F a i r D e a l i n g ( S h o r t E x c e r p t )

Reading: Excerpt from Ch. 4. Holland's Theory of Types (Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling)

Author: Sharf, Richard S.

Editor: N/A

Publisher: Brooks/Cole Publication Date: 2002 Pages: 102-108

Course: CNPS 363 63E 2020W Career Counselling

Course Code: 63E Term: 2020W2

Department: CNPS

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102 Part One Trait and Type Theories

EXPLANATORY CONSTRUCTS
Four important constructs for conceptualizing and using Holland's types in
counseling are congruence, differentiation, consistency, and identity. These
refer to the relationship between the personality and the environment (con­
gruence), the relationship between and the relative importance of types
(differentiation), and the relationship of the types to each other (consis­
tency). In addition, the concept of identity, which is less directly tied to
types, is important for counselors to be familiar with.
 Chapter 4 Holland's Theory of Types 103

Congruence
The term congruence refers to the relationship of the personality to the en­
vironment. The more similar the personality is to the environment, the
more congruent the relationship. Social types tend to enjoy working in a
Social environment; Investigative types prefer the Investigative environ­
ment. Thus, a Social type working in a sales environment (Enterprising)
might find the environment incongruent. An Investigative type working in
an Artistic environment might also find that incongruent and would be
frustrated by the ambiguity and flexibility that are required in the produc­
tion of artistic or musical products. Using Holland's three-letter code, an
SRA personality would be most congruent with an SRA environment and
slightly less congruent with an SRC environment. Likewise, an SIC envi­
ronment would be more incongruent, and an ICR environment would be
quite incongruent with an SRA type of person. Thus, congruence decreases
as the similarity of the three-letter code of the person and of the environ­
ment decreases.
Counseling Implications The concept of congruence is essential in coun­
seling, where it can provide an important goal. A client wishing to make a
career choice will want to find an environment that is congruent with his
or her personality. It is the counselor's job to assess the client's personal­
ity and assist in finding environments that will fit the counselee according
to the Holland type. Working toward the discovery of congruent occupa­
tions becomes the major purpose of career-counseling sessions. The coun­
selor thinks about the client and possible career choices in terms of the six
Holland types and the degree to which they match.
Example of Congruence Jane, a white high school sophomore, has a coun­
seling session with her guidance counselor that includes this dialogue:
CL: Recently, I was working with a friend who was making a project for her
high school science fair. It got kind of messy—we spent a lot of time sort­
ing ants into different piles and developing different terrains—but it was
a lot of fun. I was surprised how the time just went by so quickly. In fact,
I got in trouble for getting home late. We worked on it Thursday night
and then most of last Saturday.
CO: Sounds like you really got intrigued with all of the different things that
you could do. [The counselor encourages the client to keep talking about
her interest in the science project to see if her interest in Investigative
activities will sustain itself.)
CL: It was a lot of fun. I never knew that observing ants could be so inter­
esting. It really got me thinking about what I might do. I wish that I had
thought about doing a science project. But it's too late now.
CO: If you were to do a science project now, what do you think it might be?
[The exploration of Investigative activities continues.)
CL: I'm not sure, really. But I think it might have something to do with mice
and how they act. I'm taking biology now, and I really like it. I wish that
I had room in my schedule next year for another biology course.
104 Part One Trait and Type Theories

CO: You seem surprised that you have so much interest in biology. [The coun­
selor tries to understand how important Investigative activities are to the
client and if this is a recern awareness for the client.]
CL: I am surprised. I never thought I would like science so much. I've known
all along that I enjoy art. My art teachers really like my work, and 1 enjoy
painting. Last summer, I won first place in a contest with my paintings.
CO. That sounds exciting. It's great to have things that seem different from
each other but are so enjoyable. [While reinforcing the client's enjoyment,
the counselor acknowledges the existence of both Investigative and Artis­
tic interests.)
CL: I've thought that it would be neat to do something with these after col­
lege. I've thought of doing something with biology, becoming a biologist
or geneticist or something like that. But I'm not sure what I'd do with
art. Sometimes, I think that I might like to be an artist or an architect.
CO: These are occupations worth looking into. They certainly fit with the
things that you've been telling me so far about yourself. [Without know­
ing the exact Holland codes for the occupations that the student men­
tions, the counselor can still tell that the occupations that have been
described are congruent with the client's emerging personality type. The
counselor is then in a position to find other occupations that may be con­
gruent with the AI type. Further, the counselor will have the opportunity
to see if there are other Holland types that reflect the individual's per­
sonality. If so, this may help the counselor in finding other occupations
to suggest that will be congruent with her type.)

Hfferentiaiion
Both people and environments may differ in terms of how clearly they be­
long <o one or two types. Some people may predominantly resemble one
Holland type, whereas others may be quite undifferentiated and have in­
terests and competencies across all six types. Most people are likely to have
one, two, or three dominant types. For example, some people enjoy paint­
ing, writing, helping others, leading youth groups, and doing volunteer
work in a hospital. They may dislike working with machinery, office work,
science, and business. Such people would be readily identified as differen­
tiated, as their interests (Social and Artistic) are clearly different from their
dislikes (Investigative, Realistic, Conventional, and Enterprising). On the
other hand, some people enjoy doing all kinds of activities and they do
them well. These people are undifferentiated according to Holland's sys­
tem. Holland determines differentiation by subtracting the lowest score of
any type from the highest score of any type on the SDS or VPI. Any in­
ventory that measures his six types can be used. A high result indicates a
differentiated profile and a low result an undifterentiated profile.
Just as people vary in terms of differentiation, so do environments.
Some environments allow for more freedom of movement to various Hol­
land environments chan do others. For example, assembly line work usu­
ally allows an individual only the opportunity to do Realistic work—a dif­
ferentiated environment. On the other hand, a teacher working in a
 Chapter 4 H olland’s Theory of Types 105

university may have the opportunity to do research in his or her field (In­
vestigative), teach students and help them select courses (Social), and pos­
sibly consult with industry (Enterprising)—an undifferentiated environ­
ment. Sometimes, environments are "aned enough so that people who at
first find that their personality and environment are not congruent can find
a way to work within the environment that provides eventual congruence.
For example, a physician who is predominantly Enterprising rather
than Investigative (the predominant type of physician) may find enough di­
versity in a hospital environment to work as a hospital admi .ristrator or
fund-raiser, thus meeting his or her Enterprising needs. To use another ex­
ample, a secretary working in an office that requires typing, filing, and re­
ception work will find an opportunity to meet both Conventional and So­
cial needs, whereas a secretary in a typing pool will be able to meet only
Conventional needs. Thus, environments differ in the degree to which they
are differentiated.
Counseling Implications Undifferentiated people are likely to have diffi­
culty in making career decisions and may seek career counseling. One goal
of counseling is to help clients to differentiate and broaden their knowl­
edge of their interests, abilities, and values within each of the six types.
Some clients who are trying to find a new career goal will find that they
have interests and abilities in many different areas (undifferentiated). It is
then the counselor's role to discuss more deeply their interests, values, and
experiences, and to make explicit the differing values of each of the six
types for the client. Other clients may find that they have few interests and
low self-estimates ot their abilities across all types. Such clients may need
to address issues of depression or low self-esteem. The typology serves as
a frame of reference for exploring areas of interest of which the client may
not be aware. A discussion of a client's experiences with hobbies, part-time
work, volunteer work, full-time work, extracurricular activities, and leisure
time is apt to give the counselor an opportunity to conceptualize the client
according to all six of Holland's personality types. Sometimes, it is not pos­
sible to provide further differentiation for a client without more work ex­
perience—whether part time, volunteer, or full time. The pursuit of differ­
entiation can be a means of finding a congruent occupation for a client.
Example of Differentiation The client, Chester, is a young Chinese Amer­
ican man who dropped out of high school at the end of the 11th grade. For
the past three years, he has been employed on an automobile assembly line.
He has taken the Self-Directed Search (SDS) at a guidance program offered
in the evening at his local high school. His highest score on the SDS was
E, considerably higher than R and I, the next highest scores. His counselor
uses this information along with Chester's description of career-related ex­
periences to help Chester in career selection:
CL: When I was in school, there just wasn't very much that interested me.
Now I have a job that gets more and more boring. When I first worked in
auto-body assembly, I didn't mind it. Things were kind of fun then. Now
106 Paît One H ait and Type Theories

I've done most of the jobs on the line, and there's never a challenge. It's
the same thing all over again.
CO: The assembly work really sounds as if it is bothering you and making you
rethink what you want to do. [Perhaps Realistic activities are not for this
client. Do the client's R interests match his SDS scores?)
CL: Yes. There are a lot of things that I enjoy doing much more.
CO: Can you tell me about them? [More information about the client's per­
sonality, according to the six Holland personality types, is needed to com­
pare with his scores on the SDS.)
CL: Well, on weekends my friend and I work on cars to resell. It's fun and in­
teresting, and I'm making a lot of extra cash.
CO: Sounds good; I'd like to hear more.
CL: Well, we get old cars from people who are about ready to junk them. We
fix the mechanical problems, touch them up with paint, and list them in
the newspaper.
CO: Which aspect of this work do you do most? [Realistic interests, in terms
of working on cars, and Enterprising interests, selling the cars, sound like
possibilities. The counselor revises the original view that Realistic activ­
ities are not of interest to this client.)
CL: My friend really knows cars. I help him in some of the simple work. As
I've worked with him, I've been able to help him when he takes an en­
gine apart. But I couldn't do that myself. When it comes to people buy­
ing the car, I'm the one who sells it. It really is a challenge for me to take
something that we've worked on and get someone to buy it. I feel as if
we've got a good product, and I want them to know about it.
CO: Is selling something new for you? [The counselor is differentiating be­
tween the Realistic and Enterprising interests of the client, choosing to
follow up and get more detail on the Enterprising aspect, Chester's high­
est score on the SDS.)
Ct! No, I've sold before. When I was in high school I used to work in a tire
store. I sold truck tires and auto tires, then put them on. Although I
didn't mind putting on new tires, it was more interesting to me to help
y the customer select tires and buy a real good set. I'd get a commission on
what I sold, not a big one, but I liked it.
CO: That sounds as if there were a lot of things that you could take advan­
tage of on that job. [The counselor continues to differentiate the interests
in Realistic and Enterprising activities from each other, exploring the dif­
ferentiation suggested by the difference between the E and R scores on
the SDS. This content reflection asks for further differentiation.)

Consistency
Consistency refers to the similarity or dissimilarity of types. Certain tvpes,
whether environment or personality, have more in common with some
types than with others. For examDle, as shown in F.gure 4-1 (page 96), So­
cial and Artistic types are similar [close together). On the other hand, So­
cial types and Realistic types are quite different from each other, as are En­
terprising types and Investigative types. The closer the types are to each
 Chapter 4 H olland’s Theory of Types 107

other on the chart, the more consistent they are. For example, Social peo­
ple tend to like to help others, work as a team, and value their interactions
with people,- Realistic types prefer not to work with people, but to work
with machines and technical challenges. Social people may often have an
aversion to machines, or put another way, Social people tend to have more
in common with Artistic and Enterprising types than they do with Realis­
tic individuals. Likewise, Realistic people are apt to have more in common
with Investigative and Conventional individuals than with Social people.
Consistency also applies to environments. Some environments require
skills and interests that are generally inconsistent, One example is athletic
trainer (SRE1 The Social and Realistic environments are inconsistent, yet
athletic trainers must help injured athletes who may be under emotional
and physical stress. Further, they use a variety of sophisticated medical
equipment to remedy injuries. In general, there are very few occupations
that have codes that are inconsistent. For example, there are no occupa­
tions that could be labeled CA. When applied to a working environment,
the term inconsistent means that the environment requires types of inter­
ests and abilities that rarely are required in the same job. Creative and
artistic production (A) is seldom seen in conjunction with demands for nu-
merical/skill (C] in any occupation. On the other hand, individuals with in­
consistent types may be able to identify a special niche for themselves. For
example, an individual with a CA personality may enjoy organizing a mu­
sic library for a symphony orchestra.
Consistency is not a goal of counseling, whereas differentiation and
cong lence can both be goals. Consistency is a more subtle concept than
the others. Lack of consistency does not mean that a choice is poor. For ex­
ample, a person who has an inconsistent type (SIC) has not made a poorer
career choice than a person who has a more consistent type (SAI). Perhaps
the notion of consistency can best be used in counseling by making the
counselor aware chat it may be difficult to find an environment that will
fit two or three inconsistent Holland codes. Often, the client may have to
choose an occupation that fits one of the two inconsistent types, but not
both. For example, a client with strong Artistic and Conventional interests
and skills may choose to do accounting during the day and then moonlight
as a musician. It would not be possible to find occupations that would eas­
ily incorporate both of these personality types.
Recently, Holland (1997) described a new form of consistency, consis­
tency of aspirations. Some clients may have a variety of aspirations or fu­
ture dreams that vary in their degree of consistency. Some codes may be
within one type or two adjoining types. Other codes may be round in types
inconsistent with each other. A measure of consistency of aspirations can
be obtained by examining the Daydreams section of the SDS. Aspirations
or daydream'- have always been an important concept to Holland (Reardon
St Lenz, 199S). Knowing what clients daydream about, desire, or aspire to
provides useful information to the career counselor in both assessing Hol­
land type and the counseling process itself.
108 Paît One Trait and Type Theories

Identity
Identity refers to the clarity and stability of a person's current and future
goals. It also refers to the stability of the working environment. If an orga­
nization has identity, the tasks and goals of an occupation or employer do
not vary widely. Identity is different from any of the other concepts rele­
vant to Holland's system because it does not relate directly to his cypology.
It is measured not by the VPI or the SDS, but through a third instrument
titled My Vocational Situation (MVS) (Holland, Daiger, & Power, 1980).
Although the inventory, My Vocational Situation, will measure the
concept of identity, the counselor's assessment of identity in a counseling
interview can also prove to be helpful. A question for the counselor to con­
sider is: Now that we are completing career counseling, does this client
have a clear idea of career plans and contingency plans, as well as knowl­
edge of how to implement the plans? For example, a man whc decides to
pursue acting should not only be aware of his interest in this profession but
also be able to assess feedback he has received from directors and acting
teachers. This man should be aware of the risks in obtaining work, alter­
native careers when unemployed, contacts for employment, and so on. To
start looking for work without planning would be to have a diffuse sense
of identity. To use another example, a young woman who wants to be a
lawyer because lawyers make good salaries and work on exciting cases has
not yet formed a sense of identity. When she has information about how
to become a lawyer and whether she would like the duties of a lawyer, then
her sense of identity will become clearer.
Identity can be an important goal of career counseling. Achievement of
identity may occur when the goal of congruence has been accomplished. If
a woman decides on the occupation of roofer, feeling that laying new roofs
would be something that she is able to do and would enjoy (congruence be­
tween person and environment), a sense of identity will develop. As she
moves from one job site to another, her goals may stabilize, and she may
grow more certain of her interests and abilities.