other utilities should be obtained before
starting the work. Based on information gathered from local authorities / utilities exploration and
excavations should be made to determine the precise location and scale of obstructions and
other utilities.
All the necessary precautions shall be taken not to disturb archaeological remains and historical
sites in the vicinity of the works. If any important and historical things are discovered, the
PAEW`s Engineer and the department of Archeology and Antiquities of the Ministry of National
heritage and Culture shall be informed.
If the installation is under the road, and in order not to extensively damage the road surface, the
trench edges shall be pre cut using abrasive wheels. The width of this is to be sufficiently
greater than the trench width to avoid disturbance to the remaining road surface during
excavation.
Trenches shall be excavated to the required line and level as shown on the approved drawings.
The contractor shall deploy appropriate dewatering equipment to keep the excavations free
from water from whatever source, so that the works shall be constructed in dry conditions. Only
under exceptional circumstances will approval be given to proceed with water within an
excavation.
In exceptional circumstances, the use of explosives will be permitted. The contractor shall
obtain all necessary authorisations from the relevant authorities and make himself familiar with
all current regulations of the Royal Oman Police. The explosives shall be stored in an
appropriate and secure magazine. The contractor shall employ staff who are qualified and
experienced in the use of explosives and who have all relevant approvals in writing from the
applicable authorities, for handling explosives and blasting.
Where excavated material does not meet the requirements of Grade A or Type 1 to be re-used
in the excavation, the contractor shall be responsible for the disposal of surplus excavated
material in an environmentally acceptable manner to an off-site location. The contractor shall
present his proposals for such disposal to PAEW for approval before commencing excavation
works. No excavated material suitable for reuse in the works shall be removed from the site
except on the direction, or with the permission, in writing of the engineer.
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In all cases where there is a risk of subsidence from trench walls or other ground problems the
use of trench support systems must be used.
In all cases trenches of over 1.30 meters deep and with a width equal to or less than two-thirds
of the depth must, when their walls are vertical or substantially vertical be adequately
supported.
Width in m
Depends
on soil
Trench support
system Compulsory
Depth in m
3.2 Trench width
The trench width depends on the diameter of the pipe, the type of connection, the type of soil,
the laying depth and the methods of shoring and compaction.
In all cases the trench shall be excavated with sufficient width to ensure that efficient laying and
jointing of the pipes and associated pipeline components is possible. The clear width of the
trench throughout its depth shall be as per PAEW/TET/SD/5019. To reduce the cost of
excavation, and backfill, narrow trench techniques can be used.
During the execution of the work:
 trench walls should be stabilized either by battering or shoring (supporting);

 edges of the excavation should be cleared of lumps of rock or clods of earth to prevent
them from falling;
 excavated material should be deposited at least the same distance away as that of the
trench for example if the trench is 1.2 meters deep the excavation material should be
1.2 meters from the trench`s edge, if a trench is more than 4 meters deep and wide
then the Excavated material should be moved at least 10 meters from the excavation or
removed completely from site to a storage area;
 Where the excavation is known to impinge on neighbouring properties or businesses
then paths shall be designated around the works and be signed and guarded in line with
NRSWA Chapter 8 ( only in exceptional circumstances should the works be broken by
bridging walkways) in this instance temporary bridges shall be installed to allow workers
and pedestrians to cross the trench safely;
 Ladders shall be provided to allow access and egress from trenches but must be
secured and protrude at least 4 rungs above the height of the trench they must not be
worked off.
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3.3 Trench depth
Pipes shall be installed at 1,0 m cover from the top of the pipe to the finished ground level. In
certain cases, with the written permission of the engineer, pipes can be raised or lowered to
cross obstructions. In the case of reduced cover depth the pipe shall be encased in concrete
as specified by the PAEW engineer.
Where trenches are required to be deeper than the general depth, the trench shall be
excavated to the required depth with a gradual slope to permit the proper laying of the main.
Additional excavations will have to be carried out to provide extra space around joints when
necessary and to suit local circumstances.
The minimum horizontal distance between a water pipeline and other utilities shall be 0, 50 m
(except sewer). For more details see standard drawing Typical Pipe Laying TET/SD/5019.
3.4 Safety in excavations
At all times the safety of those working in trenches is paramount. Appropriate protection against
trench collapse must be used in cases prescribed in existing regulations, or, in general, when
demanded by the nature of the soil.
3.5 Trench Safety (Battering)
This method is most often used in soils prone to slippage and consists of giving the trench walls
an outward slope which must be close to the internal friction angle (angle of repose) of the soil.
This angle varies with the type of soil and will need to be determined on site through trials
before allowing staff to enter the trench. This solution is rarely used in urban areas because of
the space needed.
Battering of trench sides is an accepted method of protecting workers against the risk of trench
collapse. No excavation with battered sides shall be made in roads, footpaths, private gardens,
or within safe distance nearby buildings or structures.
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3.6 Trench safety (Shoring)
There are numerous shoring techniques. It is important to study and adopt the best system for
the location before starting the work.
The most common shoring techniques are:
 prefabricated wooden panels (joined or single);

 wooden or metal sheeting;
 pile driven sheets;
 hydraulically operated trench ‘boxes’.
Whichever technique is used, the earth pressure has to be taken into consideration. The
shoring must be capable of resisting the full thrust of the ground over its full height.
For the installation of shoring permanent overload, vibrations from vehicles, excavation
machines and work equipment movements should be considered. The shoring must be
modified to suit the nature of soil. Sufficient drainage must be provided in case of infiltration and
runoff.
The Trench Support must be inspected prior, during and after use to ensure integrity.
3.7 Pipe bed
If the material in the trench bottom is considered unsuitable as a bedding material, it shall be
removed and replaced to a depth of at least 0.15 m beneath the bottom of the pipe. A material
such as pea gravel shall be used for pipe bedding. Exceptionally sand may be used subject to
this being evenly spread across the bottom of the trench to provide full support along the full
length of the pipe. Depressions shall be formed at each joint to prevent these creating stresses
in the pipeline. Bedding materials must not be sourced from any location where they may have
been subject to salt water infiltration or contamination with chemicals or any other substance.
In all cases care must be taken to ensure that the external wall of the pipe is not in contact with
hard items such as rock, buried masonry, etc.
3.8 Pipe laying
All the pipes should be laid according to International Standards and manufacturer’s
recommendations.
The trench bottom must be levelled to comply with the approved drawings. Ensuring that the
pipe rests on the uniformly distributed pipe bedding material as described above. The pipes
shall be laid accurately to the lines and levels shown on the drawings within a tolerance of ± 5
mm.
All the pipes shall be laid and maintained to the approved alignments and grades ensuring that
the pipe is properly bedded along its whole length. Pipe alignments shall be straight between
bends or curves. Deviation from this principle shall only be allowed, following approval of thrust
restraining proposals, where shown on drawings, to comply with detailed specifications to the
contrary, or with the written agreement of the project engineer.
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Pipes must be handled, stored and clad in conditions that will not allow deterioration of the pipe
material to the extent that it may adversely impact on its future operational life. Pipes must be
lifted and maneuvered using devices that will not cause any damage to the pipe itself or to its
protective coating / cladding. Particular attention is to be paid to maintaining the original
geometry of the pipe sockets and spigots.
When the requirements of the installation make this necessary it is allowable to make cuts of
pipes. Every precaution must be taken that this is done using approved tools / equipment for
the pipe material in question and is only done when necessary.
Cuts are to be made using equipment approved for use on water networks that do not
contaminate the internal surfaces of the pipe and do not reduce the physical strength of the
pipe. Cuts of appropriate geometry shall be made that are formed to fit with the adjacent
assembly and are of the same quality as the original spigot of the pipe.
Before installation, the pipes are to be checked both internally and externally for damage to
pipe coatings and linings. The interior of the pipe shall be cleared of all debris that could have
been introduced and the ends of the pipe cleaned.
During installation pipes and other pipeline components shall be aligned as per the
recommendations of the manufacturers and in all cases within the limits detailed in best
practice manuals.
During excavation, pipe laying, backfilling and reinstatement temporary support shall be
provided to all other utility infrastructure in consultation with the relevant utility managers.
Where installation of the pipe to the defined grade or alignment is obstructed by existing
utilities, (such as conduits, ducts, pipes, etc) the owners / managers of these utilities shall be
consulted to determine the most effective way of resolving such obstructions. If the obstructing
utilities are to be supported, removed or realigned this will be done to the specification of the
owner / manager of the utility in question.
At the end of each working day, the ends of the pipes being laid are to be sealed using water
tight caps to prevent ingress of water and animals.
Wherever pipe coatings, internal and external are damaged these shall be repaired to the
specification of the manufacturer. If this is not possible the pipe / pipeline component is to be
discarded and disposed of in a manner that prevents it inadvertently being used elsewhere.
Where manufactures specify that deviation at pipe joints is permissible the deflection at each
joint shall not exceed the manufacturer’s recommendation.
3.9 Nuts, bolts and washers
Unless otherwise specified, nuts, bolts and washers shall conform to the requirements of
International Standards. All nuts, bolts and washers shall be galvanised. Where it is necessary
due to ground conditions or the requirements of the pipeline specification the bolts and washers
shall be of stainless steel.
Bolts shall be of sufficient length that a minimum of one thread shall show through the nut when
in the fully tightened condition.
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All nuts and bolts that will be directly buried in the ground shall be adequately protected with an
approved protection system applied in compliance with the manufacturers recommendations.
Any such system must protect the nuts and bolts for a period equivalent to the design life of the
pipe.
3.10 Gaskets and joint rings
All joints shall be made in accordance with manufacturer`s instructions.
Until required for incorporation in a joint every joint ring, gasket etc., shall be stored in
accordance with the International standards and manufacturer’s recommendation. If there is
any contradiction in these the Project Engineer shall determine which is to be followed.
Generally joint rings, gaskets, lubricants and jointing compounds shall be stored in a cool, dry
place that is protected from adverse weather conditions.
Only lubricants and jointing compounds recommended by the manufacturer shall be used in
connection with the joint ring and these lubricants shall be approved by the PAEW laboratory
manager as suitable for use on drinking water pipelines.
Gasket and joint rings should be manufactured from EPDM rubber conforming to International
Standards.
Flange gaskets shall be manufactured from EPDM rubber conforming to International
Standards and shall be a minimum of 3 mm thick.
3.11 Pipe storage
Prior to use pipes and fittings (valves, hydrants etc.) shall be stored in a safe, neat and tidy
manner and in conformance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. The open ends of all
pipes and fittings shall be covered in such a way as to prevent the ingress of water, animals,
insects and children.
3.12 Backfilling
When backfilling the trench the HAUC should be used for Guidance of the fill material and
required strengths of ground support, all materials must meet the requirements of Type A or 1
for the refill of the excavation.
As soon as practicable trench sections of installed pipes shall be partially backfilled to avoid
pipeline flotation whilst, where possible, leaving joints open. Completed sections of the pipe
shall be closed by blank flanges or cap ends that are restrained to resist test pressures.
Backfilling shall be done in two stages:
1. Backfilling with pipe surround, leaving joints open for testing procedures where possible.
The pipe surround material shall be the same as that used for the pipe bed and shall
provide a minimum of 150mm protection to the at the sides and 300mm (after
compaction) above the pipe, the pipe surround shall be compacted in 150mm deep
layers to ensure uniform pipe support and protection;
2. Final backfilling of all sections still exposed after successful testing.
In cases such as where narrow trenching or trenchless installation techniques are used that
preclude the provision of the pipe surround as stipulated above the contractor shall formulate
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proposals for the equivalent protection of the pipeline. These proposals are subject to approval
by PAEW before being implemented.
Appropriate backfill material that complies with the requirements of the relevant street
managers shall be imported and compacted in layers not exceeding 150mm.
Road surfaces shall then be replaced using materials and methods that comply with the
requirements of the street managers / land owners.
Example of trench
All material shall be of a consistency that permits its adequate compaction around and under
the pipes and fittings and to support the trench surface without subsequent subsidence. (For
further guidance see Road and Wadi crossing section below).
If the pipe is to be laid in open ground the compaction of backfilling material may not be
required.
In summary the balance of the backfill to the final ground level shall only be carried out using
approved fill. Backfill material shall not be unsuitable / unwanted excavated material. This
should be disposed of away from the site as described earlier.
The minimum and maximum depth of backfill depends on the pipe characteristics, laying
conditions, bed zone and surround zone conditions, pipe stability and/ or protection. It`s
execution must meet variable demands depending on the:
 Pipe characteristics (rigid, semi-rigid, flexible);

 External loadings (depth of cover, wheel loads);
 More or less rocky or heterogeneous nature of the ground.
The main backfill zone varies according to the area involved (rural, semi-urban or urban), and
should take road stability into account.
3.13 Road and wadi crossings
If this section contradicts the Backfilling section above in any way then the requirements of this
section shall prevail.
The disruption to road traffic should be minimal and before starting all permissions from
authorities must be obtained.
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3.13.1 Road crossings
Wherever possible trenchless techniques are to be used for pipelines crossing under existing
roads. In exceptional cases, the excavation of existing roads is allowed and for these cases the
following requirements shall be followed.
The road shall be reinstated using the form of construction and materials as per Oman Highway
Design Manual issued by MoTC and the Regional Municipality.
Bedding and jointing shall be as specified, but the trench re-filling shall be carried out using
granular bedding material and compacted at the sides of the pipes to not less than 95% of the
maximum dry density as specified by the compaction test.
Above this 250 mm layer concrete Class 20/20 shall be placed to bring the level of the backfill
up to 100 mm below the finished road surface. This method of back filling shall be applied to an
extent of at least 2 m either side of the surfaced road carriageway.
Immediately after the backfilling of trenches, roads, pavements and verges are restored
temporarily using the materials of the pavement stockpiled during the excavation if these are
suitable for reuse.
The replacement of the road structure shall be carried out as soon as practicable after
backfilling has been completed. Suitable excavated road pavement which complies with the
MoTC / Regional Municipality shall be used at the sub-base levels. Compaction shall be carried
out with approved mechanical compacting equipment.
Any part of the structure of the road which has been damaged beyond the width of the trench
must be cut out and made good to the same specification.
A vertical joint shall be formed between the new work and the existing road surface and shall
be painted with hot bitumen or as required by Authority and the base course and wearing
course stepped 75 mm.
Where the carriageway surface adjoining the trench is of rolled asphalt the contractor shall lay
an interim wearing course of Class 20/20 concrete 100 mm thick. At a later date (to be decided
by the Engineer) the temporary wearing course may be removed and replaced with 2 layers of
50 mm of rolled asphalt.
The finished levels of the completed reinstatement shall conform to the adjoining carriageway
surface.
Reinstatement of wearing courses shall match as nearly as practicable the colour and/or other
characteristics of the existing surface after making appropriate allowance for the effects of
weathering on existing surfaces.
3.13.2 Crossing through existing ducts / culverts

Where ducts / culverts have been installed by the responsible Authority, the exact location
should be identified and detailed on construction drawings. For the construction of these
crossings the pipes, shall depending upon the pipe material, be pulled or pushed through the
ducts, taking special precautions to ensure the integrity of the pipeline is not impaired.
Protection around the pipe should be provided to prevent damage to couplings whilst being
pulled. Also, (or in conjunction with,) special supports shall be provided to fix the pipe into the
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duct as well as prevent the pipe from resting on the pipe joints and creating undue stress in the
pipe barrel. Details of the proposed arrangement including the pipeline support method shall be
submitted to PAEW for approval.
After finishing the pipe sections in the duct and thorough inspection / approval of the work, both
ends of the duct shall be sealed by casting lean concrete. Pipe ends protruding from the duct
ends shall rest on thoroughly compacted soil.
A separate pressure test shall be carried out for the sections of pipe inside the duct to ensure
the integrity of the pipe and that correct installation has been achieved.
Valves shall be installed either side of major road crossings to permit the isolation of the
pipeline under the road.
3.13.3 Wadi crossings

The wadi crossings shall meet the following requirements:
 Ductile Iron pipes and fittings shall be used over the length of wadi crossings plus 15 m
on either side. The use of mechanical or detachable joints are necessary;
 Wadi protection is to be designed according to PAEW standard drawings TET/SD/5013;
 Wadi protection shall de designed to prevent flotation of the pipeline in the event of
flooding while the pipe is empty;
 Wadi crossings in soft soil will be constructed with a minimum cover of 2.00 metres;
 Valves shall be installed either side of all Wadi crossings to permit the isolation of the
pipeline under the Wadi;
 No valve chambers or marker posts shall be constructed in the wadi bed or on the
embankments of the Wadi;
 All valves and marker posts must be visible and fully accessible when the Wadi is in
flood.
3.14 Valve chambers and surface boxes
Valves shall be placed at the locations specified on the plans unless agreed in writing by the
project engineer in consultation with PAEW operations staff.
Valves shall be installed in one the following ways:
 Buried with a surface box for isolating / shut off valves;

 In a chamber of appropriate design and construction for its location.
Buried valves shall be installed with an access tube and surface box. Only those valves
mentioned below shall be installed in a chamber:
 Motorised operated valves;

 Isolating valves either side of major obstructions (Wadis, Major Roads etc.) where
facility is made to temporarily maintain supplies in the event of pipe failure under the
obstruction;
 Washouts;
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 Valves on deep lines (> 2.50 m)where it is difficult to maintain access for operation
through surface box;
 Valves located on unstable ground, embankments etc.;
 PRVs.
For all Valves a metal surface box shall be installed that closely fits the tube / chamber and
restricts the ingress of dust, debris, insects and animals. Surface boxes shall be designed to be
height adjustable.
All surface boxes and chamber covers installed to provide access to valves shall be capable of
withstanding the anticipated traffic loading for the location.
Valves in chambers shall be installed using dismantling joints unless the design of the valve
allows replacement of internal parts without removing the valve from the pipeline. Dismantling
joints, if fitted, must be in the chamber.
GPS coordinates of each valve shall be shown on drawings and recorded in the GIS.
The components for installation of a buried valve are:
Surface box
Protection tube (PVC / cast

iron)
Protection Tube support
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Operating cap
Operating Key
The standard length of an operating key is 1.50 m.
If the depth of the pipe is more than 1 m, telescopic operating unit could be used.
Operating unit
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Operating cap
Valve chambers shall be constructed with reinforced cement concrete or pre-casted RCC
components, and are based generally on the ground.
If man entry is required into valve chamber the chamber shall be of sufficient dimensions
depending upon the size of the valve/s, waterproof ,equipped with heavy duty D.I. cover and
frame, a aluminum ladder and a sump of 300 x 300 x 300mm dimensions.
Manhole covers shall be with Class D 400 in Ductile iron with round frame. The minimum
opening dimensions are 600 mm, 700 mm and 800 mm. The cover shall have lifting eyes, a
reliable locking system, sound proofing ring for stability and silence and optional anti-theft
system.
Fig. Example Manhole Cover
3.15 Hydraulic testing
These tests are used to confirm the water tightness of pipes and fittings. A minimum of 48
hours notice must be provided to PAEW of the proposed date of a hydrostatic test. These tests
shall be carried out during normal working hours unless agreed in writing by PAEW.
After a new pipeline has been filled hydrostatic tests must be performed to ensure that the
pipeline is properly constructed before final acceptance. All hydrostatic tests must be witnessed
by PAEW.
Before any testing is commenced, pipelines to be tested shall be filled with water and left to
stand for at least 24 hours under a static pressure equivalent to the intended working pressure
in that section of the pipeline. After this, the line shall be subject to pressure and leakage tests.
Testing shall be carried out in two stages:

1. Test of sections as construction proceeds (500 m maximum), leaving joints open and thrust
anchoring of cap ends if required,
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2. Final test of the whole system on completion.
The test pressure is applied to the pipeline by means of a continuously operating pump,
equipped with a by-pass valve for regulating pressure. Attention must be given that the pipeline
is filled at a rate which will not cause any surges, and which will ensure a proper air release.
The section being tested is gradually filled with water from the lowest point to aid the release of
air.
All air must be released through hydrants and air valves installed for that purpose. Physical
inspection of wash outs and air valves must be made during pipe filling to confirm that all
entrained air is released.
After checking for visible leaks the full test pressure must be maintained for four continuous
hours. The recommended test pressure is Working pressure x 1.5 subject to a minimum of
10bar at the highest point of the pipeline.
The test shall be recorded using electronic pressure data loggers capable of operating within
the test pressure range.
The contractor shall design and document the testing procedure for approval by the Engineer at
least 7 working days before the proposed date for pressure testing. All the material for testing
shall be supplied by the contractor and submitted to the Engineer for approval.
Before takeover of a distribution network, hydraulic testing should be carried out either:
 If the working pressure is less than 6 bar, the testing pressure should be 10 bar,
 If the working pressure is more than 7 bars, the testing pressure should be working
pressure x 1.5.
3.16 Disinfection and flushing
After the hydraulic test and swabbing is completed and approved the pipes shall be disinfected,
flushed and sampled.
Any component used in the water system shall be fully disinfected and have the hygiene
clearance from PAEW.
Systems shall be admitted into service only once sampling results confirmed correct
disinfection. Procedure shall be repeated if sampling results show contamination.
4. DESIGN OF WATER TRANSMISSION PIPELINES
The primary function of transmission pipelines is to transport large volumes of water between
sources and distribution systems possibly over significant distances. They normally have few
connections made from them.
Water transmission pipelines transport water from the source (water treatment plant, storage
reservoir) to the service / storage reservoir. Their operational functionality dictates that each
transmission pipeline is individually designed to meet the requirements of the storage systems
associated with it in balancing it.
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The flow of water in transmission systems is normally more constant than that in distribution
systems in that they are used to fill reservoirs and when the reservoir is full the pumps that drive
the water through the transmission system are shut down. The effect is that the water is either
flowing through the transmission pipe at a consistent rate and pressure or there is no flow at all.
The design should be done taking into account pipe material, laying, maintenance costs and
energy costs (pumping).
For optimal size of pipe the parameters of length, static pump head and quantity of water being
transferred should be considered. Changes in elevation along the length of the transmission
main are critical in its design.
In a pipeline the velocity should be between 0.5 and 2 m/s (reaching a maximum of 2.5 m/s for
short sections of main in exceptional circumstances) with friction losses not be more than 0.5
bar over 1000 meters.
4.1 Recommended materials
As mentioned in the basic design criteria, the choice of material depends on different factors.
The final choice of material is made during the engineering design process.
The recommended materials for transmission pipes are:

 Ductile Iron (DI);
 Mild Steel (MS).
Specifications for each material are developed in the Standard Specifications.
4.2 Valves on transmission systems
4.2.1 Isolating valves

See also section 1.10.1.
Isolating valves should be placed according to the following guidelines:
 Preferably at a uniform distance from , and adjacent to, pipe intersections;

 At intervals with a maximum interval of 3 - 5 kilometres depending on the terrain and
ease of access.
 For DN ≥ 400 the valve must have a smaller diameter by-pass valve. This allows ease
operating of the valve and the main to be filled with minimum risk after repair or
maintenance. Valves with integrated by-pass are also acceptable. Bypass valves have
the following sizes:
Valve Size Bypass size

DN 400 DN 50
DN 500 – DN 600 DN 80
DN 800 – DN 1000 DN 100
DN 1200 – DN 1600 DN 150
Isolating valves shall be butterfly valves manufactured with double flanges.
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4.2.2 Air valves
See section 1.10.6 above.
4.2.3 Washout valves

4.2.4 Pressure regulating valves

Specifications of all valves are provided in the Standard Specifications.
5. DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES
The distribution mains distribute water from storage reservoirs to the service lines for onward
distribution to consumer.
The design of a distribution system is governed by following factors:
 Pipe size,
 Reservoir location,
 Minimum and maximum pressure required,
 Pressure variations.
A proper design involves minimizing investment and operating costs by optimizing these
factors. Due consideration should also be given to possible staged development of the network
to manage expenditure profiles.
Ideally the reservoir should be located on strategical point to equalize distribution flows and
pressures.
The flow of water in distribution systems can vary greatly from the peak hours, when a lot of
water is used for washing or drinking, to the minimum consumption hours, which are normally
at night.
Service reservoirs play an important role in the relationship between transmission and
distribution systems to balance the fluctuations of the water demand from customers that a
treatment plant may not be able to meet.
Reservoirs should be placed at a higher elevation than the distribution area, but as close as
possible to it to avoid unnecessary pumping and transmission line cost. If the area is flat
elevated tanks have to be used. Elevated tanks are generally smaller than ground reservoirs
and serve to balance demand variations in localized areas.
The pressure needed for the distribution system can be obtained using the following systems:
 Gravity system: water service reservoirs can be elevated or situated on a hillside on

such a level that sufficient pressure is generated in the distribution area. In these
reservoirs storage and pressure head functions are combined.
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STATIC WATER
PRESSURE
 Pumped system: these have a low level ground reservoir and the required pressure is
generated by pumps. Water only enters the storage vessel when the pressure in the
network increases above the height of the tank. When demand for water increases
water flows from the tank to supplement the volume supplied by the pump.
The steps for designing a water distribution system generally are:
 Choosing the preliminary source scheme and type of network;

 Division of the distribution area into districts;
 Estimation of the population of each district;
 Calculation of the water demand for each district at the nodal point;
 Calculation of the required pipe diameter.
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Two main types of distribution networks are:
1. Branched distribution
Branched networks are predominantly used for small capacity water supplies delivering water
mostly through standpipes. Their drawbacks are lower reliability, (a single failure can cause an
interruption of supply to all customers), increased danger of contamination, possibility of
sediment accumulation in dead ends, larger pipes are often required than in looped systems to
overcome friction losses. Furthermore a fluctuation of water demand can cause large pressure
variations in the systems. Their advantages are that they are cheaper and easier to design and
install and flow direction and rates can be easily determined for all pipes.
2. Looped distribution
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Looped distribution networks allow for the supply of customers from more than one direction
making them less prone to overall failure of the supply. They have the advantage of better
hydraulic performance which leads to smaller pipe sizes and the reduced possibility of water
supply interruption during maintenance activities.
5.1 Pipe size
To determine the pipe size the Hardy Cross Method with empirical equations are used. For
quick and precise calculations software programmes are available.
A common thumb rule (Lea’s formula) to decide pipe diameter is:
Where
D = diameter of pipe (m);

Q = discharge to be pumped (m3/s)
a = 0.97 to 1.22
For velocity of 2 m/s a value will be 0.8
For velocity of 1.5 m/s a value will be 0.9
For velocity of 1 m/s a value will be 1.14
When designing a pipe system it should be ensured that there is sufficient pressure at the point
of supply to provide an adequate flow to all customers. If available, network models of the
system should be used to check that all pipes will be operating to the required standard.
To maintain water quality it is important to minimize transit times and avoid stagnation and low
flow rates. Therefore:
 the system should not have excessive capacity unless this is required to meet a known
increase in future demand;
 ideally low-flow dead-ends and loops should be avoided. Situations that may give rise to
negative pressures should always be avoided as in the event of a pipe failure
contaminated water can be sucked into the pipe.
The recommended diameters for distribution system are from DN 100 to DN 400 unless
otherwise specified.
5.2 Pressure
In a distribution system water should be supplied at adequate pressure and flow. However,
pressure is lost by the action of friction at the pipe wall and in pipe line components such as
valves. The amount of pressure loss is also dependant on the water demand from customers,
pipe material, length, gradient and diameter.
To deliver sufficient quantities of water the pressure head in the network should be at least 1.5
bar (15 m.w.c., worst point peak day, peak hour) in all parts of the network, including the
remotest and highest points. The maximum pressure should not exceed 6.0 bar (60 m.w.c.).
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In high rise buildings a booster pump, supplied from a ground tank / reservoir, can be installed
by the consumer to ensure sufficient water pressure provided this pump is supplied from a
storage tank and not connected directly to the distribution main.
If the pressure is excessive, the consumer can install a pressure reducer.
Pressure variations can be reduced by installing pipe of larger diameters although the cost of
doing this is higher.
If gravity is insufficient to supply water at an adequate pressure, then pumps need to be

installed to boost the pressure. Pumps can be either permanently operational or triggered to
start when pressure falls and stop when it increases.
5.3 Methods of supplying potable water
There are 2 ways to deliver the potable water to the consumer in Oman:
5.3.1 Metered House connections,
A house connection distributes the water to an individual consumers through a pipe

connected to the distribution network.
The connection to the water distribution main is through a tapping saddle (electro-fusion
for HDPE pipes or mechanical for others) to a valve adjacent to a water meter generally
installed on the wall of each property. The material for house connections is HDPE
PE100 SDR 11 which has a pressure rating of 16 bars.
A water meter (see water meter section below) is installed together with a strainer on
the wall of each property. The meter should be installed at a sufficient height
(approximately 1.5m) to allow ease of reading and fitted with a ¼ turn lockable ball
valve installed before the strainer.
The approved meter is provided by PAEW.
Further information regarding the sizing of connections and meters are given in the
procedure TET/PRO/5000 and regarding a typical house connection in procedure
TET/MS/5001.
Fig. Example of House Connection
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5.3.2 Tanker distribution
Water is made available at tanker points from where it is distributed to the individual
customer using mobile tankers and pumped to the customers roof tanks.
Tanker Filling Station (TFS) is provided to supply potable water to remote dwelling
areas where water cannot be supplied through distribution network as laying of
distribution network is not feasible. Besides, TFS can be provided in addition to the
reticulated distribution network in order to distribute water during an emergency
situation like pipe burst or planned shutdown.
5.3.3 TFS Location
TFS Location shall be determined strategically considering the following:
- Easily accessible to nearest service road/rural road

- Centre and proximity to supply points
- Vicinity to existing electrical power supply
- Closer to the distribution network/reservoir
- Min. 200m apart from the residential plot and 500m away from public amenities
viz., school/Park/Mosque/Eid prayer area
- Provision to gravitate the spilled water to existing wadi/low level that will not
flooding to the adjacent area.
A tanker point shall have a sufficient filling capacity to fill at least 2 tankers at the same
time but as a minimum it should have a filling capacity of 40 m3 in 30 minutes. A two
bay tanker point serving 2 tankers at a time is usual. Multi bay tanker points are
installed in urban areas with high population density.
The following factors should be considered for the design of a tanker filling station:
 Minimum filling capacity of 40 m3 in 30 minutes;
 Minimum 2 bays serving each serving 1 tanker at a time;
 During tanker filling, network pressure should not drop below 1.5 bar;
 Number of bays shall be decided according to the requirement of the area;
 Each filling station should have the capability to fill both small and big tankers;
 A vending machine shall be installed on each bay to account for the water
taken;
 For small regions individual tanker filling points shall have an individual storage
tank at a suitable height to comply with the above conditions;
 If the flow is not sufficient to refill the tank quickly after emptying a booster pump
shall be installed to fill the storage tank within 1 hour.
Furthermore, each station is to be developed with adequate drainage, and paved entrance / ,
exit. Standing for tankers whilst filling or when parked shall be paved.
A flow meter shall be installed on the inlet of all tanker filling stations.
Valves are to be placed so that each filling bay is independent and can be isolated without
shutting down any other bays.
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Each station shall be equipped with an automatic prepaid card system for filling. The vending
machine will be equipped with a system to efficiently monitor all tankers. Each tanker will have
a smart card (electronic) to control his rotations and volume of water transported.
Fig. Tanker Filling station
The following components are essential in a TFS
5.3.3.1 Control Panel
a) One control panel fully automated for each TFS

b) The unit shall be suitable for the climatic conditions in Oman
c) The panel shall be equipped an identification system (magnetic key or
card system, waterproof, secured and impossible to forge) with digital
screen. All the information shall be readable in both English and Arabic
languages.
d) The panel shall be in a metallic panel closed by a lock near the delivery
point with sun protection.
e) The panel shall work on a power supply of 230 V, 50 Hz, 1 phase.
f) The panel will monitor the tankers through identification system (magnetic
key or card system) to control the quantity of water delivered by tanker.
g) The water will be delivered only through the identification (magnetic key or
card system). The identification system shall be waterproof, secured and
impossible to forge.
h) Filling operation for each filling point shall be started by push button
operation (from the control panel). The push button shall open an
electrically operated valve which shall allow the water to flow towards the
filling point.
i) The system shall have a button (above mentioned) to choose the bay
where the water will be delivered. Each bay shall have a number (1, 2, 3,
etc.) which will be clearly visible
j) The control panel must be installed in a safe and secured location, to
avoid any damage, but still has to be accessible for the users.
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5.3.3.2 Control Unit
a) The unit will deliver only the allotted quantity of water authorized by the
system. After each filling the information (volumes) will be updated in the
control unit and in the regional SCADA.
b) Display access of the control unit can be secured by password for each
tanker, each contract.
c) The control panel shall be self-powered during 4 hours.
d) The control unit shall be able to send alarms by SMS to PAEW
technicians’ mobile phones.
e) The control units shall be the same for each TFS control panel, and shall
be in modular conception and upgradable.
f) Control units must be able to communicate with other devices: PLCs,
Controllers, smart sensors and other Units for the needs of process
controls.
g) The language program must be standard. The units shall be
parameterized with no specific language.
h) A connection on the local unit with a laptop must be anticipated and allow
an intervention in the program.
Following illustration showing the general architecture of the control system.
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The following diagram Shows the general TFS schematic, the number of bays
depends upon the project requirements.
5.3.3.3 Data Transmission

The data transmission shall be achieved with the following functions:
a) The data shall be sent to the Regional Control Room through GPRS or
GSM data, in accordance to available signal on site. As an option, optical
fiber medium could be proposed if available on site.
The Control Rooms are located as following:
COUNTRY MAJOR CONTROL

SUPERVISION ROOM DATA
BOUSHER MUSCAT
BARKA SOUTH BATINAH
NORTH AL BATINAH AND

COUNTRY SOHAR PORT BURAIMI
CONTROL
ROOM
BOUSHER IBRI DHAHIRAH
AL KHOUD DHAKLIYAH
SUR AL SHARQHYIA
DUQUM AL WUSTA
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b) In case of data transmission or SCADA breakout, the Control Unit shall be
able to store all data during 15 days.
5.3.3.4 Water delivery point (bay)
The delivery point shall have the following functions:

a) The start button shall open an electrically operated valve which shall allow
water to flow towards the filling point.
b) An emergency button is to be installed to stop the delivery point.
c) An electrically operated valve with low power (24 V or 48 V) shall be
installed at each bay. The valve must be in normally closed position in
case of power failure.
d) The required volume of water shall be recorded automatically by opening
the valve and shall be measured by a water meter which shall gradually
start the valve closure when the selected volume is close to be reached
and shut it off completely after the required volume has been supplied.
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5.3.3.5 Data Report to Control Room
a) The following data must be sent on daily basis (once in a day at 00.00
PM) to the main regional control room:
i. Total Volume delivered by Tankers per day
ii. Volume delivered by each tanker (name, tanker number
registration plate, contracted quantity, date)
b) The following alarms must be sent to the regional control room:

i. Low level of water reservoirs
ii. Low low level of water reservoir
iii. High level of water reservoir
iv. High high level of water reservoir
v. Intrusion water reservoir
vi. Pressure alarm
vii. Water delivery failure to tanker
viii. Power failure
ix. Electro-valve failure
x. Water meter failure
xi. Report failure
xii. Communication failure
xiii. Electrical Valve failure
xiv. Identification failure
c) Each filling station must have its SCADA backup (historics, curves), with a
local connection with a laptop.
d) The monthly reports must be automatically generated by the system last
day of the month at 00.00 AM.
e) The SCADA report shall contain the following information:

i. Daily water delivery in each TFS
ii. Monthly water delivery in each TFS
iii. The total water delivered from the beginning of the year (from 1st
January)
iv. Monthly quantity delivered by each contract with its number
(Contractor and contract number)
v. Annual report for water delivered in each TFS
vi. Annual report for water delivered by each contractor
vii. Annual report for water delivered by tankers per Governorate
f) 3 years data must be available all the time.
g) A consumption graph must be provided for each TFS
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h) The SCADA system must be able to print the report of all activated alarms
i) The remote management system which will be installed in each regional

main control room must reflect the following requirements:
i. Remote Management master station running on a Microsoft
Windows PC-compatible microcomputer Multimedia graphical
displays, Curves.
ii. Fully integrated management of Excel (text or chart reports),
iii. The communication interface must be also by Web server and
SMS
iv. Data presentation can be customized by PAEW,
v. Fully secured data base and confidential access the data with
different access levels and passwords
5.4 Water meters
A water meter is a device that records the volume of water passing through a particular point in
the global water system.eg: pumping station, reservoir, consumer connection.
The function of the meter is:
 Accurately record volume of water passing appoint in the network

 Accurately record with the customer's consumption,
 Provide an index as a basis for calculating the consumption billed to the customer,
 Allow the recording of flow rates being distributed,
 Assessment of network efficiency.
The general specifications required for water meter are:
 Recording accuracy even under low flow conditions,

 Resistance to available water pressures and pressure variations,
 Cause minimum pressure loss,
 Retain its operating and accuracy characteristics over time (sustainability),
 Withstands the conditions of the environment (resistance, inviolability),
 Be easily readable,
 Does not alter the quality of the water,
 When necessary to allow the calculation of rates of flow passing through the meter.
There are four main types of meters, which are:
 Mechanical meters of the volumetric type;

 Turbine type;
 Electromagnetic meters;
 Ultrasonic meters.
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Currently PAEW follows the below type of flow meter
Sl.No Flow meter size (mm) Technology used

1 Less than 40 Volumetric flow meter
2 40 to less than 150 Single jet type
3 150 and above Electromagentic
There are also meters with automatic and remote meter reading devices.
Water meters are important for Utilities who need to bill their customers accurately for the water
used. Water meters shall conform to ISO 4064 standard and OIML R 49.
Domestic meters are to be installed vertically, on the outside of the property wall without any
protection installed at 1.5 m above ground level.
5.5 Leakage and wastage control
There is no water distribution network without leakage. Leakage is often the largest component
of difference between the total output of water and that consumed.
It is the difference between the total water input to the system and that is consumed.
The main factors are:
 Leakage in reservoir and water mains;

 Leakage in network pipes;
 Unduly high pressures in distribution systems intensifying leakage and bursts.
The following methods of leakage control are in use:
 District metering
Flow meters are installed at strategic points within the system compromising areas of
500 to 2500 connections.
There are different reasons for dividing network into zones. One is to have a greater control
over the distribution of water through monitoring the volume of water entering into an area. A
network can be divided in to District Metered Areas (DMA) for network assessment and control
proposes. Other benefits from Water Quality point of view are:
 In case of contamination, it is easier to identify the source of the contamination quickly,

 Zoning reduces the extent and complexity of mixing water.
For the follow up of a network, a flow meter should be installed to measure the inlet and outlet
from a strategic point of the distribution network. This enables continuous network performance
assessment, which enables the identification of changes in network efficiency and thus
triggering field investigation exercises.
The following factors should be considered for the installation of a district meter:
 Numbers of connections (domestic + commercial) should be between 500 and 2500;

 Minimum inlet and outlet points,
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 Handover network pressure test if taking over a private network;
 Maximum inlet diameter = 300 mm,
 Electromagnetic flow meter + pressure linked via telemetry to access flow and pressure
data remotely,
 Minimum cascading network,
 Minimum number of boundary valves < 5.
Specifications of Flow meters are given in the Standard Specifications.
 Field Investigations
These are normally triggered by the network efficiency decreasing below the target
level. This decrease could be caused by opening of a boundary valve, new
connections, leaks or burst main.
 Passive System Detection

This uses the public and meter readers to report leaks, illegal connections, leaking fire
hydrants etc.
 Pressure control
Reducing the system pressures to the minimum level reduces the force behind leaks
and extends the working life of the network due to the reduced stress placed on the
network. Ways to accomplish pressure reduction are reducing pumping heads and the
use of pressure reducing valves.
In order to monitor the pressure in the network, pressure monitoring points should be located at
the following points within a DMA:
 Inlet point of the DMA (within same chamber as flowmeter);

 Internal pressure point at the average point, located according to the area’s
geographical and network’s pipeline hydraulic analysis.
Specification of pressure transducer is given in the Standard Specifications.
 Water Quality monitoring point
In order to asses and monitor the water quality, a sampling point should be installed at the inlet
of DMA. The sampling point should be installed as per the standard drawing TET/SD/5016.
5.6 Recommended materials
The recommended material for distribution network is:
 HDPE
 DI
Specifications of pipe materials are given in the Standard Specifications.
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Date: 14/05/2015
PIPELINES
6. SCADA
 Pressure (data + alarms);

 Position and operating of electrical actuated valves ;
 Flow meters DMA (data + alarms);
 Water quality analysers for strategic points at long distances (data + alarms)
 Historic data.
All the data shall be collected and transferred to the Regional Control Room.
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TET/DG/5006
Design Guidelines Date: 14/05/2015
Issue: 1.3
WATER RESERVOIRS

1.2 20/03/14 - Page 4: 3rd line ‘’Guard house’’ removed
- Page 4: 6th paragraph ‘’minimum slope 0.5 % ‘’ added
- Page 4: last 2 paragraph added from ‘’inverted filters’’ and
‘’water proofing’’
- Page 6: 2.3: 2nd paragraph ‘’guard house’’ removed
- Page 12: last paragraph updated for level detection
1.3 14/05/2015 - Section 2.1, 2.2, 2.4 and 2.5 added

- Section 3.6 added
Contents
1. GENERALITIES ........................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Capacity ................................................................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Protection of water stored ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Circulation of water ............................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Cleaning and disinfection ...................................................................................................................... 3
2. DESIGN OF RESERVOIRS ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Planning and Design Factors for Reservoirs .......................................................................................... 5
2.2 Location and Land Selection ................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.1 Location Factors .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Schematic layout of a reservoir ............................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Provisional Arrangements ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.1 Ground level reservoir ........................................................................................................................... 6
2.4.2 Elevated tank ......................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Inlet pipe work ....................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.4 Outlet pipe work .................................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.5 Overflow pipe work ............................................................................................................................... 7
2.4.6 Scour pipe work ..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 Testing of water retaining structures...................................................................................................... 8
2.6 Inspection and maintenance ................................................................................................................... 8
2.7 Access and protection ............................................................................................................................ 8
2.8 Security and access ................................................................................................................................ 9
2.8.1 Doors with direct access to water .......................................................................................................... 9
2.8.2 Secured hatch direct access to water .................................................................................................... 10
2.8.3 Ventilation Arrangement ..................................................................................................................... 12
2.8.4 Access ladder external ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.8.5 Access ladder internal .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.8.6 Lighting ............................................................................................................................................... 14
3. HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT ................................................................................................................... 14
3.1 Pipes .................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Valves .................................................................................................................................................. 14
3.3 Level detection .................................................................................................................................... 14
3.4 Meters .................................................................................................................................................. 15
3.5 Water quality monitoring ..................................................................................................................... 15
3.6 Access Road ........................................................................................................................................ 15
3.6.1 Approvals............................................................................................................................................. 16
3.6.2 Flooding ............................................................................................................................................... 16
3.6.3 Site Survey ........................................................................................................................................... 16
3.6.4 Geotechnical Investigation .................................................................................................................. 17
4. SCADA ..................................................................................................................................................... 17

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1. GENERALITIES
The main purpose of the reservoir is to hold a strategic water reserve to meet the fluctuating
demands from the demand area and to maintain a desired and sustained residual pressure
head in the Distribution Network at all times.
Reservoir storage capacity is necessary to:
 Compensate for the difference between supply and demand;

 Bridge over a temporary break down of supply;
 Fulfil water demands for fire fighting.
The different types of reservoirs are:
 Underground reservoir: entire structure is below ground level with partial reservoir top
above Ground Level. Such reservoirs are used in large storages in Desalination Plants.
These are invariably of RCC. These could be rectangular, square generally;
 Ground level reservoir: entire structure sits on the ground level either on a mountain top
or at ground level and these tanks are mainly for Distribution systems. These are
invariably of RCC. These could be rectangular and or square;
 Elevated reservoir: the water holding portion is located at a predetermined height called
“Straight Height” to support pressure head , supported either by a continuous structure
or by columns. These are invariably of RCC, MS Panelled and GRP are also used some
times elevated and supported by MS Frame Work. These could be rectangular, square,
inverted conical and or inverted trapezoid.
The different types of functions are:
 Terminal / Strategic: to provide strategic storage by receiving major production or

transfer volumes;
 Service: to serve defined areas of distribution;
 Balancing: inlet to a pumping station;
 Break pressure tanks.
1.1 Capacity
The Terminal/Strategic capacity is defined on case by case basis according to the system
master plan.
The capacity of a service reservoir should be according to the following principles:

 The minimum capacity should be at least 48 hours of water demand during the peak
period of the year (summer);
 For the design water demand, future developments should be taken into consideration
(at least 15 years after construction of the reservoir);
 Fire fighting capacity should be determined to conform to local regulations.
The balancing capacity is enough storage to balance inflows/outflows, according to pump

settings, determined on a case by case basis but usually the maximum hourly peak flow.

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1.2 Protection of water stored
The reservoirs must be covered. The cover protects the water against variations of temperature,
introduction of foreign bodies and reduces evaporation and thereby chlorine loss.
For preservation of water quality it is necessary to use appropriate construction materials and
an inner lining that does not adversely affect water quality.
Reservoirs must be vented for hygiene and taste. It is therefore necessary to cover ventilation
points with fine mesh to prevent the access or entry of animals, insects and dust.
The joints shall be treated with special attention. Particularly for concrete reservoirs, the most
appropriated solution should be chosen in order to avoid water leakage.
1.3 Circulation of water
Control of water circulation in the reservoir is necessary to prevent short circuiting of water (as
water enters the reservoir it exits shortly afterwards leaving the remaining water in the tank for
extended periods) which leads to stagnation and water quality problems.
To avoid the stagnation of water in the reservoir:

 The inlet and outlet must be as far apart as possible, ideally at opposite ends/sides of
each tank.
For better circulation of the water, baffles (plug flow) or jet plume (mixing nozzles) could be
installed.
1.4 Cleaning and disinfection
After each intervention as a result of confirmed contaminated water in the reservoirs or at least
once a year all reservoirs are to be emptied, cleaned and disinfected.
2. DESIGN OF RESERVOIRS
The design of the reservoir depends on technical, economical, geographical and aesthetic
considerations and could change with time and location.
Each reservoir as a minimum will have the following equipment:

 Entry and exit;
 Technical room/ hydraulic chamber (valves, sampling room for water quality analyser,
sample point, inlet/outlet flow meter, level indicator);
 Supply or inlet line with entry from top unless otherwise specified;
 Outlet line to pumping stations or distribution;
 Overflow line;
 Drainage line connected to drainage or washout chamber;
 Electrical room / Control Panel;
 External road or track;
 Fence or form of security (i.e. for towers ladder restriction).

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Depending on the capacity, each water reservoir should have the following equipment:
 Fence and security gate;

 Restrict access to unauthorised personnel and guard house as optional for strategic
sites;
 Security hatches / covers;
 Air vent with mesh;
 Manhole entry from top with access ladders inside and outside;
 Administration office / welfare area;
 Store room;
 Pump house;
 Control room;
 Transformer yard;
 Emergency equipment (first aid, shower, eye wash, fire equipment);
 Internal road and parking;
 Rain drain facilities.
Each site should have a boundary/perimeter fence which should comply with legislation and
PAEW’s security and Health Safety Environment (HSE) Policy.
In line with Ministerial Decree (MD) No 286 the Design team must carry out an assessment of all
potential Hazards during construction and operation phases. This must include a risk
assessment detailing the future requirements for fire fighting, manual handling, electrics, lone
working, confined spaces etc. HSE PAEW is to be consulted at all stages of the design.
The reservoir shall be composed of at least 2 compartments.
The overflow line should prevent overfilling of the reservoir. There is no valve on the overflow
line. The drainage line is taken from the low point of the reservoir.
The drainage line is connected with the overflow line and is equipped with a valve (normally
closed). The invert (base) of the reservoir is made so that water flows naturally to the drainage
line (slope of 0.5% minimum). A sump is to be incorporated in the base of reservoir (ground and
submerged reservoirs only).
For RCC reservoirs, the drainage system should be installed beneath reservoir in case of
leakage.
Inverted filter with perforated laterals and manifold to be installed for monitoring tank leakage
from bottom.
The roof shall have waterproofing system to avoid inlet of rainwater.
For the safety and security of the site Royal Oman Police and Civil Defence Authority’s
regulations shall be followed.

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2.1 Planning and Design Factors for Reservoirs
Efficiently receive, store and deliver
Maintain water quality
Operation to comply with the requirements outlined in the PAEW design
guidelines
Functionality
Meet regulatory requirements (viz. MoTC, ROP, MEDC, RAECO, MAJAN,
MAZOON, MoH, PDO, OXY etc.,)
Have minimum visual impact on neighbourhood
Incorporate remote monitoring, control and telemetry alarms
Provide safe working conditions for operation and maintenance personnel
Be designed for minimal operator attendance and low maintenance
Be easily maintained using standard maintenance practices
Maintainability
Incorporate features to allow for flexibility of operation
Adopt PAEW standard components that are readily available at PAEW stores
Operate reliably, effectively and automatically (i.e. normally without manual

intervention)
Reliability
Have redundancy so that failure of any one item shall not cause total failure
Incorporate adequate security measures
2.2 Location and Land Selection

The location of a reservoir is influenced by hydraulic considerations so that the network can operate
satisfactorily under the design peak demand conditions.
The location shall be selected so that water pressure to consumers meets PAEW’s criteria. The
choice of reservoir site is usually determined by the land availability for reservoir, inlet/outlet/scour,
overflow pipework, flow meter and pump station structure etc. The location shall not be near or next to
heritage places and graveyard. In Oman, mostly the service/storage reservoirs shall be kept on the
jabel (mountain) to supply water to the demand areas. The choice of ground reservoir at jabel or
elevated tank at ground shall be decided based on OPEX and CAPEX cost analysis. To ensure that
the proposed reservoir location and layout are acceptable, the proposed site shall be approved in
advance by PAEW. Consideration should also be given to the potential likelihood of future
development to enable a future storage of similar or required size within the site footprint.
2.2.1 Location Factors

The following factors shall be considered during the site selection process:
Site selection Preferably center to the distribution area and proximity to
the source.
Electrical power supply facilities should be available or able
to be provided economically to the site.
Not near/next to the graveyard, tomb and heritage places
safe access to the site in all weather conditions
Provision of sufficient buffer from existing houses, and
future planned area development
Design Access road shall be designed as per the MoT standards.
The ascending gradient should not be more than 10%
(1V:10H)

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As per the ROP and MoT requirements ascending and
descending lane shall be provided if necessary.
adequate stormwater management and drainage for the
site facilities so that flooding of facility is avoided.
Balance cutting/filling volume in order to reduce CAPEX
2.3 Schematic layout of a reservoir
Overflow
Overflow line
High high
level (HH)
High level
Low level
Low low level(LL)
Firefighting reserve
Strainer/Screen
Inlet
From pumping station / Drainage line

reservoir
Sampling point By-Pass

Over flow
Outlet/ Distribution
Meter Check Valve
to network
Sampling point or online
analyser
Fig 1: Schematic layout with different levels
The low level is based on reservoir capacity, depth and daily demand. Furthermore, the criteria
of the time required to intervene in the event of a low alarm must be a major consideration
(travel time to site).
2.4 Provisional Arrangements
2.4.1 Ground level reservoir

The ground level reservoir ought to be designed with partition to enable for the scheduled
maintenance/cleaning of service reservoirs without causing any disruption of receiving and
supplying of water. In general, partition divides the total volume equally. For the mega
capacity, number of partitions and position of partition shall be decided based on qualitative
and quantitative analysis.
Partition shall not be required if the effective capacity of ground level reservoir is less than 25
cubic meter.

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2.4.2 Elevated tank
In general elevated tank of less than 50 cu.m capacity, partition shall not be required; for
higher capacity tank shall be configured with partition.
2.4.3 Inlet pipe work
The inlet pipe diameter should be sized for the ultimate designed flows (considering one
compartment is filling and other under maintenance). A 90° bend shall be provided on the
discharge to allow proper mixing.
Motorized Operated Valve (MOV) shall be provided at the inlet of reservoir. If the reservoir
receives water from simple direct pumping main (single discharge) and the altitude of
reservoir is higher than the en-route elevation then the manually operated valve shall be
provided. However, if the inlet pipe size exceeds DN 400 (and DN 400) MOV shall be
provided to facilitate for easy operation.
2.4.4 Outlet pipe work
The outlet pipe diameter shall be sized for peak instantaneous (peak hour demand or fire
flow scenario whichever is more) flows and shall be one pipe size larger than in the
discharge watermain to allow for a future increase in capacity.
The outlet pipe is to be positioned at a height to minimise the risk of any accumulated
sediment within the reservoir being disturbed and being discharged during reservoir
operation. This is typically achieved by positioning the outlet above the designed grade of the
reservoir floor, normally graded to achieve a minimum 100mm fall.
A redundant outlet shall be provided in each compartment of one size less than the main
outlet or DN 200mm whichever is greater. The redundant outlet shall be positioned next to
main outlet within the same outlet chamber. It shall be closed with the blank flange and to be
identified as “Redundant”.
2.4.5 Overflow pipe work
An overflow pipe shall be provided in each compartment with a suitable inlet arrangement set
at an appropriate invert level. The overflow pipe diameter shall be sized for designed peak
instantaneous flows (all pumping running at possible extreme flow regime, no outflow from
reservoir) and sized to prevent excessive velocity. In general, the overflow pipe size is one
size up than the inlet pipeline. Bellmouth fitting is preferable for overflow arrangement,
situated a minimum 100mm above top water level with minimum of 300mm freeboard
between top of bellmouth and underside of roof elements and it should be free of obstruction
from roof members.
The overflow line shall be properly routed to nearby wadi and sufficient diligence should be
made in such that the overflow water should not cause any inconvenience by flooding nearby
dwelling or public access roads.

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2.4.6 Scour pipe work
The scour point is to be located as to optimize scour and cleaning activities. A suitably sized
scour pipe shall be connected to the overflow line with a valve connection.
2.5 Testing of water retaining structures
After completion of water retaining structure shall be tested before applying of any sort of
finishes including water proofing/coating/lining or any other finishes on internal and external wall
faces. The leakage test should be conducted with the bare structure. Upon completion of
leakage test and witnessed/certified by the supervision consultant/PAEW/authorised third party
the inner and outer wall faces shall be finished.
2.6 Inspection and maintenance
To confirm a reservoirs physical integrity, security and water quality, routine and periodic
exterior and interior inspections are necessary.
For the interior inspection the frequency varies by country. Oman does not specify a
compulsory frequency of inspection. A sound procedure would be to carry out an inspection
each time a reservoir is cleaned. This provides regular assessments of condition and identifies
remedial works that are needed before the deterioration is too great.
Inspection frequencies will be discussed and set by regional Operations Manager on guidance
provided by General Manager Operations, General Manager Asset Management, HSE, Water
Quality or their departments.
2.7 Access and protection
The protection of access to water facilities is important. Metal fences must be provided to
prevent trespassing, theft and introduction of harmful products to the water from act of domestic
and non-domestic aggression.
The following elements should be installed on sites that or deemed high or medium risks:
 Secured perimeter with minimum of 2.5 meters with barbed wire at the top and security
gates lighting and signing as required,
 Secured doors, secured reservoir hatches, secured chamber hatches with security
locks,
 Secure Ventilation grilles, secured access ladder (s),
 Secure electrical installation or other utilities,
 CCTV or other monitoring equipment deemed necessary for the site by risk analysis or
advised from security advisors, Royal Oman Police (ROP) or PAEW.
Reservoir compound is normally completely enclosed by high fences because of threat of

domestic and non-domestic aggression. These should be masonry or iron railings type
depending on architectural requirements.

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The following elements should be installed on sites with low risks:
 Secure entry point ( ladder, door or hatch),
 Lighting and signage as required,
 Security patrols and Operational visits,
As previous, reservoirs are normally enclosed but at low risks sites this could be of chain link
type as it would normally be to stop animals and tress passers only.
2.8 Security and access
The following briefings and diagrams are designed to be incorporated on sites that are deemed
medium or high risk.
2.8.1 Doors with direct access to water
Air lock style double doors with sealed panels (internal and external) at locations with direct
access to treated water, will meet the specifications listed below.
These doors are equipped with a second internal anti contamination door with seals, hinges and
fastenings including fully concealed door locks at 90°open position. They are made from a
single plate of stainless steel with folded and shaped edges of 4mm minimum thickness and
include stiffeners as needed. The door is mounted on an outer frame that is seal to and built in
to the masonry.
Closing the sash exterior is provided by three anchor points and a concealed handle.
Locking is done by turning the lock 90°. Locks are hidden under a cover ensuring its external
protection. The number of keys is limited and they are common to all sites.
Each door and the first gate outside are fitted with an open sensor and a vibration sensor with a
combination box equipped with cable gland for a cable of 8 to10 mm in diameter. The output
cables are made by passages through the masonry and flowing into the compartment between
the 2 doors.
The implementation of louvre ventilation facades of watertight doors is not allowed. The opening
direction (right /left) of doors will be interior to exterior.

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Dimension of passage
Identification plate
Support electronic detector

for opening
Padlock device conceals
Support for shock &

vibration detector
Interior door
Exterior door Concealed

hings
Fig 2: Door with direct access to water
2.8.2 Secured hatch direct access to water
Hatches are to be of the type raised in single or multiple doors and equipped with a second
inner door with single or multiple covers forming an internal compartment which provides
insulation between the inside and the outside to protect the reservoir. This internal anti-
contamination compartment includes a drainage system and mounts for the hatch.

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The assembly of (the) wing (s) Internal (s) includes ventilation to allow the free flow of air from
the tank, preventing the accumulation of high levels of chlorine and protects the roof of the tank
from the phenomenon of "sucking" during declining water levels. The outlet of the ventilation
must be protected by a mosquito grid made of stainless steel 316.
On the first cover of each door an open sensor and a vibration sensor with a combination box
equipped with cable gland for cable of 8 to 10 mm in diameter in sufficient quantity is to be
fitted. The output cables are made by passages through the wall bracket and terminating in the
compartment between the two traps.
The doors are sealed, vented and equipped with fixing points and concealed hinges. Opening of
the doors is supported by stainless steel springs. The doors should automatically lock in the
open position at 90 degrees. The outer cover is domed to promote runoff and lifting is done by
an external handle located on one side.
Locking is done by turning the lock 900. Locks are hidden under a cover ensuring its external
protection. The number of keys is limited and they are common to all sites. Access cover must
be single man lift type.
Exterior cover
Interior cover
Concealed
hings
Padlock system
conceals
Anti-insect netting

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Folding security
bars
Anti retractable falls

Exterior cover
Interior cover
Concealed
Padlock system
hings
conceals
Anti-insect netting
Opening for cable
Support for opening electric

detector
Support for shock & vibration

detector
Hole for fixation
Fig 3: Secured hatch cover
2.8.3 Ventilation Arrangement
Reservoir shall have sufficient and safe ventilation facility. It shall protect against any intrusion
from outside by any means.
Entire arrangement is in the form of a metallic cylinder of approximately 200 mm diameter

inserted and fixed to the entire depth of the reservoir wall firmly from inside. It consists of three
parts, first part on the exterior, next in the middle and the last towards the inside of the reservoir.
The design includes:
 Exterior part of such an arrangement has metallic louvers to protect against any
thorough entry of solid or liquid contents. Louvers are located slanting at an angle
staggered and closely pitched so as to provide full protection. The outer louvers
framework shall be removed only with special tools for maintenance and cleaning
purposes.
 Second and middle section has a closely woven mesh made of 316 stainless steel and
it is firmly fixed to the frame. The mesh avoids entry of any insects, reptiles or crawling
creatures.

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 The third and the interior section has a metallic cylinder (DN200 steel or equivalent) with
two baffles to assist preventing contamination and facilitating the drainage system to the
outside.
Air intake louvres
Baffles
Anti-insect
netting
Fig 4: Ventilation Grille
2.8.4 Access ladder external
For security and maintenance of the exterior of the reservoir a ladder equipped with a safety
cage and hand rail must be installed. The ladder should be in aluminium or stainless steel.
Fig 5: Access ladder with safety cage
Outside ladder shall have locking facility to restrict access to unauthorised personnel.
2.8.5 Access ladder internal
The internal ladder should be constructed of completely GRP or stainless steel only. Four rungs
of the ladder must protrude outside of the entry hatch. This can be achieved by part of the

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ladder being hinged beside the access hatch acting as a secondary barrier and ladder
extension.
2.8.6 Lighting
Each site should be equipped with lighting which complies with Royal Oman Police and Civil
Defense Authority’s regulations and PAEW’s security and HSE Policy.
On the elevated reservoirs and the ones on high mountains spots Aviation warning light shall be
installed.
3. HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT
The specification of each material will be given in the Standard Specification of PAEW.
3.1 Pipes
The type of pipe depends on the fluid being transported and the environment in which it is
installed. Usually, reservoirs pipes are made of steel (painted or stainless steel) or ductile iron.
3.2 Valves
Inlet and outlet valves should be Modulated butterfly valves. If connected with SCADA system,
these valves should be electrically opened and closed automatically with level detection.
For security of installation and operations it is necessary to have a by-pass pipe between the
inlet and outlet pipes.
A check valve (non-return) should be installed on the outlet before the by-pass.
In the reservoir the outlet is to be equipped with a strainer/screen.
3.3 Level detection
For the detection of water levels in the reservoir the following solutions could be used.
1. 1 level sensor (4-20 mA) installed in the reservoir to measure the depth of water,
2. 4 float level controllers ''(level switches) Pear shape type '' for very low level, very high
level and overflow,
3. Hydrostatic level transmitters,
4. Ultrasonic level transmitters,
5. Pressure regulating valve,
6. Mechanical level indicator (cat and mouse type).
For level detection the recommended option is to equip each compartment of the reservoir with
one ultrasonic level sensor and two float level controlers (for LL and HH levels as additional
security). The motorized valve shall be installed at the main inlet.

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Furthermore, each compartiment shall be equipped with one mechanical water level indicator
(cat and mouse type).
3.4 Meters
To know the quantity of water received and pumped out and to monitor for leakage from the
reservoir the inlet (optional only for specific case) and outlet pipe should be equipped with an
electro-magnetic flow meter.
If a reservoir consists of two compartments, the flow meter shall be installed on the common
outlet.
If a reservoir is feeding the pump station as suction and located in the same compound as the
pumps, then the flow meter shall be on the common discharge line of the pumps and no need
to install a flow meter at the outlet of the reservoir.
3.5 Water quality monitoring
In order to monitor the quality of the water the sampling points shall be located on inlet and
outlet mains, (ensuring that samples can be collected when one or more cells are taken out of
service). An online monitoring may be installed on critical reservoirs e.g. distribution or
transmission.
3.6 Access Road
Access road is to be provided from nearest public road to the PAEW site (reservoir/pump
station), where the access from a public road is not available then a suitable access road
shall be created. The design of access is based on the size of operating and maintenance
vehicles (min. 3T truck capacity).
The following shall be considered whilst designing the access road :-
Minimum access road requirements

Minimum pavement width 5 metre
Provide access road around full extent of reservoir or extent upto which the maintenance is
required (until access to inlet/outlet/overflow chambers).
Minimum turning radius shall be arrived based on the vehicle swept path analysis and
simulations
Bench cutting and filling shall be provided
 Loose/weathered rocks /stones may fall from the uphill, therefore it is recommended to
protect the cut sloped sides with rich cement mortar grouting (with mesh reinforcement) as
per the geotechnical investigation recommendations. In case of earth filling, the embankment
portions shall be protected with geotextile membrane.
Desirable maximum grade – 12.5%
Preferred crossfall – 3%
The access road shall be designed in one of the following materials:

Flexible pavement with asphalt seal
Concrete pavement

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3.6.1 Approvals
As part of the designing/planning phase, necessary approvals should be obtained for the
access road from the following respective regional authorities with a detailed drawing
showing the followings
 project location
 access road layouts including daylight of cutting/filling
 cross sections at different chainage (shows bench cutting/filling)
 longitudinal profile shows the percentage of ascending and descending slope
 road markings and signs etc.
Authority Requirements Remarks

Ministry of Housing Ensure availability of land for the In the road/alignment layout
access road extent of cut and fill boundary to
be shown.
Ministry of transport Ensure on ascending gradient, G.I guard rail shall be provided
turning radius, junction details where the difference in ground
and signage, level exceeds 1.0m.
ascending/descending bay
requirements
Electrical Power supply provider Ensure access road not affect Maintain the clear vertical
any existing underground or distance of min. 7m between
above ground power utilities the permanent grade level and
electrical OHL.
Regional Municipality Ensure cut/fill not affect the
drainage pattern of nearby area
and not affect nearby falaj
system
Telecommunication providers Shall not affect the underground (Ooredoo and Omantel)
services
Ministry of heritage and culture Ensure access road boundary
not affect any heritage site
Royal Oman Police (civil Ensure junction details and
defense) signage as per standards
Approvals shall be required from the other relevant authorities which may be deemed
required for the project.
3.6.2 Flooding
The
3.6.3 Site Survey

The whole of the reservoir site is to be surveyed by a reputed surveyor to identify the
boundaries, surface contours and existing services. This information is to be used by the
designer in siting the reservoir by analysing to reduce the cut/fill volume considering the
operating levels of the reservoir, pipework routes (inlet / outlet, scour, overflow, bypass),
flowmeter, water service, power supply and drainage as well as the access roadway and
turning radius.
The site survey shall also indicate the proximity of adjoining properties, particularly those
which may be impacted upon adversely by the construction and operation of the reservoir.

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3.6.4 Geotechnical Investigation

A geotechnical investigation is required to determine ground conditions which will impose
requirements on the designer. The designer shall address:
 Reservoir foundations;
 Pipework thrust restraint;
 Access road and hardstand area;
 Settlement issues
 Maximum height of bench cutting\filling
The geotechnical consultant is to prepare both a factual and interpretive report which details
the investigation and findings.
4. SCADA
The Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) shall supervise, monitor and control the reservoirs.
All the data shall be collected from the different units and transferred to the Regional Control
Room.
 Continuous monitoring of level (data);
 Low Low level (alarm);
 Low level (alarm);
 High level (alarm);
 High High level (alarm);
 Overflow (alarm);
 Suction and discharge pressure low and high alarms;
 Position and command of inlet and outlet valves;
 Water quality parameters (chlorination, turbidity, conductivity ,pH and temperature
(data + alarms) to be confirmed by Water Quality department;
 Flow inlet/outlet (data + alarms);
 Historic data;
 Fire alarm;
 Chlorine leakage alarm.

TET/DG/5007
DISINFECTION and SECONDARY Issue: 1.1
CHLORINATION
1.0 27/04/2013 First issue
1.1 14/05/2015 - Typo errors corrected

- Table 8 and 9 modified
Contents
1. SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. RESPONSABILITIES ................................................................................................................................... 3
3. ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTS .................................................................................................................... 3
4. CHLORINE DISINFECTION THEORY ..................................................................................................... 4
5. SECONDARY CHLORINATION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................... 6
5.1 Water Quality Standard Orientations ........................................................................................................ 6
5.2 Water Systems in PAEW, Water Age & Transfer Time .......................................................................... 6
5.2.1 Transmission systems/SR ...................................................................................................................... 6
4.2.1 Wells ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
5.3 Predictive and Decision-making tool : Water Quality modeling.............................................................. 7
6. CHOICE OF DISINFECTION SYSTEM ..................................................................................................... 8
7. DISINFECTION SYSTEMS, AGENTS & TECHNOLOGIES................................................................. 10
7.1 Disinfection agents recommended by PAEW for new projects ............................................................. 10
7.1.1 Calcium Hypochlorite .......................................................................................................................... 10
7.1.2 Sodium Hypochlorite ........................................................................................................................... 10
7.1.3 Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate or DCCNa ........................................................................................... 10
7.1.4 On-Site Electrolytic Chlorine Generation System (OSEC) ................................................................ 11
7.2 Disinfection Agents not recommended by PAEW for new project........................................................ 12
7.2.1 Chlorine Gas ........................................................................................................................................ 12
7.2.2 Chlorine dioxide................................................................................................................................... 13
7.3 Others Techniques (non chlorine based) ................................................................................................. 13
7.3.1 UV light................................................................................................................................................ 13
7.3.2 Ozone ................................................................................................................................................... 13
7.4 Choice of disinfection system summary ................................................................................................. 14
8. CHLORINE MEASUREMENT & MONITORING .................................................................................. 15
8.1 Regulation/Control of dosage flow ......................................................................................................... 15
8.1.1 Wells .................................................................................................................................................... 15
8.1.2 Reservoir or Pumping Stations ............................................................................................................ 15
8.2 Type of measurement............................................................................................................................... 16
8.3 On-line analysers ..................................................................................................................................... 17
8.4 Water Quality sampling point.................................................................................................................. 19
9. MONITORING SCADA LEVELS AND ALARMS ................................................................................. 19
10. HSE GUIDELINES ON CHLORINATION UNITS.............................................................................. 19
11. DOCUMENTATION .............................................................................................................................. 21
References ............................................................................................................................................................ 22

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CHLORINATION
Figures
FIGURE 1 CHLORINE DISSOCIATION ............................................................................................................................ 4

FIGURE 2 DISSOCIATION OF HYPOCHLOROUS ACID IN THE WATER ............................................................................ 5
FIGURE 3 TRANSMISSION NETWORK SCHEMATIC ....................................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 4 WATER SUPPLY SCHEMATIC WATER AGE AND TRANSFER TIME .................................................................. 7
FIGURE 5 SCHEMATIC FOR LIQUID HYPOCHLORITE INJECTION ................................................................................. 10
FIGURE 6 OSEC OPEN CELL CHEMICAL REACTION.................................................................................................. 11
FIGURE 7 ELECTRO-CHLORINATION SCHEMATIC ...................................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 8 CHLORINE GAS INSTALLATION SCHEMATIC .............................................................................................. 12
FIGURE 9 SCHEMATIC CHLORINE DOSING (WELLS) .................................................................................................. 15
FIGURE 10 SCHEMATIC CHLORINE DOSING (RESERVOIR/PS) .................................................................................. 15
FIGURE 11 CHAIN OF CUSTODY FOR ON-LINE ANALYSERS ....................................................................................... 17
FIGURE 12 SAMPLING POINT (NETWORK) TECHNICAL DESIGN ................................................................................. 19
FIGURE 13 SAMPLING POINT (VERTICAL PIPE) TECHNICAL DESIGN .......................................................................... 19
Tables
TABLE 1 CONCENTRATION AND CONTACT TIME FOR CHLORINE ................................................................................ 5

TABLE 2 TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT OF DISINFECTION - CHLORINATION .................................................................... 9
TABLE 3 CHOICE OF DISINFECTION SYSTEM SUMMARY ........................................................................................... 14
TABLE 4 ANALYSERS BY TYPE OF ASSET .................................................................................................................. 16
TABLE 5 COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOR CHLORINE IDENTIFICATION ................. 17
TABLE 6 EXAMPLE OF ANALYSER MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE .................................................................................. 18
TABLE 7 ON-SITE REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 20
TABLE 8 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT MATRIX ........................................................................................... 23
TABLE 9 EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT MATRIX ............................................................................................................ 24
Abbreviations
PPE: Personal Protective Equipment

FM: Flowmeter
BA: Breathing Apparatus
EBA: Escape Breathing Apparatus
SCADA: Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCBA: Self Contained Breathing Apparatus

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CHLORINATION
1. SCOPE
This document has been prepared as a Guide for PAEW engineers and their Consultants with
regards to potable water disinfection and by chlorination. Note that other methods of
disinfection (e.g. UV, ozone, etc.) are presented but not detailed in this document.
This document describes the different solutions proposed for chlorination alongside with criteria
in order to choose the most suitable system for PAEW infrastructures.
2. RESPONSABILITIES
It is the responsibility of the HSE Manager to review this document annually in line with all HSE
acts, law and regulations.
It is the Water Quality Manager’s responsibility to review this document annually in line with
Omani Water Standards and best/new practices occurring in the water Business.
It is the Technical Standards Manager responsibility to review this document in line with
International Standards and best/new practices occurring in the water Business every three
years.
The Consultant is responsible for studying the requirements and submitting for approval
detailed drawings for a continuous and safe operation of the chlorination system after preferred
system analysis has been undertaken. The Consultant is also responsible for supervising the
installation works.
The Installer is responsible for the build, pre-commissioning, commissioning and complete
functioning of the installation. It is also the Installer’s responsibility to ensure that all
commissioning documentation meets the requirements of PAEW.
The day-to-day Operations & Maintenance is undertaken by O&M contractors as soon as the
project is handed over by the Installer. One year warranty shall be included for each new
project (after commissioning).
The chlorination system shall be designed and suitable for operation in the climatic conditions in
the Sultanate of Oman.
3. ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTS
HSE/WI/9000: Personal protective clothing

HSE/WI/9010: Storage and control of chemicals in stores
HSE/WI/9009: Hazardous Substances
HSE/WI/9011: Handling Transporting and Delivery of Sodium Hypochlorite
TET/SD/5016 Water Quality Sampling Point for Network
TET/SD/5017 Water Quality Sampling Point for vertical and horizontal pipe

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CHLORINATION
4. CHLORINE DISINFECTION THEORY
Chlorine is widely used in water industry as a disinfection agent. PAEW recommends the use of
hypochlorite (sodium or calcium) and DCCNa (described in section 7). Even if the initial
reagents are different (sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, DCCNa), the active agent
remains the same; free chlorine.
The following section will give a brief overview of chlorine disinfection theory, and how the
disinfection efficiency is influenced by pH, temperature, disinfectant concentration and contact
time.
The figure below gives a summary of the different forms of chlorine depending on pH.
Chlorine is a powerful oxidant. It will react with some elements and it will also have a biocide
action. The two main forms of chlorine are: the free chlorine and the combined chlorine.
- The first one (free chlorine) will be divided, after dissociation in the water, into 3 different
types of chlorine (dichlore, hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion), with a different level of
biocide action efficiency for each type, depending on pH values.
- The second one (combined chlorine) will be combined with some oxydable element and
will not have any biocide action.
Figure 1 Chlorine dissociation

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CHLORINATION
It can be noted that at pH=7.5, HClO and ClO- concentration are close to 50%. The most
efficient disinfectant form is the hypochlorous acid (HClO). The best range of pH for a good
disinfection will be between 6.5 and 7.5.
High temperatures will favour the bactericide effect, although low temperatures favour HClO
against ClO-. High temperatures will speed up the disinfection reaction. However, one major
drawback is that high temperatures decrease the reagent stability in time, and therefore its
efficiency.
Figure 2 Dissociation of hypochlorous acid in the water
The biocide efficiency of the different reagents can also be determined from the product of dose
(in mg/L) with contact time (in minutes). The table below highlights the CT (mg.min/L) for
different types of reagents recommended in this document.
Table 1 Concentration and contact time for chlorine
Chlorine gas &

Chlorine dioxide
Hypochlorite
Bactericide 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L during 10 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L during 10 to 15
to 15 minutes minutes
Virulicide 0.3 to 0.5 mg/L during 30 0.3 to 0.5 mg/L during 30 minutes
to 45 minutes
C.T * 9 to 22 mg.min/L 9 to 15 mg.min/L

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CHLORINATION
5. SECONDARY CHLORINATION REQUIREMENTS
5.1 WATER QUALITY STANDARD ORIENTATIONS
The current Omani Un-bottled Drinking water Standards (8/2006) specify a free chlorine
concentration range of 0.2 - 0.5 mg/l as an acceptable range for drinking water through public
distribution systems. This standard is currently used to monitor compliance at all points from
treatment plant outlet to customer’s tap within PAEW perimeter of operation.
Regarding the commonly encountered long distances between production sites and customers,
the level of chlorine may decrease to zero without any post chlorination facilities, increasing the
water quality degradation risk.
Thus, depending on the network configuration, it may be necessary to proceed to post

chlorination. In some cases it may be more appropriate to increase initial chlorination levels in
one location in order to reach the required standard at the customer’s tap.
5.2 WATER SYSTEMS IN PAEW, WATER AGE & TRANSFER TIME
Two main configurations are mentioned in this guideline, depending on the type of asset:
 Post Chlorination on transmission lines (pumping stations or transmission reservoirs)

and/or Service Reservoirs (SR);
Pumping
Station Service Distribution
Reservoir (SR) Network
Water Treatment Transmission
Plant Reservoir
Service Distribution
Reservoir (SR) Network
Figure 3 Transmission network schematic
 Well water disinfection, straight after water abstraction from water tables.
5.2.1 TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS/SR
In transmission systems, location of the post chlorination units will depend on two main
aspects:
 Water age and transfer time;
 Chlorine decay throughout the water networks (depending on both the pipe material
and the chlorine decay in the water due to initial concentration, temperature and
organic matter content)
The water age and transfer time have been calculated using hydraulic modelling tools and/or
average daily demand data and pipes layout, and added on schematics for each governorate,
as presented in Figure 4 (ie. South Batinah).

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CHLORINATION
Figure 4 Water supply schematic water age and transfer time
It is worth noting that most of the water in the transmission system is coming from desalinated
water (rarely blended with ground water), whether it concerns MSF or RO process based
treatment plants.
The water is generally chlorinated at the production point at concentration range of 0.2 - 0.5
mg/L.
Laboratory tests have showed that chlorine reaches a level of 0.05 mg/L after 100h1 with an
initial concentration of 0.5mg/L. Therefore, without taking into account the material and the
diameter of the pipe, it could be considered that the water should be secondary chlorinated
after 100h of water age at the service reservoir (primary distribution point) at the maximum. In
reality, this time may be lower due to specific constraints and this value may be considered as
maximum acceptable one. Specific tests and guidance will be given by the Water Quality
Department depending on each case.
4.2.1 WELLS
Most of PAEW wells water is not disinfected and present a high risk of microbial contamination.
The groundwater may also contain more organics than water produced by desalination plants.
Thus, special attention shall be paid to the disinfection treatment, as there is a higher risk of
generation of by-products such as chloramine or THMs and chlorine decay may be higher and
risk of bacteria "re-growth" also higher.
5.3 PREDICTIVE AND DECISION-MAKING TOOL : WATER QUALITY

MODELING
Water quality network modelling is a very powerful decision support tool to determine at the first
place the location of post chlorination units.
Based on the distribution and transmission network configuration (length, diameter, time of
transfer, etc.) the required free chlorine concentration at the distribution reservoir will be set,
and the post-chlorination units located where required, based on transmission and distribution
water quality model. Basically, once the free chlorine concentration leaving the production site
1
Tests realised in PAEW Central Laboratory in Ghubra (22/09/2012) and in Sur Desalination Plant laboratory
(20/09/2012)

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CHLORINATION
is determined, it shall be possible to predict the remaining free chlorine in the transmission and
distribution network. Chlorine decay kinetic factors will be determined through laboratory tests
and on-site sampling campaigns.
6. CHOICE OF DISINFECTION SYSTEM
The main considerations which affect the final choice of a disinfection technology are:
 Regulation and legal requirements

o Omani Standard
 Technical
o Original Water Quality & Flow to be treated;
o By-products (very low in Oman, as organic matter theoretically is inexistent in
desalinated water – but present in surface freshwater and water tables);
o Dosage & Contact time;
o Treatment capacity;
 Geography
o Access to site (for reagents delivery);
o Storage space on site with respect to HSE rules;
 Logistics
o Procurement and delivery of reagents;
o Availability of reagents in Oman;
 Resources
 Equipment
 HSE rules
 Emergency services
 Cost
o Supply & Installation costs
o Maintenance costs
 Preventive;
 Corrective;
o Operational Costs;
 Chemicals & Reagents;
 Spare parts.
The table below gives some examples by criteria (technical, geographical, etc.) to take into
account for the choice of a disinfection system.

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CHLORINATION
Table 2 Technical Assessment of Disinfection - chlorination

NaClO Ca (ClO) 2 OSEC
Answers Cl 2 (2,3)
(1,2,3) (1,2,3) (3)
CONSIDERATIONS (Chlorination site)
Drums Drums
Cylinders Gas LIQUID Powder
Liquid Gas
What are the Max & Min flows to be treated?
What is the required Maximum dose rate?
Is the proposal for Manual or Automatic dosing &
control ?
1 Technical
What Chemical stock level is required on site ?
What chemical control measures are in place or
planned for the site ?
What are SCADA requirements / availability ?
What is distance from the chemical storage area to the
nearest populated area?
What limitations does the access route impose on
2 Geography
transport ?
Are there any topographical issues ?
What restrictions apply to the site and surrounding
d
area ?
de
en
Are the Hazardous material Regulations met? m
3 Regulation / Legal
m
co
Does Future Legislation impact on the choice?
e
R
What exclusion zones are in place (or proposed)
t
No
around the facility? e.g Transport load restrictions,
Airports, Miltary bases, environmental.
What volume (by weight) is required to be
transported?
Are there any delivery constraints from the supplier
which impact on stores capability?
4 Logistics
Are spares readility available?
Are there near‐ by Assets that are available for Shared
storage, chemical delivery?
5 Resources Is staffing & training required?
6 Equipment Does history prevent its use?
Can the equipment be used so far as reasonably
7 HSE
practicable?
8 Emergency Services Are they available?
9 Cost Which is the best whole life cost option?
1 New projects
2 Existing projects Review ofprojects in progress
3 Existing assets

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
7. DISINFECTION SYSTEMS, AGENTS & TECHNOLOGIES
7.1 DISINFECTION AGENTS RECOMMENDED BY PAEW FOR NEW

PROJECTS
7.1.1 CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE
Calcium Hypochlorite is available on the market under different trade names, either in powder,
granular or agglomerated form. Its main characteristics are as follow:
- Free chlorine rate : up to 70%
- Purchased in 25kg or 50kg bags
- Solubility : from 215 g/l at 00C to 234 g/l at 400C
- Working solution concentration generally lower than 100 g Ca(ClO)2 per litre
- Deterioration in time : 2 to 2.5% over 1 year against 4% for Sodium Hypochlorite
7.1.2 SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE
Sodium hypochlorite, often referred to as liquid bleach, is the most widely used of the
hypochlorites in potable water treatment.
- Free chlorine rate : around 15%
- Large storage area required compared to solid calcium hypochlorite
- Easy and safe to handle
- Commercial liquid bleach is usually delivered at a concentration of 149 à 158 g Cl2/L.
7.1.3 SODIUM DICHLOROISOCYANURATE OR DCCNA
DCCNa is the most recent product releasing chlorine. It presents some benefits (high stability
under high temperatures, higher free chlorine rate) compared with bleach and other products
releasing free chlorine.
Like Calcium Hypochlorite, DCCNa is available under different forms; powder, tablets, granula
or agglomerated.
- Solubility: 30g/100mL at 25°C
- Free chlorine rate : around 90%
- Very stable and easy to use source of free chlorine
- Not toxic
For the three above solutions, the disinfectant agent after

dissolution in water is injected according to the following
steps; the water is stored in a bulk storage tank (1),
collected by (2), the level is checked through a level sensor
(3) and the solution is pumped through (4) by the high
pressure pump (5). The water to be chlorinated arrives
through the pipe (6) and the disinfectant agent is injected
with the hydro injector (7).
The injection flow can be monitored and controlled

automatically by a flow meter and an on-line analyzer,
connected to a SCADA system.
Figure 5 Schematic for liquid hypochlorite injection

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CHLORINATION
7.1.4 ON-SITE ELECTROLYTIC CHLORINE GENERATION SYSTEM (OSEC)
Electro-chlorination enables to produce sodium hypochlorite continuously by using salt as a

basic component. The liquid sodium hypochlorite produced is less corrosive than bleach, and
the low concentrations enable a finer dosing of free chlorine into the water system.
When using OSEC, chlorine and sodium hydroxide are produced in-situ by electrolysis, by
passing an electric current through salt water (or brine). The typical produced chlorine
concentrations are between 6g/L and 30g/L depending on the technology.
There are actually two types of electrolyser technologies:

 The open-cells technology
The electrochemical reaction takes place in one chamber, so that the produced chlorine (Cl2)
immediately reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form sodium hypochlorite (NaClO). The
reaction taking place in the cell is shown in the figure below.
Figure 6 OSEC Open Cell chemical reaction
Basically;
- Hypochlorite is produced at an average concentration of 6-8 g/L;
- Salt of average quality can be used;
- Complex maintenance, but cells are only replaced every 4-5 years.
 The membrane technology

The electrochemical reaction takes place in two electrodes chambers separated by a
membrane, so that the formation of the chlorine and sodium hydroxide is physically separated.
The overall chemical reaction remains however the same.
- Hypochlorite produced at a higher concentration than with open-cells, 25-30g/L
- Refined quality salt required (more restrictive)
- Complex maintenance on membranes, only experienced operators can maintain the
system. The system has to be checked at least weekly and the membranes have to be
changed every 2 years.
The operating figure below highlights how these OSEC technologies work.
The water arrives by (1) and is cooled or heated (up to 20°C). The water crosses a softener (3)
and goes directly in a salt saturator (4). A dilution is made in a tank (6) if necessary. The pump
(5) injects the water in the electro- chlorinator (membrane or open cells) (7). The chlorinated
water is stored not more than 24 or 48h in the tank (8) and injected in the network (10) by the
pressure pump (9). Operation can be automatically monitored by flow meter and on-line
analyser, connected to a SCADA system.

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
Figure 7 Electro-chlorination schematic
7.2 DISINFECTION AGENTS NOT RECOMMENDED BY PAEW FOR NEW

PROJECT
7.2.1 CHLORINE GAS
Gas Chlorine is available typically in steel containers, under a pressure of about 40 bars. This
can be drawn off as a liquid with a controlled evaporation (liquid to gas) phase or drawn off
directly as a gas. The required chlorine levels dictate the process requirement.
The specific gravity of the liquid chlorine is about 1.44 at 20° C decreasing to 1.25 at 70º C. This
results in liquid chlorine filling the entire volume of the container at 70ºC.
The figure below shows how the chlorine gas system works:
The water which needs to be chlorinated arrives through the pipe (1). The gas is stored in the
cylinder (2). The water which will be used for gas transportation is collected (3), pressurized
with the high pressure pump (4). The gas is injected in the water in (9). The high chlorinated
water is injected through the injection point (6), and a sample is collected in (8) to be analyzed
(11). The flow is monitored by a flow meter (5) and all information are amplified and collected
(12), in order to calculate the injection rate in the recorder (13) and transferred to the control
unit (14). (15) is a filter used to de-chlorinate the water when the calibration of analyzer is
requested.
Figure 8 Chlorine gas installation schematic

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CHLORINATION
7.2.2 CHLORINE DIOXIDE
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a yellow or orange gas also called biocide. This gas is not stable,
and very soluble in the water. Its disinfection efficiency is generally higher than hypochlorite or
chlorine gas and it does not depend on the pH range (5-10). However, due to its instability, this
reagent must be produced on site from sodium chlorite, chlorhydric acid and chlorine gas. The
residual chlorine dioxide reacts with HDPE and causes a rapid ageing of the pipe. Thus, ClO2
oxidizes the superficial layer of the pipe, and creates small slots that tend to shorten the pipe
lifespan.
PAEW does not allow these solutions as a matter of safety. Chlorine gas is heavier than air
and escaped gas will therefore concentrate at floor level, or collect in ducts under the floor.
Chlorine is a toxic and highly irritating gas immediately affecting the eyes, nose, throat, larynx
and main bronchial tubes. Finally, if there is an explosion, the dispersion of chlorine gas could
be dramatic if stored within cities.
7.3 OTHERS TECHNIQUES (NON CHLORINE BASED)
The two techniques presented below are generally used at the outlet of treatment facilities, but
not in networks.
7.3.1 UV LIGHT
UV-C rays are the only rays which have a germicide effect, the most efficient wavelength being
at 253.7 nm. There are some advantages to use UV light such as no storage of chemical
reagents is required and the disinfectant action is very quick. However, the efficiency of this
technology is difficult to monitor, as the microorganisms are not destroyed, but only
“deactivated”.
By using this technology, no remaining effect will occur in the network.
7.3.2 OZONE
Ozone is one of the most powerful oxidant, and has a very efficient disinfectant power. It is
produced from dry air or oxygen by discharge of electricity or through photochemical reactions.
It is colourless at room temperature and condenses to a dark blue liquid. It is generally
encountered in dilute form in a mixture of oxygen or air. Concentrations in excess of 30% in gas
can be very unstable and explosive.2
Despite of its excellent disinfectant power, Ozone does not have a persistent disinfection effect
in water networks.
PAEW does not recommend these two solutions. These techniques are never used in
networks. There is no remaining effect for both of them, as water transmission networks are
long and water age important, it would not be accurate to install such technologies according
to PAEW.
2 th
“White’s handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants”5 edition; Black&Veatch corporation;
2010

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
7.4 CHOICE OF DISINFECTION SYSTEM SUMMARY
The table below summarises the different options discussed in the above paragraphs:
Table 3 Choice of Disinfection system summary
Sodium Sodium
Calcium
Chlorine Hypochlorite Hypochlorite Chlorine
Hypochlorite DCCNa UV Ozone
Gas (NaClO) (NaClO) Dioxyde
(Ca(ClO)2)
Bleach OSEC
Powder,
White powder,
Physical Yellow/ Tablets,
Gas granular or Yellow liquid Liquid Rays Gas
Aspect Orange gas granular, or
agglomerated
agglormerated
Free chlorine
> 99% 40 to 70% < 15 % < 15 % - 90% HClO N/A N/A
rate (%)
Deterioration Lamp
Stable 2 - 2.5 % a year 2 - 4 % a year 2 - 4 % a year Stable Stable N/A
rate ageing
Optimal pH
5 < pH < 7.5 5 < pH < 7.5 5 < pH < 7.5 5 < pH < 7.5 6 < pH < 10 6 < pH < 7.5 N/A N/A
range
Corrosive, Corrosive, Corrosive, Toxic,

Safety Highly toxic Not toxic
irritant irritant irritant explosive
Remaining
effect in Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No
networks
Recommended
No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No
by PAEW
Budget + ++ ++ +++ ++ ++ ++ +++
Reservoirs, PS Reservoirs, Reservoirs & Reservoirs,

Assets - - - -
& wells PS & wells PS PS & wells
Among these solutions, PAEW recommends either hypochlorite (Sodium or Calcium), DCCNa or On-
Site Electrolytic Chlorine Generation System.
Even if it is more complex than the direct use of hypochlorite, the Electro chlorination process remains
safer as it stores only salt on site. Moreover, free chlorine is generated continuously and enables a
very fine dosage. This process is safe, well known and widely used. It has been developed as an
alternative to pure chlorine storage. However, as the process is more complex, it does require more
maintenance.
The Consultant shall provide a detailed cost-benefit analysis to PAEW, shall several systems
be suitable for a new project.
Therefore, independently of the chosen technology, a minimum of 2 year period of

maintenance and 1 year warranty shall be included for each new project. Before handing the
project over to the Operator, the Installer along with the Consultant shall ensure that the new
installation does not encounter any operating problem (hydraulic, electrical, automation, etc.)
during 2 weeks. If there is any problem noticed during this period, this checking process shall
restart again for two weeks.

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
8. CHLORINE MEASUREMENT & MONITORING
8.1 REGULATION/CONTROL OF DOSAGE FLOW

Depending on the type of asset (well, pumping station, reservoir, etc.) the dosage flow is not
controlled in the same way. Basically, the injection is controlled by:
 Either the flow of the water to disinfect;
 Or the residual chlorine concentration;
 Or both for more reactivity.
The schematics below give an example of how the injection shall be controlled for wells and
pumping station or reservoir.
8.1.1 WELLS
Cl2 Dose Injection Cl2
Q2
FM
Q1
Figure 9 Schematic Chlorine dosing (wells)
The flow of the pump (Q2) injecting chlorine in the water system is only controlled by the upstream
total flow (Q1 measured by flow meter FM) in the pipe. The dosing pump is working only if the well
pump is working.
8.1.2 RESERVOIR OR PUMPING STATIONS

Only for reservoirs > 48
hours of storage capacity
Cl2 Dose Injection Cl2
Cl2 Analyzer Q2 Cl2 Analyzer
Q1 Reservoir
FM
or PS
Figure 10 Schematic Chlorine dosing (Reservoir/PS)

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CHLORINATION
The flow of the pump (Q2) injecting chlorine in the system is monitored by both :
 The upstream flow ( Q1)

 The upstream chlorine concentration
A chlorine analyser shall be installed chlorine downstream the reservoir/pumping station, in
order to check the accuracy of the chlorine dosage.
8.2 TYPE OF MEASUREMENT
The Water Quality on-line analysers are installed at different locations depending on the type of
asset. The table below summarises the different kind of analyser by type of site:
Table 4 Analysers by type of asset

pH Chlorine Fluoride Alkalinity Conductivity
Production
x x x x x
RO Plants
Pumping
x x
Stations
Reservoirs x x
Network x x
In the water industry, different technologies of analyses are found to titrate the different forms of
chlorine. The two principal methodologies are:
 Amperometry is an electrochemical technique that measures the change in current resulting

from chemical reactions taking place as a function of the analyte concentration. A typical
amperometric sensor consists of two dissimilar electrodes – an anode and a cathode (i.e.
silver/platinum or copper/gold) (Source: Industry Water World magazine, 2009).
Based on the same technology, a new sensor where several parameters can be measured in
the same probe has been developed. These sensors require less maintenance as there is no
electrolyte nor membrane in the probe.
 DPD colorimetric detection is a method based on N,N-Diethyl-p-Phenylenediamine (DPD)

reaction with active halogens. This reaction is a standard analytical approach for analysis of
residual chlorine and other chlorine oxidants and is based on the formation of colored
products with DPD. This method which require a physical sample to be taken is mainly
used for on-site and laboratory testing.

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
The table below will give a comparison of different technologies of chlorine titration.
Table 5 Comparison between different methods of analysis for chlorine identification

Working Chlorine
Measurement
Method range species Advantages and Limitations
location
(mg/L) measured
Free and Reference method for free and combined
Amperometric
0.1‐10 total On‐line analyzer chlorine, not suited for field use, but advisable
titration
chlorine for on‐line analysers
Low level Developed to determine residuals below 0.2
Amperometry
amperometric 0.01‐0.2 Total On‐line analyzer mg/L, not suitable for differentiating between
titration free and combined chlorine
Amperometric Free Minimized calibration and maintenance on site,
0.01 ‐ 2 On‐line analyzer
sensor Chlorine ideal for on‐line analysers
Free and Suitable for field use and determining
DPD
0.01‐4 total Field use combined chlorine and individual chloramine
Colorimetric
chlorine species
DPD
Free and Not suitable for field use, but better suited for
DPD
0.04‐4 total Laboratory colored water than the DPD colorimetric
Titrimetric
chlorine method – laboratory use.
8.3 ON-LINE ANALYSERS
Water Quality can be continuously monitored through on-line analysers, the results data being
transferred to regional and national SCADA. The measuring chain for on-line analyser which is
shown on Figure 11 has to be followed to validate the data.
Calibration
Analytical DATA Analytical

Sample
Sampling Mesuring signal transfert to result
treatment
converstion SCADA Validation
Maintenance
On‐line analyzer
Figure 11 Chain of custody for on-line analysers
The below table gives an example of the different types of maintenance required for an on-line
chlorine analyser. There are several manufacturers in Oman and each maintenance
programme maintenance is specific. The maintenance programme shall be described by the
manufacturer’s user manual.

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
Table 6 Example of analyser maintenance schedule
1 Week 2 Months 3 Months 6 Months Annually

Membrane X
Electrolyte X
pH X
Cleaning X
Tubing X
Calibration X
Checking reading
X
with portable meter
PAEW should request the manufacturers to provide 2-year maintenance and 1-year warranty
contracts in order to follow maintenance operation requested in user manuals. Log books shall
be provided and filled in at each calibration after crosschecking with portable equipment or
replacing spare parts.

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
8.4 WATER QUALITY SAMPLING POINT
The sampling point is a fixed tap located on different types of assets owned by PAEW
(Reservoir, Pumping station, TFS, Water Treatment Plant). At regular intervals, the samplers
from the Water Quality team of PAEW take some samples, and a whole batch of parameters is
tested in the laboratory. As an example, here is a typical sampling point to be installed on the
network.
Figure 13 Sampling point (vertical pipe) Figure 12 Sampling point (network) technical
technical design design
The respective standard designs for sampling points are:
 TET/SD/5016 Water Quality Sampling Point for Network
 TET/SD/5017 Water Quality Sampling Point for vertical and horizontal pipe
9. MONITORING SCADA LEVELS AND ALARMS
The SCADA system shall supervise, monitor and control the following parameters:
 Product tank: High, low levels

 Brine tank: High, low levels
 Production concentration
 Chlorine dosage
 Water flow
 Analyser reading (treated water) - pH and Chlorine
 Other parameters recommended by the Manufacturer
All the analysers shall be connected to the SCADA system. All these information shall be
transferred to Regional Control Centre and National Control Centre.
10. HSE GUIDELINES ON CHLORINATION UNITS

On each new installation, in order to prevent injury, PAEW requires the contractor, designer
and all third parties to assess the risk on site. Hazards and risks must be reduced to prevent
harm to operators, environment and property. The following aspects shall be considered:
1. Follow all principles of the Construction Design and Management Regulations 2002

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
2. Design and build safe facilities for chlorine stores, equipment, disinfection system and
chemicals.
The table below gives an overview of the different precautions to take when installing
chlorination units:
Table 7 On-site Requirements
Sodium Calcium
hypochlorite hypochlorite DCCNa On site generation
(liquid) (solid)
Raw material- Concentrated Powder or
Powder Salt
chemicals solution tablets
Power supply 240 Volt AC 240 Volt AC 240 Volt AC 240 Volt AC
Retention for
delivery of raw yes yes yes yes
material
Retention zone for
yes yes yes yes
installation
Ventilation yes yes yes yes
ATEX protection No No No Yes

Installation in
yes yes yes yes
urban area
Atmosphere <40°C <50°C <50°C Dry, <20°C
Additional
Yes if above
ventilation No No Yes, H2 emission
50°C
required
Hazardous Waste
Yes Yes Yes Yes
management
Training required yes yes yes yes
Maximum Storage Generated Sodium Salt : 2
15 days 2 months 2 years
Time Hypochlorite : 2 days months
As electro chlorination systems generate Hydrogen the ATEX Directive covering the use of
equipment in a potentially explosive environment applies to the design of these systems. ATEX
requires that a zone is applied to any equipment and storage tanks which may contain
hydrogen. Within this zone any electrical equipment must be suitably rated for use within a
potentially explosive atmosphere. In addition to these requirements, gas and explosivity
detectors shall be installed (existing or new projects).
Regarding the retention zone, its volume shall at least be the same as the product storage
capacity. A high level alarm shall be installed in the retention location.
3. Set up procedures that can be handed over to the operators of the plant to ensure the
correct and safe systems of work are followed.
4. Design emergency plans and equipment that can deal with a spills, leaks or
catastrophic failure in the given area and surrounding if required

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
5. The designer or contractor must provide or make provision for the following for
takeover by the operational owners of the asset;
a. Servicing schedules for alarms, detectors, and other equipment designed for
the security of the chlorination unit
b. Servicing schedules for the everyday use of equipment such as pumps,
mixers, processes etc.
c. Provide signage for the identification of the hazards, danger areas,
prohibition, mandatory and emergency as required
d. Provide Information on good housekeeping, cleaning and maintenance
regimes
e. Provide emergency response programs in line with the system installed.
f. Provide training, information and instruction on the equipment the process
used and the substances under COSHH required.
g. Provide a list of the PPE and Specialist PPE required for the system installed
h. Provide a HSE manual for the installation
PAEW Health, Safety and Environment department has designed policies, process safe
systems of work etc. that will accompany the end user of these systems and the contractor is
asked to ensure that the link for all HSE document:
http://paewportal/Eng/qms/SitePages/QMS%20Library/index.aspx is written in to their HSE
manuals as well as the email address for the HSE department hse@paew.gov.om.
Two matrixes are given in Appendix. They give an overview, by type of installation, of the
Personal Protective Equipment and emergency equipment required on chlorination sites.
11. DOCUMENTATION
The Consultant shall ensure that all documentation is included when a new chlorination system
is installed;
 Technical Designs
 Drawings
 Functional descriptions
The Consultant shall also hand over the following documents to PAEW;
 Maintenance log book (for analysers & chlorination units)
 Preventive Maintenance schedule and List of spare parts with frequency of
replacement

TET/DG/5007
CHLORINATION
REFERENCES
“White’s handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants”5th edition; Black&Veatch

corporation; 2010
“Effects of Water Age on Distribution System Water Quality”, EPA, August 2002
“The Effectiveness of Disinfectant Residuals in the Distribution System”, EPA 2012
Source Industry Water World magazine, 2009
Fiches de retour d’expérience technique, Veolia Eau
Définition des caractéristiques techniques de fonctionnement et domaine d’emploi des

appareils de désinfection, Document technique FNDAE N°2.

Standard Specification TET/SS/5501
Date: 14/05/2015
CHLORINATION
APPENDIX : CHEMICAL AND CHLORINE GAS MATRIX FOR THE RECOMMENDED MINIMUM PPE IN LINE WITH THE VARIOUSE TYPES OF DISINFECTION OR POST
DISINFECTION UNITS
PPE
Gas Monitor and Detector 4

Wellingtons Boots Rubber
CO2 and Oxygen Monitor

Full Face Canister Mask
single detector. (note 3)

Full (SCBA) Breathing
Chemical Over Suit
Half Canister mask
Gloves Chemical
Chemical Apron
Boots Chemical
Full EBA or BA
Gloves Work
Shoes Work
Face Shield
Boots Work
Dust mask
Apparatus
Bump cap
Ear Muffs
Ear plugs
Coveralls
Hard hat
Goggles
Glasses
Long
Gas
Item
Chlorine Gas 1 Ton            

Chlorine Gas 33KGS            
Chlorine Liquid          
Sodium Hypochlorite          
Calcium Hypochlorite           
Bleaching Powder         
Electro Chlorination           
Table 8 Personal Protective Equipment Matrix

Notes:
1. This PPE Matrix is only a guide line, PPE listed is normal in the varying process range, but may change with technological advancements
2. Prior to any user carrying out work with COSHH substances or disinfection processes, staff must carry out a full risk and COSHH assessment and where required
make changes as necessary. And in line with Manufactures Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
3. The following servicing guide should also be applied,
a. All Gas Monitors checked and recalibrated every 6 months unless single detector, then every two years and all cells replaced every two years
b. Where required, all SCBA should be checked and inspected by the user prior to use and every 6 months by independent certified operative, further it should
be refilled after it drops below 30% of the cylinder capacity.
c. All PPE must be replaced when worn, torn, and damaged or if over exposed i.e. during a serious spillage etc.
23/24
Standard Specification TET/SS/5501
Date: 14/05/2015
CHLORINATION
APPENDIX : CHEMICAL AND CHLORINE GAS MATRIX FOR THE RECOMENDED EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT IN LINE WITH THE VARIOUSE TYPES OF
DISINFECTION OR POST DISINFECTION UNITS
Gas Monitor and Detector 4 Gas
CO2 and Oxygen Monitor single

Equipment
Emergency Spill Kit (Chemical)

Fitted Chlorine Gas Alarm and
Emergency telephone or radio

Chlorine Container Repair Kit
Fire Extinguisher Dry Powder

PPE Welfare Changing Area
Portable Emergency Shower
Occupational Health Checks

Fire Extinguisher Wet Chem
Fitted Scrubber System and
Emergency Fire Alarm and
Emergency Spill Kit Oil and

Warning lights amber, red,
Fitted Chemical Detection
Fire Extinguisher Water
Fire Extinguisher Foam
Full (SCBA) Breathing

Exposure Control Plan
Fire Extinguisher CO2
Emergency Shower
First Aid Equipment

containment area
detector. (note 3)
green white etc.
Equipment
Petroleum
Apparatus
Eye Wash
detectors
Detector
Training
Area
Chlorine Gas Store                 

Chlorine Gas vehicle                  
Chlorine Liquid              
Sodium Hypochlorite                 
Calcium Hypochlorite                  
Bleaching Powder                 
Electro Chlorination                
COSHH Vehicle              
COSHH Store               
Table 9 Emergency Equipment Matrix

Note:
1. This matrix is only a guide and should be used in line with latest technologies and EU or BS standards on the Storage, Transport and Use of chlorine Gas, liquid or any of the other types of
chlorine producing equipment or process for Disinfection designed in to your process. Prior to designing, installing, building, operating and or maintenance of disinfection equipment and
areas, a full Risk Assessment should be carried out, and hazards and risks should be mitigated against as low as is reasonably practicable (ALARP) and all international guidance should
be followed to achieve the highest level affordable in the protection of the workforce the premises and the environment.
24/24
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM FOR Date: 14/05/2015
Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
1.0 14/05/2015 First issue
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Special Instructions .................................................................................................................................. 2
2. Cathodic Protection System ......................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Methods of Applying Cathodic Protection .............................................................................................. 2
2.1.1 Sacrificial Anodes .................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1.2 Impressed Current .................................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Sacrificial (Galvanic) Anodes Cathodic Protection ................................................................................ 3
2.3 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection ................................................................................................... 3
3. General Requirements .................................................................................................................................. 4
4. Basic Design Data/ Guidelines ..................................................................................................................... 5
4.1 Test Station ............................................................................................................................................... 6
4.2 Reference Electrodes ................................................................................................................................ 7
5. Functional Guarantee .................................................................................................................................... 7
6. Documentation .............................................................................................................................................. 8

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
1. INTRODUCTION
This document has been prepared as a Guide for PAEW engineers and their Consultants with
regards to Design and engineering activities for Cathodic Protection (CP) System for buried
water pipeline. This guide covers the requirement of the system using impressed current
anodes.
1.1 Special Instructions
The CP system design expert is advised to visit the site in order to acquaint himself with all the
necessary information such as soil conditions, transportation facilities, data of similar pipelines
and underground cables & cable trench/corridor in the adjacent pipe corridor, electrical
transmission line/PDO/OXY pipeline interferences, etc. for proper design and execution of the
work. Ignorance of the site conditions will not be accepted as a basis of claim for any
compensation whatsoever.
2. CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM
Cathodic Protection (CP) is a technique for protecting metal structures, such as pipelines, from
electrolytic corrosion by making the structure the cathode in a cell, either by applying an
electromotive force directly or by putting it into contact with a more electropositive metal.
2.1 Methods of Applying Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection may be achieved in either of two ways - by the use of an impressed current
from an electrical source, or by the use of sacrificial anodes (galvanic action).
2.1.1 Sacrificial Anodes

Sacrificial anode systems employ reactive metals as auxiliary anodes that are directly
electrically connected to the steel to be protected .Electrons are supplied to the steel pipe, via
the electrical connection, and a corresponding amount of anode material goes into solution as
metal ions, according to the laws of electrolysis. Some anode material is lost by self-corrosion,
and the anodes are not converted to electrical energy with 100% efficiency. Zinc, aluminium
and magnesium area the metals commonly used for sacrificial cathodic protection.
As Magnesium is more reactive which can be used in high resistive medium such as Soil and
Water. Zinc and Aluminium anodes can be used in low resistive medium like sea water. The
choice of sacrificial anodes for the cathodic protection depends upon the soil resistivity values.
If this value is within 1000 Ohms-cm, Zinc anodes will be used and if the value is between
1000-7500 Ohms-cm, Mg anodes will be used.
2.1.2 Impressed Current

The buried pipe receives current from a DC power source via an auxiliary insert electrode
buried in the ground. The pipe becomes the cathode and the auxiliary electrode the anode. The
auxiliary electrode sometimes consists of scrap iron. In this case the iron will dissolve from the
anode by reaction and the electrode is described as a consumable anode. If the anode is a
noble metal or an electrochemically insert material, the surrounding environment will be
oxidised.

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
2.2 Sacrificial (Galvanic) Anodes Cathodic Protection
As per the soil resistivity report, if the soil in the pipe invert is found to be corrosive, then it is
required to design a temporally cathodic protection using galvanic (sacrificial) anodes. The
system should be installed and operational immediately upon backfilling. This system is
required to maintain for the duration of lying of pipes or until the new ICCP systems is
commissioned or whichever is encountered first.
Each CP system consists of following components:

 Alloys of Magnesium in the form of cylindrical rod which is enclosed in a canister having
coke breeze, can be used as sacrificial anode.
 1 No. anode junction box per CP Station.
 Galvanic anode cables shall be connected to the pipeline via terminations made in the
junction box. Shunts can be corporated in each junction box to measure the current.
 Cables shall be color coded as Red for anode cables (including from sacrificial anodes),
Green for reference cells and Black for all other cables (test cables, bonds, etc.)
It is necessary to distribute the number of anodes along the length or over the pipeline structure
to be protected as this is general y limited to the small areas of protection.
Metallurgical testing and physical inspection of cast anodes, anode identification and
documentation shall be carried out in accordance with NACE SP0387.
2.3 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
The permanent Impressed Current type Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system for the buried
pipelines is preferred. The following minimum requirements shall be adopted;
Each CP system (station) shall essentially consist of main components:
- Transformer/ Rectifier stations supplying the protective current.

- Impressed current anodes (tubular) in sheet steel canister filled with petroleum coke
breeze, back fill materials etc.
- 1 No. anode junction box per CP Station.
- Single core, stranded copper conductor, PVC insulated, overall FRLS (Fire Retardant
Low Smoke) PVC sheathed armoured cable required for connection between anode
and junction box.
- Single core of required cross-section stranded copper conductor, PVC insulated, overall
FRLS PVC sheathed armoured cable for connection from T/R unit to junction box and
pipeline.
- Two core of required cross-section stranded copper conductor, PVC insulated, overall
FRLS PVC sheathed armoured power cable for power connection from power supply
source to T/R unit.
- Required thermit weld cartridges complete with mould and all accessories of
Cathodic measurement bonding cables with pipeline and welding of the same with the
pipeline.
- Pure epoxy encapsulation of the anodes cable connections to pipeline.
- All civil, structural and electrical materials required for installation of CP system.
- All materials required for laying and termination of cables including cable trays, GI
conduits, lugs, glands, markers, grounding material, etc.

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
- Required numbers of resistance bonding with test stations at power line crossing as and
where required.
- Required grounding cells and Kirk cells.
- Required for isolating the cathodically protected piping system from the piping systems/
equipment/ structure/ facilities that are not cathodically protected.
- Required numbers of permanent reference cells.
- Complete permanent (for 30 years) protection of casing and carrier pipelines using
additional anodes at each encased pipe crossing.
- Two sets of portable instruments and accessories required to monitor the performance
of CP system such as corrosion voltmeters, multimeters, meggar, portable reference
cells, electrodes etc.
- Outdoor type test stations along the pipe routing at intervals not exceeding 1000 meters
and at locations of each of the Wadi/oil and gas pipeline crossings as well as Electric
Railway crossing.
- Required number of test stations shall be provided for the ICCP system for system
monitoring and testing.
- In Impressed current system, the protective current required shall be supplied by
transformer rectifier (T/R) units connected to the electrical main supply and fed into the
pipeline by buried impressed current anodes.
- The transformer rectifier units shall be the source of power for the ICCP system. The
output of T/R unit shall be automatically varied to achieve the setting of pipeline to soil
potential.
- Suitable measures as per international practice will be taken to mitigate any interference
current and cross currents from any source.
- Special protection shall be provided at encased-crossing (Road/Wadi / Electric Railway
crossing). Additional permanent sacrificial anodes for casings/carrier pipes within
casings shall be provided.
- Cathodic Protection (CP) stations shall be provided by the CP specialist as per the
calculation required for the attenuation of pipelines.
- The type of anode and anode bed for the ICCP System shall be in conformance with
BS 7361 Part 1.
3. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Under the Cathodic Protection system shall cover the following for the various systems and
equipment’s:
 Complete soil resistivity survey for the pipelines along the entire buried pipe lengths.
 Detailed design as per the design data, standards and codes of practices specified and
the approved soil data.
 Carrying out detailed engineering and get approval from PAEW and PAEW
representative.
 Complete manufacture including shop fabrication, assembly, and testing and inspection
at manufacturer’s works.
 Supervision, erection and commissioning, including but not limited to fabrication and/ or
pre-assembly, if any, civil works, testing and putting into satisfactory operation of all the
equipment/ system and handing over to PAEW and successful completion of initial
operation.
 Conducting Functional Guarantee tests after successful completion of initial operation.
 Submission of all the design drawings, design calculations, technical data sheets,
“As Built” drawings, manufacture and assembling practices, construction/ installation

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
practices, test procedures followed during manufacturing, erection and commissioning,
conducting Performance & Guarantee testing, carrying out monitoring services etc., and
submitting Operation & Maintenance manuals for PAEW representative for approval
and records.
 The list of recommended O&M spares (optional) for trouble free operation for 5 and 10
years for the complete cathodic protection system.
 Monitoring services for the complete CP system and its equipment for one (1) year from
the date of completion of guarantee tests.
 All other materials which may be necessary but not mentioned herein specifically to
complete the Cathodic protection system in all respects to the best engineering
practices.
4. BASIC DESIGN DATA/ GUIDELINES
The data of pipelines to be protected and wrapping and t y p e o f coating employed for
the protected pipelines are varies from project to project, these information shall be get from
respective project specification.
The Cathodic protection system will be sized in order to guarantee, at each point of same
system, the minimum pipe-to-soil potential value of (-) 0.95 V versus Cu/CuSO4 half-cell
reference electrode. The maximum negative potential value allowable at the drainage point
will be (-) 1.2V (as per BS7361/1991 - Section 2, Table 1).
Overall design Pipeline coating efficiency shall be considered as not more than 70%
througho ut the design pipeline of 30 years for design of ICCP system.
The design current protection density shall not be less than 0.5 mA/Sqm and 20% design
current is to be kept as provision for redundancy.
The design anode consumption rate shall not be less than 0.4 Kg/Amp/year for High Silicon
chromium iron anode.
Design life for the ICCP system shall be not less than 30 years.
The rating of transformer rectifier shall be considered for an additional requirement of 25%
power compared with the power required under normal operating condition.
Detailed design calculations for the design of the entire system t o b e s u b m i t t e d to PAEW
for approval.
As part of corrosion survey full particulars regarding secondary structure including power
cables, communication lines, oil/gas lines etc. which would adversely influence the system
or would be influenced by the system must be collected. The Cathodic protection system would
incorporate suitable mitigation measures for varying types of soil and moisture content.
Cathodically protected section of the pipe line shall be electrically isolated by use of insulating
joints.
The pipes in the cased crossings with seals shall be protected by sacrificial anodes. The
anodes shall be in the form of ribbon or arc shaped rod and would be welded to the carrier pipe

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
by thermit welding as close to the carrier pipe as practically possible. The length of the
ribbon anode would be equal to the length of the carrier pipe inside the casing and anodes will
be mounted over the circumference in such a way that it is distributed equally at 120° angle
between them.
The external of casings would be coated in the same manner as carrier pipes and also
provided with anodes on both sides of the pipe.
As part of cathodic protection monitoring, potential measuring devices would be installed at

all test stations. The test station would also provide the flexibility for connecting and
disconnecting sacrificial anodes. Some of the test stations having potential measuring
terminals shall also have terminal facilities for measuring line currents.
4.1 Test Station
Test stations along the pipeline shall be provided along the pipe corridor for monitoring the
performance of cathodic protection system and bonding of pipe lines in common pipe trench
at intervals not exceeding 1000 meters. Test stations shall have, besides pipe-to-soil
potential measurement and bonding facilities, four terminal facilities for line current
measurement.
In addition measurement station shall also be provided at following locations:
 At both sides of Wadi crossing, PDO/OXY and major road crossings, electric railway
crossings.
 At all insulating joints. The test station shall have terminal facility for connection of
grounding cell to pipeline. Besides terminals shall also be provided for pipe-to-soil
potential measurement on both shoulders of joint.
 At crossing of AC/DC electric traction system.
 At vulnerable location with drastic change in soil resistivity.
 At HT overhead line crossings and selected locations where HT line passes close to
pipe line.
 In vicinity of DC networks or grounding system where interference problem are
suspected.
 At valve location.
 At crossing of other foreign pipe lines (bonding facility with resistor shall be provided).
Additional test stations described above, many of which shall fall intermediate between
potential test- cum-bond stations, shall have binding facilities. Some of these additional test
stations meant for a single pipe or such additional test stations may coincide with those test
stations located at 1000 metres interval.
Test stations at location of insulating joints shall be installed independently. Details of
terminal facilities and connection schemes for individual type of test station/ current
measuring station/ test- cum-bond station shall be as per relevant standards.
The location of all the test stations shall be marked with their connection schemes and other
relevant information. A test station schedule shall also be prepared.
Potential test-cum-bond station provided at regular interval as a means to bond, monitor and
control current flow in structures laid in common pipe corridor/trench. These potential test-

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
cum-bond stations shall allow detection and mitigation of any interference on foreign
structures that may result from operation of this CP system.
4.2 Reference Electrodes
Reference electrodes shall be provided to:

 Obtain the most reliable indication of the protection and system behaviour.
 Ascertain the effectiveness of each CP station and control their output.
 For separate control, reference electrode including one standby should be placed on
all the individual pipelines.
 High purity copper/ copper sulphate and silver/ silver chloride reference electrodes
shall be used to provide stable potential measurement references.
 For each automatically controlled Cathodic protection system, monitoring reference

electrodes shall be supervised by a duplicate electrode in its close vicinity in an
approved location.
 Such duplicate electrodes shall be provided to guard against reference cell failure
possibilities in an unattended automatic system. Facilities shall be provided to reject
spurious signal during open or short circuiting of monitoring point.
 30% spare reference electrode complete with accessories shall be provided.

Number and type of electrodes to be supplied by CP specialist shall be approved by
PAEW representative.
5. FUNCTIONAL GUARANTEE
The functional guarantee should be given as elaborated below:
1. The system shall be guaranteed that the performance/ function of the CP system
installed shall be strictly in accordance with and conforming to the codes specified
and shall perform the specified duties as per following:
 (-)0.85 V Pipe-to-Soil Potential (P-S-P) with respect to Copper-Copper Sulphate

half cell (reference) electrode in absence of an anaerobic bacteria and (-)0.95 V
pipe-to-soil potential with respect to Copper-Copper Sulphate half cell
(reference) electrode in presence of an aerobic bacteria (both with the Cathodic
Protection System switched ‘on’).
 A minimum negative (Cathodic) voltage shift of 300 mV produced by the
application of protective current.
 A minimum negative (Cathodic) polarization voltage shift of 100 mV measured
between the structure surface and stable reference electrode contacting the
electrolyte.
 A net protective current flow from the electrolyte into the structure surface as
measured by an earth current technique applied to predetermined current
discharge (anodic) points of the structure.

Issue: 1.0
WATER PIPELINE
2. If the CP expert fails to prove the functional guarantee of the CP system as set forth
in the specification, the Main contractor/JV shall investigate the causes and provide
free of cost to PAEW to rectify/ replace the detects within a reasonable period to
prove the guarantees.
3. If the system fails to prove the guarantee within a reasonable period, PAEW shall have
the option to take over the equipment and rectify the same to fulfil the guarantee and/ or
to make necessary additions to make up the deficiency at the Contractor’s risk and cost.
All expenditure incurred by PAEW in this regard shall be to Contractor’s account
6. DOCUMENTATION
The following minimum design documentation [not essentially limited to these only] shall be
furnished by the CP specialist (for review and approval).
 Corrosion survey report with interpretation.

 Basic design package and system optimisation studies.
 Quality plans for all equipment/ items.
 Detail engineering and final design report.
 Key diagrams of each discrete systems and complete CP system.
 Anode installation drawings representing all variations in type, environment,
depth, placement, supports etc. including anode.
 Cable layout schedules and terminals.
 Foundation, weather protection cover details and support details for T/R sets, anodes,
Test Station, distribution boxes and cables of all description.
 Design package on T/R sets essentially incorporating circuit diagrams,
fabrications and installation details, parts list, description on operation and
maintenance.
 Design package on anodes essential incorporating composition, fabrication and
installation details.
 Design and drawings that may be required for mitigation purposes.
 Complete CP system layout drawings for each CP station.
 Method statement of thermal /CAD Welding for the cable connection to the pipelines
Utilizing pin bracing and sealing methods of weld joints.
 Calculation of Attenuation of potential along pipelines and test post schedules.


TET-DG-5001 - Basic Design Criteria v1.1

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Design Guidelines TET/SS/5501

1.0 22/04/12 First issue

1. Set out the PAEW policy for pipeline design;

Billed Metered Consumption

Table 1: IWA Standard International Water Balance and Terminology

1. WATER DEMAND FORECAST

1.1 Population forecast

1. As provided by a developer in his request for a water supply to be made available;

Domestic occupancy Muscat 5.1

Future population and Growth rates

2015/20 2020/25 2025/30 2030/35 2035/40

1.2 Categories of Water Demand

For water demand forecast the following categories can be used.

 Domestic consumption by piped supply;

1.3 Domestic Consumption / Pipe Supply

The following data should be used as guidance.

1.4 Domestic Consumption / Tankers Supply

1.5 Non Domestic Consumption

Category Average per Capita consumption

Non Domestic Usage – Industrial and High Usage Concerns

1.6 Leakage and other technical losses

Water is lost from the PAEW’s system through a number of ways:

This will be the higher of the following two calculations:

1.7 Water Used by PAEW in its Normal Operations (after leakage)

1.8 Fire Fighting

Oman’s statutory requirements should be ascertained, and met.

Population Fire flow

1.9 Commercial Losses

Meter and other income determination errors

Unknown Connections and Theft

1.10 Peak Factors

2.1 Future Water demand – Design horizon and phasing of Assets

2.1.2 Water Demand

2.1.3 An `` All-In`` figure for preliminary estimating

2.2 Pressure in the network

3. TRANSMISSION AND TRUNK MAIN DESIGN

3.2 Route and elevation

3.3 Desired pressure

1. Pipeline profile should go above the gradient line at any point;

Surge is a specialist subject for which advice should be taken.

The following types of valves are used in a water supply system:

 Isolating valves (Gate valves, butterfly valves);

3.7 Air valves

See TET/SS/5008 for technical specifications of air valves.

1. At high points on a pipeline;

Consideration needs to be given to the pipe material.

PAEW recommend the following:

Pre-stressed Concrete, GRE and GRP are not in use yet.

3.9 Thrust blocks

3.10 Energy considerations

There are numerous methods of controlling a transmission main:

Simple transmission main to a demand area

Transmission main into storage

Transmission main to the suction of a booster

6. SECURITY OF SUPPLY – RISK MANAGEMENT

See also the Emergency Response Manual.

Attached to: TET/PRO/5002 1/18

Ground water is abstracted by the following conventional techniques:

 its geometry - extent , thickness etc.,

Attached to: TET/PRO/5002 2/18

 Occurrence in sufficient thickness

3.2 Surface Geophysics

 Electric Resistivity Method.