114.

331 CONTEMPORARY HRM & ER

TOPIC 3: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN HRM & ER

ISSUE 2: WORKING HOURS
OVERVIEW
Phenomenon & Prevalence - examples of different working hours & configurations?
Trends - How have working hours (duration, flexibility, configuration/scheduling) changed over time, and why?
Drivers - Why do some countries have high levels of long and others have short working hours?
 NB – consider how working hours are determined (e.g. by negotiation, legislation, or by the employer – see
the Berg reading)
Implications - Why are working hours a concern for ER/HRM (organisations and individuals), and society more
broadly?
Responses - How are these countries addressing (or proposing to address) this issue?
 How effective have these responses been (or will be)?
 What else could be done to address the issue, and why?
DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKING TIME
DURATION & SCHEDULING
Standard hours: Full time & part time
 7am to 5pm, Monday to Friday, 35-44 hours (most advanced
countries)
 Predictability of income and work hours

Flexible schedule: where hours (duration or scheduling)

vary daily or weekly
 E.g. shift work, casual, on call, zero hours
 Compressed hours, annualised hours, time in lieu

Long or excessive hours (>48 hours/week)

See Berg et al 2014, p.805.

ACTIVITY –
WORKING HOURS
Read handouts
Reflect, feedback and discuss
~ Issue/Phenomenon
~ Trends
~ Drivers
~ Implications for ER/HRM
~ Responses
WORKING HOURS AROUND THE WORLD
AVERAGE WORKING
HOURS IN
ASIA PACIFIC (2015)

Source:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/66694
6/asia-pacific-average-working-hours-
by-country/
WORKING HOUR DISPARITIES
Long hours found in some developed
nations (LMEs and Asia), but
Higher rates of long/excessive working
hours found in developing and lower-
income nations.
 On average, adults in the developing world
work about 50% more hours per week than
adults in rich countries.
 Average hours worked are higher in developing
countries both for men and for women, for all
age and education groups.
 This raises concerns re income and social
inequality
Bick et al, 2018

See also ILO 2018 World Emp’t Social Outlook report

p.38
WORKING HOURS – USA
Average hours
In 1890, full-time manufacturing employees worked 100 hours each week!
 Union action (along with Ford Motor Co.) during the early 1900s reduced hours
 Technological advances have also led to reduced hours
2019 – on average, workers work 34.4 hours/week (but includes FT and PT)
 other reports suggest this is closer to 44-47 hours/week (9.5 hrs/day) – for those on salaries, this is unpaid
Long/excessive hours
2010 – 19% workers worked > 48 hours/week, and 7% worked >60 hours (U.S. National Health Interview
data)

Some occupations and industries work excessive hours

 Technology, finance, & professionals work >60 hours/week, plus available constantly by smartphone
 Some factory workers working 12 hour days x 6-7 days/week
 Some contract workers work 100 hours per week with no overtime, and little/no protection
WORKING HOURS – USA
Key issues:
 Lack of employment protection – working hours, annual leave, parental leave
 Multiple job holding
 Income disparities

Multiple job holding

However, Forbes says reports of MJH are over estimated
 2017, only 5% (4.6% of men and 5.3% of women) had multiple jobs
 1996, peaked at 6.2%; steadily declining since

Ethnic/racial differences
 Blacks have higher multiple jobholding rates than White, Asian or Hispanic workers
LACK OF LEAVE PROVISIONS – USA
“Most of the countries in the world have laws setting the maximum length of the work week, except
the United States. The US is the only industrialized country in the world that has no legally
mandated annual leave and does not guarantee its workers paid vacation.
European countries establish legal rights to at least 20 days of paid vacation per year (some even
go higher to 25 and even 30 or more days). Australia and New Zealand require employers to
grant at least 20 vacation days per year, and Canada and Japan mandate at least 10 paid days
off.
In addition to mandated paid annual leave, workers also get paid time off for public holidays.
For instance, the US offers none, but most of the rest of the world's rich countries offer at least 6
paid holidays per year (while some countries like Cambodia and Iran offer 27 paid holidays).
In the absence of government standards, 23 percent of Americans have no paid vacation and
no paid holidays. According to government survey data, the average US worker receives only
about 10 days of paid vacation and about 6 paid holidays per year - less than the minimum legal
standard set in the rest of world's rich economies” https://clockify.me/working-hours
WORKING HOURS – UNITED KINGDOM
Full-time employees in Britain worked an average of 42 hours a week in 2018
 2 hours more than the EU average; equivalent to an extra 2 ½ weeks per year.

But Britain’s “long-hours culture” is not having a positive impact on productivity.

In similar economies, workers are much more productive for each hour they work.
For example, full-time employees in Germany work 1.8 hours a week less than those
in the UK but are 14.6% more productive.
In Denmark – the EU country with the shortest hours – workers put in over four hours
less than UK workers, but productivity in Denmark is 23.5% higher.
https://www.tuc.org.uk/news/british-workers-putting-longest-hours-eu-tuc-analysis-finds
WORKING HOURS – EUROPE
Germany
 A 2011 OECD report of 26 countries, Germany had the lowest average working hours at 25.6 hrs/week
 Other reports show the average is closer to 35hrs/wk (max 10hr/day, 60 hrs/wk)
 But this includes PT (mini jobs) and FT hours
 High productivity – goal orientation, direct communication; Work hard, play hard philosophy
 Working hours and configurations are determined by legislation and collective agreement (see Berg 2014)
 https://money.cnn.com/2018/02/07/news/economy/germany-28-hour-work-week/index.html

Sweden
 Average male works 38 hours (only 9% work long hours); max 13h/d, 48/wk)
WORKING HOURS – EUROPE
Denmark
 98% work regular hours
 only 2% work very long hours vs OECD avg 13%
 https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2017/03/denmark-best-work-life-balance-oecd/

France
 35 hour working week mandated in 2000 (orgs >20 ees) (max 12/d, 48/wk) - the Aubry Law
 FT hours fell from 39.6 in 1999 to 37.7 in 2002, but back up to 39.1 in 2016
 Annualization of working hours > flexible allocation of work hours to cater for seasonal demand
 The law also regulates the minimum working hours
 part-time jobs should not allow for less than 24 hours per week without a collective agreement
 https://www.brookings.edu/articles/frances-35-hour-work-week-flexibility-through-regulation/
WORKING HOURS – ASIAN NATIONS
High prevalence of excessively long working hours in most Asian nations
South Korea
 Employees work 400 hours more a year than the average among the OECD group of advanced economies
 Approx 40% of annual leave goes unused.

China
 China Labour Watch (US) report claims that 71.1% of Pegatron workers (Apple’s 2nd largest iPhone
manufacturer) work > 60-hour weeks

Japan
 High rates of excessive hours by office workers (‘salaryman’); hours often not recorded; culture-bound issues
SHORTER HOURS, PRODUCTIVE, BUT STRESSED?
Despite enjoying the shortest working hours among OECD member countries,
Germany manages to maintain high productivity levels. In fact, the average German
worker is reported to be 27% more productive than his or her British counterpart.
EU nations have significantly lower hours than LMEs and Asia, and workers reported
to be happier, healthier… but, a 2014 Eurofound report found 30% of employees
feel stressed by specific working time arrangements
 30% work irregular schedules; 20% from working long hours

Some EU nations also have some of the highest anti-anxiety (Germany) and anti-
depressant use (Sweden, UK, Denmark) (see the WEF Denmark article)
TRENDS IN
WORKING
HOURS
WORKING HOUR TRENDS – USA
TRENDS IN WORKING HOURS
In most developed nations there has been a gradual decline in average annual hours of
work per person in empt over recent decades
However, some countries have seen an increase in average annual hours
 E.g. The United States and Sweden

Why?

OECD 2001
DRIVERS OF CHANGE IN WORKING HOURS
Why have working hours reduced?
 Technological advances – makes work processes more efficient
 Productivity has been increasing exponentially for more than a century. An average worker today needs to work a 11h/week to produce
as much as one working 40h/week in 1950.
 Improvements in wages & standard of living – don’t need to work as long to make as much $
 Dropping fertility rates – fewer hours need to be worked to support children/families
 Increase in part time work (lowers the average – note that averages can hide differences)
 Result of institutional arrangements, e.g. CB and social dialogue and outcomes, esp in European countries
 Result of legislative changes – France and Japan; EU working time directive 2003;
 UK – opted out of the EC WTD, but hours have decreased due to reductions in FT hours, not an increase in
PT hours

Why have working hours increased?

 Due to an increase in overtime hours
 Increase in hours worked by part-time workers (blurs averages)
WHY DO WORKING
HOURS /
CONFIGURATIONS
MATTER?
CHANGING WORLD OF WORK
The changing world of work, global competition, economic crisis and recession have changed the
nature of work, and are making increased demands on workers.
 Organisational downsizing
 Demand for flexibility (increase of NSW > zero hours, casual, temporary agency work, outsourcing)

Implications
 increased job insecurity (fixed term or casual contracts)
 (sometimes) lower wages
 Differential access to benefits
 higher workload, more hours, more pressure (intensification)
 Job satisfaction
 Productivity
 poor work-life balance
 work-related stress
 poor health and social outcomes in both industrialized and developing countries.
WORKING TIME… WHY IT MATTERS
“Working time, perhaps second only to wages, is the working condition that has the
most direct impact on the day-to-day lives of workers.
The number of hours worked and the way in which they are organized can
significantly affect not only the quality of work, but also life outside the workplace.
Working hours and the organization of work can have a profound influence on the
physical and mental health and well-being of workers, their safety at work and
during the transit to and from their homes, and their earnings.
The International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) emphasizes the importance of
regulating working hours in order to ensure that the hours worked are safe and
productive.”
ILO, 2018 p.2 www.ilo.org
WORK DEMANDS: PSYCHOSOCIAL HAZARD
Extensification – hours are extended > long and/or unsocial hours (e.g. shift work)
Intensification – high degree of work intensity, increased work load, emotional labour > stress
Role overload
 Discrepancy between job demands and the resources available to a worker (time, knowledge, skills,
machinery etc) (see Veldhoven et al, 2005).
 Often seen as a workload issue - Having too much work to do in the time available

Time demands
 expectations to use personal time (outside normal hours) for work (Macky and Boxall, 2008)
 FWAs create blurred boundaries – can you ever leave work at work?

Irregular schedules (changing hours, shift work, night work)

see Spoonley, 2004 p8; EU-OSHA 2014
 PSYCHOSOCIAL ‘HAZARDS’ What is a
psychosocial
hazard?

Aspects of the design

and management of
work, and its social
and organisational
contexts that have the
potential for causing
psychological or
physical harm (e.g.
stress and related
outcomes)

Sources - Eurofound research on work-related stress (2010); See also Lippel & Quinlan, 2011; Cox & Griffith, 2005
 EXCESSIVE WORKING HOURS
~ A KEY ER/HR ISSUE ~
In developed nations, excessive hours are most common in certain
industries (primary industries and hospitality) and occupations
(management)
Australia (2015)
 1.4 million work >50 hours per week
 270,000 work > 70 hours per week.
 Managers have the longest hours - 82,000 put in >70 hours per week
 Excessive hours (> 50 hours/week) found in mining (34%), agriculture (34%),
construction (25%)

Why do excessive hours matter?

They have significant adverse effects on worker health &
productivity.
see ILO 2018 World Trends report, p.38; Messenger, 2011 p.301
 EXCESSIVE WORK HOURS
> 48-HOURS PER WEEK % employees working long hours (>48 hrs/week)
60

Some workers 50

consistently
work in excess 40
of 48-hours
per week 30

Sources: ILO report

2004-05; OECD
report 20

10

0
EXCESSIVE WORKING HOURS (OECD DATA, 2015)

Reflect…
• Which nations have the most excessive hours?
• Where are LME nations?
• Where are CME nations?
• Why are they different?
 LONG
WORKING
HOURS IN
JAPAN CNBC News US, June 2018 (5 min)
click here

Then… Read the news articles on Japan

“Karoshi” = death by overwork
EXCESSIVE WORKING HOURS – JAPAN
Excessive unpaid hours
 25% of Japanese companies require employees to work more than 80 hours of overtime a month,
according to a 2016 government survey. Those extra hours are often unpaid.

Limited vacation
 A study by Expedia found that Japanese workers on average didn’t use 10 of their paid vacation
days, and 63% of respondents felt guilty for taking paid leave

Low productivity
 Long work hours don’t necessarily mean high productivity.
 Japan has the lowest productivity among G-7 nations, according to OECD data

Outcomes
 Significant psychosocial health implications: Karoshi – death by overwork
EXCESSIVE WORK HOURS: ADVERSE OUTCOMES
Individual
Disrupts the balance between work and family life
Health risks
 Increases fatigue, injury hazard risks
 Stress, anxiety, mental health (depression)
 Stress + poor behaviours > stroke and heart disease
 Researchers found that working 55 hours or more per week is associated with a 33 percent higher risk of stroke and a 13 percent
greater risk of developing coronary heart disease when compared to people who work 35 to 40 hours a week
 Watch: CBS News (Aug 2015, 3 min)
 Substance use / abuse
 Little time for physical exercise – exacerbates the problem
EXCESSIVE WORK HOURS: ADVERSE OUTCOMES
Organisational costs
Presenteeism, absenteeism > reduces productivity (see ILO report p.91)
Health risks for others - colleagues, customers, service users
Compensation, litigation
PriceWaterhouseCoopers estimate that mental health conditions have a substantial impact on
Australian workplaces - Approximately $11 billion per year
Costs to family and society

See – https://osha.europa.eu/en/themes/psychosocial-risks-and-stress; www.ilo.org

See also Messenger 2011 p.301
WHY DO WORKING HOURS VARY?
WHY DO WORKING HOURS VARY?
Levels of industrialisation/technology
 Higher hours in less industrialised countries > manual labour

Certain occupations and industries

 Some occupations and industries, e.g. agriculture, service/hospitality, managers, self-
employed
 Patterns generally hold true for developed and developing nations

Pay (inadequate hourly pay > high hours; additional pay)

Cultural values (badge of honour, commitment to the firm)
Individual values (workaholism)
Level of regulation / legislation (see Berg 2014)
 E.g. Ratification of ILO conventions and EC working time directive 2003 (WTD)
 National legislation; collective agreement
OCCUPATIONS
WITH LONG HOURS
WORKING TIME CONFIGURATIONS
BERG ET AL 2014
Berg et al identify 3 main working-time configurations, however, most countries are mixed types (e.g.
Germany – negotiated and weak mandated).
Unilateral – weak regulation of working time; employer dominated (USA)
 The USA does not provide mandated minimum or maximum working hours.
 There are no federal (national) rights to paid vacations, paid sick days or paid parental leave or the right to request
flexible working schedules.
 The Fair labour Standards Act (FLSA) establishes minimum wage, but no federal (national) working time regulation.
 Compensation, but not protection - Workers are required to be paid 50% overtime for >40 hours, but there is no
maximum on how many hours can be required.

Negotiated – between social actors in tripartite negotiations and established by collective

agreement (Sweden)
Mandated – strong regulation by State and extensive legal regulations that cover most employees
(France, China)
WORKING TIME CONFIGURATIONS FRAMEWORK
BERG ET AL, 2014

USA Sweden France

INTERNATIONAL, REGIONAL & NATIONAL
LEGISLATION RE WORKING TIME
The following slides identify some key pieces of international, regional
and country-specific legislation that govern working time in different
countries:
1. ILO - Hours of Work Industry Convention, adopted in 1919
 Plus 2019 guide on Working Time Arrangements (WTAs) to help govts and orgs
develop flexible work policies and practices

2. EU – Working Time Directive (established 1993; now 2003)

3. Japan
 Labour Standards Act 1947 – governs working time, breaks etc.
 Various laws and voluntary initiatives (2002-2019) to help address long
working hours
ILO WORKING TIME REGULATIONS
The very first ILO Convention (Hours of Work Industry Convention) adopted in 1919
limited hours of work and provided for adequate rest periods for workers
Established individual working hours shall not exceed 8/day and 48/week
 Variations – supervisions and managers exempt; hours can be varied by agreement or for urgent work but
not exceed limit over a 3 week period; Govt can overrule to a maximum of 48 hours/week.

NZ & USA were the first to adopt 48 hour working weeks (early 20th century), but have
fairly high working hours compared to European countries

ILO – working time overview

ILO 2018 report: Ensuring decent working time for the future
EU WORKING TIME REGULATIONS (2003/88/EC)
Europe
In November 1993 the Social Affairs Council of the EU adopted the Directive on the
Organisation of Working Time (known as the Working Time Directive, WTD)
 Subsequent amendments in 2000 and 2003

The original directive established:

 maximum weekly hours (48); daily and weekly rest periods (during and between shifts); max 8 hours for
night work; and paid annual leave (min 4 weeks)

Read more on WTD – Arrowsmith 2013 article, p.123

EU WORKING TIME REGULATIONS (2003/88/EC)
Purpose: to protect people's health and safety b/c of negative effects of excessive working
time esp stress
Key requirements:
 A maximum limit of an average 48 hours a week on the hours a worker can be required to work
 individuals may choose to work longer by "opting out”; Overtime can increase hours (e.g. Germany 60 hours)
 paid annual leave of 5.6 weeks per year
 11 consecutive hours' rest in any 24-hour period.
EU WORKING TIME REGULATIONS (2003/88/EC)
Many countries also have restrictions for maximum daily, weekly and overtime hours
Some member states have legislation and/or collective agreements that provide for lower
(or higher) hours than the WTD
 But working hours have not been a key CB item since 2000

France – new law barring work emails after hours (Jan 2017)
Germany – IGMetal: employees have the right to 28 hour/weeks for 2 years
RESPONSES TO WORKING HOURS IN THE UK
Attempts to address low (zero) hours
The Working Time Regulations (1998) implement the European Working Time Directive
into GB law.
 See: Eurofound country profile: United Kingdom link
 Adams & Prassl (2018). Zero-Hours Work in the United Kingdom. Geneva: International Labor Organization.
link

Attempts to address long hours

The New Economics Foundation - a British think-tank founded in 1986 a that promotes
"social, economic and environmental justice“ has recommended moving to a 21-hour
standard work week to address problems with unemployment, high carbon emissions, low
well-being, entrenched inequalities, overworking, family care, and the general lack of
free time.
WORKING TIME REGULATION – JAPAN
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Labor Standards Act (1947)

Has been amended numerous times, most recently 3x in 2003.
The LSA governs working hours, rest periods, rest days and annual paid leave (as
well as wages, labour contracts, H&S…)
Since 1987, Japan has adopted the principle of a 40-hour week
 Collective agreements may extend the normal work week
 The principle is widely ignored
 Long hours are seen as a sign of commitment to the firm
 Annual leave is also not often taken

Although overtime pay is required by law, prior to 1990 some orgs had taken
employees to court over their requests for overtime or other legitimate compensation.
WORKING TIME REGULATION – JAPAN
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

1969 – first reported case of overwork-related disorders (death by stroke)

1984 – first case of occupational mental disorders was compensated
2002 - the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) launched the first comprehensive
program for the prevention of health impairment due to overwork
3 major focus areas:
 reduction of overtime work to 45h or less per month
 introduction of medical examinations for all workers, and
 offer of consultation with and health guidance by a doctor for those who work long hours

But, limited success due to

 deeply embedded cultural values, attitudes and practices
 work environment, such as shift work and business practices
 low awareness of the impact of long working hours on health among the public
WORKING TIME REGULATION – JAPAN
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

2014, June
 Japanese govt passed the “Act on Promotion of Preventive Measures against Karoshi and
Other Overwork-Related Health Disorders” (enacted Nov 2014) to develop a national initiative
of prevention of overwork-related disorders15)
 The Act clarified the State is responsible for promoting preventive measures including policies
against overwork related disorders, and contributing to a society where people can work
healthily and actively with an adequate work–life balance
 Comprehensive prevention strategies should involve central and local govt, employers and other
relevant orgs
 November – awareness of overwork month, incl Labour Thanksgiving Day (Nov 23)
 Established “Principles of Preventive Measures against Overwork-Related Disorders” (June 2015)
– see next slide
(Yamauchi et al, 2017)
WORKING TIME REGULATION – JAPAN
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Additional guidelines
2017, August - the Govt adopted further guidelines aimed at addressing long work hours
in the construction and transport industries who work longer hours b/c of serious labor
shortage
 Construction companies were required to secure two days off a week for workers
 Transport – guidelines seek tougher administrative penalties incl suspension orders on operators who have
drivers work illegally long hours
 See www.japantimes.co.jp/2017
WORKING TIME REGULATION – JAPAN
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Voluntary initiatives
In 2017, 40% of orgs surveyed said they have already or will look at reducing working
hours.
Many businesses have implemented hatarakikata kaikaku - requiring employees to leave
earlier, turning out the lights in the office at a certain time, or requiring employees to get
advance permission for working late.
Enabled employees to telework
Promoting women in the workplace
Offering support to working parents such as reduced hour work schedules.
PR firm SunnySide Up “Premium Friday” employees receive a one-time 3,200 yen ($28)
cash payment as they left at 3 p.m.
WORKING TIME REGULATION – JAPAN
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

June 2018 – the "Work Style Reform Law” (“The Revolution In The Way [People] Work” bill)
 Passed in June 2018, effective April 2019; Violation is subject to fines

Purpose:
 restricting overtime hours (capped at 100 hours/month)
 improving treatment of non-regular (such as temporary and part-time) workers
 increasing productivity of the economy

But… "high-level" professionals are exempt from the overtime cap

The law is seen as a positive step to addressing working hours, although one politician
referred to it as "The Permitting Death By Overwork (Karoshi) Legislation”.
ILO (2019): GUIDE TO DEVELOPING BALANCED
WORKING TIME ARRANGEMENTS ILO 2019 LINK
The ILO (2019) has produced a practical guide on working time arrangements (“work
schedules”) for employers, workers, and governments.
Designed to assist organizations to make informed decisions regarding how to structure
working time arrangements in a “balanced” manner for the mutual benefit of both workers
and enterprises.
Focus on 5 dimensions:
1/ promoting health and safety
2/ advancing the productivity and sustainability of enterprises;
3/ being “family-friendly” and improving work-life balance;
4/ promoting gender equality; and
5/ offering workers a degree of choice and influence over their hours of work
FIVE DIMENSIONS OF DECENT WORKING TIME
1. Healthy working time:
Enterprises should avoid unhealthy working times and regular long working hours to prevent
negative short-and long-term health effects, increased safety risks, higher rates of
absenteeism, and reduced productivity.
2. Productive working time:
Decent working time arrangements, in particular reductions in long working hours, lead to
increased productivity. By having more time for rest and recovery from work, employees are
more alert, motivated and productive.
3. Family-friendly working time:
Long weekly hours and “non-standard” working hours in the evenings, at nights and on
weekends reduce work-life compatibility . Flexibility in working hours allows workers to attend
to their personal lives . This can lead to better individual and organizational performance as
well .
FIVE DIMENSIONS OF DECENT WORKING TIME
4. Gender equality through working time:
Working time policies need to both promote gender equality in employment through
gender-neutral measures, as well as ensure that policies advancing other dimensions
of decent working time do not negatively impact gender equality.
5. Choice and influence regarding working time:
Offering workers a degree of choice regarding their working hours creates a win-win
situation for both workers and enterprises. Flexible working time arrangements such
as “flexi-time” and compressed workweeks can have positive effects on employee
attitudes and workplace morale.
(ILO 2019, p.9)
BENEFITS OF BALANCED WTAS
Firms
 increased productivity
 reduced rates of absenteeism and staff turnover
 improved employee attitudes and morale
 more sustainable enterprises

Individuals
 Better balance between work and personal lives
 Improved gender equality (work, income & family)
 Positive attitudes
 Improved workplace morale
 Improved physical and mental health and well being
IS LESS MORE?
Working fewer hours (but not too few!) is better for cognition and health
 Watch: Time.Com (Oct 2016, 1 min)

Lower hours tend to be correlated with higher rates of productivity

But research shows … the fewer hours people work, the less they want
 ‘Heightened expectations’ perspective (Ruppanner & Maume, 2016)

Reduced hours initiative - Perpetual Guardian (NZ) trialled a 4-day working week
 Productivity increased by 20% - same work being done in 4 days, but still paid for 5
 Watch TedX talk (12 min)
 Read more www.4dayweek.co.nz and www.businessinsider.com
RESPONSES TO WORKING TIME
SEE THE READING BY EUROFOUND 2020, CH 2 LINK

NOTE: This reading focuses on part-time and short working hours in the EU, the implications of this on
individuals and orgs, and policy responses to this at different levels (e.g. EU and national level
initiatives). It also considers long working hours briefly on page 29a, and 36.
As you read, consider the following questions:
 Why do orgs and individuals want flexibility in working time structure?
 What are some negative effects of short and/or unpredictable work hours?
 What are some negative effects of long working hours?
 What are some policy responses to help achieve desired and predictable working hours (see p.29)
 EU initiatives (p.30)
 National level initiatives (see the table 7 on p.31)
See in particular the summary of policy changes related to working time on p.36
READ & REFLECT…
Remember to use the study questions to guide
your reading and reflection.
Select 2 countries from different regions to
explore in more depth and identify -
 Prevalence and trends in working hours (duration
and configuration)
 Drivers (incl how working hours are set, see Berg et
al)
 Implications (for orgs, individuals and society)
 Responses (how are different international and
national orgs and govts addressing these issues)