Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Solar Powered Aircraft Project
Solar Powered Aircraft Project
Solar Powered Aircraft Project
Members of Team
1. Orhan Gazi KEDEROGLU
2. Salih YANBASTIOGLU
3. Betül SARAÇ
4. Mehmet Hikmet KOCAOĞLAN
Supervisor:
Benjamin DURAKOVIC
1
Sarajevo: December 2012
Contents
A. Technical Feasibility ............................................................................................. 3
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Previous / Related Works ............................................................................... 4
Top 10 Solar Powered Planes........................................................................................ 4
1.2 New product development process ................................................................. 7
2 Identification of Customer Needs and Market Research Essentials...................... 7
3 Concept Generation ............................................................................................... 7
3.1 How do Photovoltaics Work? ......................................................................... 7
3.1 PhotoVoltaic Technology ........................................................................ 10
3.1.1 The Different Types Of Modules & Cells .................................... 10
3.2 Comparing photovoltaic technologies .......................................................... 10
3.3 Battery Arrangement and Power .................................................................. 18
3.4 Motors ........................................................................................................... 19
3.5 The Four Forces Acting On An Airplane ..................................................... 20
3.5.1 Lift ......................................................................................................... 20
3.5.2 Thrust .................................................................................................... 21
3.5.3 Drag ....................................................................................................... 21
3.5.4 Estimate Electric Motor & Prop Combo ............................................... 21
4 Identify Customer Needs ..................................................................................... 26
5 Establish Target Specifications ........................................................................... 26
6 Generate Product Concepts ................................................................................. 38
7 Select a Product Concept ..................................................................................... 46
8 Refine Specifications........................................................................................... 47
B. Costs Analysis ..................................................................................................... 49
Perform Economic Analysis ........................................................................................ 49
2
Technical Feasibility
1 Introduction
A Solar System was designed to demonstrate the power system operation of a solar powered
aircraft. The system occurs of a photovoltaic (PV) array, a charge controller, а battery, an
electric motor and propeller. PV array has energy, and this energy uses to store it in a battery
for future use. Also, there is control panel in system, which display the output of the array,
and battery.
Photovoltaic;
Today, it is important to use natural resources, and using renewable energy than at perhaps
any other time in history.Also, clean energy alternatives like solar energy, collected through
photovoltaic systems, can be of great benefit to our environment.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are important, because it changes sunlight into electricity, and
it useful at home and business. PV systems are ideal sources of energy, because it has infinite
amount of sunlight for fuel. There is no damage from converting the fuel into electricity.
Moreover, when solar system is installed, the electricity produced is free of cost.
3
1.1 Previous / Related Works
Top 10 Solar Powered Planes
3. The Sunseeker II
Flying Hours 12 Hours
Type of Battery AMG
Type of Solar Panel Thin film solar cell
Flight Height Unknown
Year of Development
1990
Manufacturing
Developed By Eric Raymond
4
4. Centurion
Flying Hours 18 Hours
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Poli Crystalline PV
Type of Solar Panel
Cell
Flight Height 206 Feet
Year of Development
1997
Manufacturing
Developed By ERAST
Developed By DARPA
7. Solong
Flying Hours 24 Hours
Type of Battery AMG
Type of Solar Panel Thin film solar cell
WingSpan-Weight 4.75m-10.8kg
Year of Development
Unknown
Manufacturing
Developed By Unkown
5
8. Sky Sailor
Flying Hours 24 Hours
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Type of Solar Panel 216 solar cell
WingSpan-Weight 3.2m-2.5kgs
Year of Development
Unknown
Manufacturing
9. Solar Challenger
Farthest, highest and
Flying Hours longest solar powered
manned flight.
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Type of Solar Panel Poli Crystalline PV Cell
Year of Development
1981
Manufacturing
6
1.2 New product development process
3 Concept Generation
7
In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to
provide power aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its
reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the
1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space
applications.
The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a
solar cell. Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as silicon,
used in the microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially
treated to form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the other. When light
energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor
material. If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an
electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current -- that is,
electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support
structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply electricity
at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current produced is directly
dependent on how much light strikes the module.
8
Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array. In general, the larger the area of a
module or array, the more electricity that will be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays
produce direct-current (dc) electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel
electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and current combination.
Today's most common PV devices use a single junction, or interface, to create an
electric field within a semiconductor such as a PV cell. In a single-junction PV cell, only
photons whose energy is equal to or greater than the band gap of the cell material can free an
electron for an electric circuit. In other words, the photovoltaic response of single-junction
cells is limited to the portion of the sun's spectrum whose energy is above the band gap of the
absorbing material, and lower-energy photons are not used.
One way to get around this limitation is to use two (or more) different cells, with more than
one band gap and more than one junction, to generate a voltage. These are referred to as
"multijunction" cells (also called "cascade" or "tandem" cells). Multijunction devices can
achieve a higher totalconversion efficiency because they can convert more of the energy
spectrum of light to electricity.
As shown below, a multijunction device is a
stack of individual single-junction cells in
descending order of band gap (Eg). The top cell
captures the high-energy photons and passes the rest
of the photons on to be absorbed by lower-band-gap
cells.
Much of today's research in multijunction cells
focuses on gallium arsenide as one (or all) of the
component cells. Such cells have reached
efficiencies of around 35%
under concentrated sunlight. Other materials studied
for multijunction devices have been amorphous
silicon and copper indium diselenide.
As an example, the multijunction device
below uses a top cell of gallium indium phosphide,
"a tunnel junction," to aid the flow of electrons
between the cells, and a bottom cell of gallium
arsenide.
9
3.1 PhotoVoltaic Technology
3.1.1 The Different Types Of Modules & Cells
Your choice of photovoltaic panels will have an impact on the ongoing performance and
annual output of your PV System. With a wide selection of panels available on the market,
varying in quality and performance just as much as they do in price, choosing your panels can
be daunting. There are a lot of factors to consider when specifying a technology such as roof
orientation, roof pitch, available area, budget, your desired annual yield, phew, the list goes
on.
But don't panic - we can help. We regularly review and assess new products on the market,
we listen to your requirements and preferences and we advise on a suitable technology to
ensure that you have the right product on your roof.
Solar PV panels are manufactured using one of four different types of photovoltaic
technologies: Hybrid, Monocrystalline, Polycrystalline and Amorphous. Each technology has
different characteristics but they all work by converting light into electricity . There are three
main factors to consider when specifying a solar pv panel: how it performs in all light
conditions, how much area is required and of course, cost.
Kilowatt per kilowatt what?
The performance of a pv panel is measured in kilowatt hours per kilowatt peak (kWh/kWp),
which translates as the number of electrical units of energy (kWh) the panel will produce at
maximum output (kWp), or in other words during the brightest sunlight. While this is a good
measure of performance, it isn't the full story. Each technology performs differently in certain
light conditions and considering our UK climate, overall performance becomes a significant
factor.
Graph illustrating comparitive outputs of typical pv technologies based on amount of solar
radiation
10
The rated performance of a photovoltaic technology at full output does not necessarily reflect
it's performance in less favourable light conditions. Hybrid technology is the best all round
performer and will generate more elelctricity in lower light conditions than other
technologies. Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline panels have a mid-range performance and
are the most common type of photovoltaic panels. Amorphous technology, a flexible
technology also known as Thin Film, is the least efficient technology requiring a significantly
larger area than the other photovoltaic technologies.
Size Matters
The amount of space you have available for pv panels can also influence which type of
technology you choose. More efficent panels generate more power per square metre than less
efficient panels - ideal when your roof is small or partially shaded. The efficency of each
technology can be measured by the maximum output per square metre area of photovoltaic
cells.
Figures are based on a typical panel size for each technology. PV Systems are modular so can
be any size or shape.
There are four main photovoltaic technologies to choose from and each one has different
characteristics. We can advise you on which technology is right for you and we'll assess the
economic payback period so you can evaluate the cost of each technology yourself.
11
Hybrid Photovoltaic
High performance = better ROI
Hybrid modules contain a layer of both amorphous and crystalline cells providing best all
round performance. Although more expensive, they provide much better output per m2. This
is particularly useful when the roof is limited. Compared to other technologies, Hybrid PV
Panels will generate more kilowatt hours (electrical units) per year so you will benefit from
additional FIT or ROC payments, reducing the payback period of your system and putting you
in profit sooner.
3.2.1.1.2 Monocrystalline
Economic, efficient and reliable. Monocrystalline photovoltaic cells are cut from a single
crystal of silicon and are generally considered to be the workhorses of the PV market due to
their high efficiency and dependability. They can be distinguished by their uniform
appearance and are usually dark blue or black in colour.
12
3.2.1.1.4 Polycrystalline
Lower cost, lower performance.Polycrystalline cells are cut from multifaceted crystalline
silicon and are distinguishable by their crystal-like appearance. Polycrystalline panels provide
slightly lower annual output than monocrystalline panels, but they are in turn slightly less
expensive.
13
(2.5 cm) long, a quarter-inch (0.6 cm) wide and wafer-thin. The thinness of the cell is the
defining characteristic of the technology. Unlike silicon-wafer cells, which have light-
absorbing layers that are traditionally 350 microns thick, thin-film solar cells have light-
absorbing layers that are just one micron thick. A micron, for reference, is one-millionth of a
meter (1/1,000,000 m or 1 µm).
Thin-film solar cell manufacturers begin building their solar cells by depositing
several layers of a light-absorbing material, a semiconductor on to a substrate -- coated glass,
metal or plastic. The materials used as semiconductors don't have to be thick because they
absorb energy from the sun very efficiently. As a result, thin-film solar cells are lightweight,
durable and easy to use.
There are three main types of thin-film solar cells, depending on the type of
semiconductor used:amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium
gallium deselenide (CIGS). Amorphous silicon is basically a trimmed-down version of the
traditional silicon-wafer cell. As such, a-Si is well understood and is commonly used in solar-
powered electronics. It does, however, have some drawbacks.
One of the biggest problems with a-Si solar cells is the material used for its
semiconductor. Silicon is not always easy to find on the market, where demand often exceeds
supply. But the a-Si cells themselves are not particularly efficient. They suffer significant
degradation in power output when they're exposed to the sun. Thinner a-Si cells overcome
this problem, but thinner layers also absorb sunlight less efficiently. Taken together, these
qualities make a-Si cells great for smaller-scale applications, such as calculators, but less than
ideal for larger-scale applications, such as solar-powered buildings.
14
Thin-Film Solar Cell Production Forecast
15
3.2.1.1.9 Types of Solar Panel and Manufacturer
About solar cells type; we determined to be most efficient and highest output and last
technology so this type was the best for our project. On the other hand, we were looking fort
he shape, it should be quadrilateral for easing to place solar cells. If we compare all other
types, this is the best choice for our expectations and it supplies our demand.
Specifications:
Availability: In Stock
Price: $2.30
16
Packaged Length: 4.88 in
Voltage: .55 V
Wattage: .77 W
17
3.3 Battery Arrangement and Power
In many devices that use batteries -- such as portable radios and flashlights -- you don't
use just one cell at a time. You normally group them together in a serial arrangement to
increase the voltage or in a parallel arrangement to increase current. The diagram shows these
two arrangements.
The upper diagram shows a parallel arrangement. The four batteries in parallel will
together produce the voltage of one cell, but the current they supply will be four times that of
a single cell. Current is the rate at which electric charge passes through a circuit, and is
measured in amperes. Batteries are rated in amp-hours, or, in the case of smaller household
batteries, milliamp-hours (mAH). A typical household cell rated at 500 milliamp-hours should
be able to supply 500 milliamps of current to the load for one hour. You can slice and dice the
milliamp-hour rating in lots of different ways. A 500 milliamp-hour battery could also
produce 5 milliamps for 100 hours, 10 milliamps for 50 hours, or, theoretically, 1,000
milliamps for 30 minutes. Generally speaking, batteries with higher amp-hour ratings have
greater capacities.
The lower diagram depicts a serial arrangement. The four batteries in series will
together produce the current of one cell, but the voltage they supply will be four times that of
a single cell. Voltage is a measure of energy per unit charge and is measured in volts. In a
battery, voltage determines how strongly electrons are pushed through a circuit, much like
pressure determines how strongly water is pushed through a hose. Most AAA, AA, C and D
batteries are around 1.5 volts.
Imagine the batteries shown in the diagram are rated at 1.5 volts and 500 milliamp-
hours. The four batteries in parallel arrangement will produce 1.5 volts at 2,000 milliamp-
hours. The four batteries arranged in a series will produce 6 volts at 500 milliamp-hours.
Battery technology has advanced dramatically since the days of the Voltaic pile. These
developments are clearly reflected in our fast-paced, portable world, which is more dependent
than ever on the portable power source that batteries provide. One can only imagine what the
next generation of smaller, more powerful and longer-lasting batteries will bring.
18
3.4 Motors
The armature contains an electromagnet. When you run electricity into this
electromagnet, it creates a magnetic field in the armature that attracts and repels the magnets
in the stator. So the armature spins through 180 degrees. To keep it spinning, you have to
change the poles of the electromagnet. The brushes handle this change in polarity. They make
contact with two spinning electrodes attached to the armature and flip the magnetic polarity of
the electromagnet as it spins.
This setup works and is simple and cheap to manufacture, but it has a lot of problems:
The brushes eventually wear out.
Because the brushes are making/breaking connections, you get sparking and electrical
noise.
The brushes limit the maximum speed of the motor.
Having the electromagnet in the center of the motor makes it harder to cool.
The use of brushes puts a limit on how many poles the armature can have.
With the advent of cheap computers and power transistors, it became possible to "turn
the motor inside out" and eliminate the brushes. In a brushless DC motor (BLDC), you put the
permanent magnets on the rotor and you move the electromagnets to the stator. Then you use
a computer (connected to high-power transistors) to charge up the electromagnets as the shaft
turns. This system has all sorts of advantages:
The poles on the stator of a two-phase BLDC motor used to power a computer cooling
fan. The rotor has been removed.
Public domain image;
Because a computer controls the motor instead of mechanical brushes, it's more
precise. The computer can also factor the speed of the motor into the equation. This
19
The only disadvantage of a brushless motor is its higher initial cost, but you can often
recover that cost through the greater efficiency over the life of the motor.
There are two types of motor, and second one is more useful for our Project.
3.5.1 Lift
Lift is produced by a lower pressure created on the upper surface of an airplane's wing
compared to the pressure on the wing's lower surface, causing the wing to be "lifted" upward.
The special shape of the airplane wing (airfoil) is designed so that air flowing over it will
20
have to travel a greater distance faster, resulting in a lower pressure area (see illustration) thus
lifting the wing upward. Lift is that force which opposes the force of gravity (or weight).
Many believe that this explanation is incorrect because flat wings (such as seen on
balsa wood airplanes, paper planes and others) also have managed to create lift. Please read
How planes fly: the physical description of flight as well to get a fuller understanding of the
creation of lift. It is more advanced, though.
3.5.2 Thrust
Thrust is a force created by a power source which gives an airplane forward motion. It
can either "pull" or "push" an airplane forward. Thrust is that force which overcomes drag.
Conventional airplanes utilize engines as well as propellers to obtain thrust.
3.5.3 Drag
Drag is the force which delays or slows the forward movement of an airplane through
the air when the airflow direction is opposite to the direction of motion of the airplane. It is
the friction of the air as it meets and passes over and about an airplane and its components.
The more surface area exposed to rushing air, the greater the drag. An airplane's streamlined
shape helps it pass through the air more easily
21
Plettenberg Orbit 10-22
22
3.5.4.2 Second Calculation
DUALSKY
XP10002EX
http://www.goodluckbuy.com/dualsky-xp10003ex-1000mah-lipo-battery-pack-11-1v-3s1p-
30c.html
23
3.5.4.3 Third Calculation
Calculator showed that we need high rpms in order to be able to flight for this weight
with no calculation error. Now, we will explain that high rpm motor that how is it work and
why we choose high rpm motors?
24
What is High RPM Motor?
Various requirements are actually leading to a growing demand for high speed motors.
First of all, the continuous need for an increased power density. Due to the quasi linear
relation between rotational speed and shaft power of an electrical machine, increasing the
rated speed is an effective way to boost power density and efficiency. Hence this approach
takes advantage of increasing shaft power without changing the size of the machine. On the
other hand, the same performance can be provided in a smaller volume. The latter is
paramount in the field of machine tool applications for example. Thus spindles or the machine
tool in a whole become smaller, weight is reduced and dynamical behavior is enhanced.
Another point in this industry is the cycle time that a machine tool needs to complete a
specific operation. The faster a tool can be moved and rotated the faster it is able to complete
its task, not taking into account that high speed cutting operation rely on top speed to machine
time efficiently respective parts.Further interesting operation fields of high speed motors are
applications where a standard gearbox is used to translate the rotational speed of conventional
power grid frequency (50/60 Hz) driven motors to higher speed levels. A replacement of this
gearbox and the related conventional motor with a speed controlled drive consisting of a high
speed motor and a rectifier increases the overall efficiency and reduces the maintenance
significantly.
The compressor industry is an example, where high efficiency, oil-free operation
and no emissions make electric high speed motors the most environmental friendly
compressor drives. In the context of emission free application energy storage systems with
high speed flywheels not only take advantage of high speed generators. Thus fossil generators
with unwanted emissions can be avoided and maintenance costs can be reduced significantly.
Cryo applications actually experience a very similar revolution of its drive technology.
Directly driven motor elements replace a set of a gear box and a 50/60Hz standard motor.
Efficiency can be increased, the needed space is by far downsized and maintenance costs are
reduced. Hence energy recovery systems that become more and more interesting from a
financial and an ecological point of view. Thus high speed motor elements contribute partly to
the on going development of green energy applications.
In conclusion, asynchronous and synchronous high speed motors offer several
advantages like decreased installation space for higher power and unnecessary gearboxes.
These advantages apply for several fields and are intensively used in the machine tool,
compressor, cryo and energy generating industry for example. Designing and producing these
asynchronous and synchronous high speed motors is an exciting task, where the usage of most
modern computational methods for the development process is as important as a wide range
of experience and expertise to extend actual operation limitations in a safe way. Not only the
knowledge of high speed motors is necessary but also a deep inside in inverter technology,
partial discharge phenomenon and so called stray or additional losses.
We select this motor beacause we couldnt find lower rpm motor on the market and
especially this type plane producer chooses high rpm motors for their small plane.
25
4 Identify Customer Needs
People are using aircrafts with petroleum fuel and we know that these sources are limited
and damage nature. On the other hand, it is not preferable in terms of economy. Manufacturer
of aircrafts try to make less expenditure and more acquisitions. So, solar energy is the best
way for environment and economy. Even with this invention, air transport will be more
popular then traffic problem will be less. This project is proposed an example of solar aircraft.
For this one, just we can see what we can do at least, after this project this can be improved
according to customer needs.
Powered only by PV solar panels with rechargeable battery backup, The Zephyr is an
ultra-light solar powered aeroplane designed to fly as high as 25 miles for weeks or months
without landing. At such heights it will fly far above most weather and the commercial air-
lanes in the sky. Therefore it will potentially revolutionise communications acting as a
platform far cheaper than the satellites sent into orbit today. The Zephyr was built by QinetiQ,
formerly part of the UK's MOD (Ministry of Defence).
Zephyr Technical Specifications
Power is from an array of ultra-thin amorphous silicon solar cells (United Solar
Ovonic) which cover the upper surface of the wings. During the daytime any excess generated
power is used to recharge lithium-sulphur batteries (from Sion Power) which power the
motors during the night.
26
The Zephyr solar-powered plane has set a new (unofficial) world record for the
longest duration unmanned flight - 54 hours including two full nights. This smashed the
official world record of under 31 hours set in 2001 by a USAF Global Hawk surveillance
aircraft.
During this test flight over White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, an altitude
of 58,000 feet (18,000 metres) was achieved - similar to the cruising altitude ofConcorde.
The technical director of the Zephyr project Chris Kelleher told BBC Newaa, "This
aeroplane is going to go a lot higher and a lot further" and added "You ain't seen nothing
yet."
16.07.2010
Ongoing trials of the Zephyr spy drone aircraft have seen it up in the air for a full
week without landing: 168 hours of non-stop flight more than doubling it's previous record of
83 hours set in 2008, and it will remain in the air for another whole week before this trial
finishes for a total of 14 days and nights non-stop flight.
This updated Zephyr is larger than its predecessors with a new wingspan of 22.5
metres. The wingtips, and tail have been redesigned to increase efficiency by improving aero
performance. It still weighs in at only 50 kg, but now takes five rather than three people to
launch it safely.
Zephyr climbed to approximately 40,000 feet on its first day. It then climbed up to around
60,000 feet during subsequent days before falling back down to 40,000 feet through the night
times.
27
2. Hy-bird Solar Hydrogen Plane
Flying Hours 21 Hours
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Crystalline Solar
Type of Solar Panel
Cells
Flight Height Unknown
Year of Development
2008
Manufacturing
Developed By Lisa Airplanes
Enthusiastic about saving nature from all hazards and on the other hand you can’t go
without using the latest technology which damages the nature to some extent. The solar-
hydrogen plane is here for the rescue. This plane by Lisa planes is a light weight model made
of light carbon fibers. Its main power source is lithium-polymer batteries. The total weight of
the plane is just 1.1 tons. This plane is expected to be ready and move around all over the
world by next year.
Coming to the structure of the plane, it has 20 meter long wings accompanied by solar
photovoltaic which will contribute 10 % towards of the source. It’s quite stylish and eco
friendly and has everything to give you a luxurious ride. Finding an alternate for the present
mode of traveling was difficult but fortunately the solar-hydrogen plane has been made to
make earth a better place to live in. the 20 meter long wings may look odd and give a critic a
chance to speak against the plane, but this plane has everything tor the critic. Long wings are
not just to make it stylish but also they provide as an energy source to the plane.
3. The Sunseeker II
Flying Hours 12 Hours
Year of Development
1990
Manufacturing
In 1990 the solar powered airplane Sunseeker successfully flew across the USA,
piloted by Eric Raymond. It used a small battery charged by solar cells on the wing to drive
a propeller for takeoff, and then flew on direct solar power and took advantage of soaring
conditions when possible.
28
The Sunseeker II, built in 2002, was updated in 2005-2006 with a more powerful
motor, larger wing, lithium battery packs and updated control electronics. As of Dec, 2008 it
was the only manned solar powered airplane in flying condition and is operated regularly by
Solar Flight. In 2009 it became the first solar-powered aircraft to cross the Alps, 99 years after
the first crossing of the Alps by an aircraft.
4. Centurion
Flying Hours 18 Hours
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Poli Crystalline PV
Type of Solar Panel
Cell
Flight Height 206 Feet
Year of Development
1997
Manufacturing
Developed By ERAST
The Centurion's genesis began in 1997, when a challenge to reach 100,000 ft with a
remotely piloted vehicle was given to the ERAST Program. A solar-powered airplane called
the Pathfinder which was a span loaded flying wing had proven so effective, that expanding
on this concept and all the proven technology was viewed by the ERAST Program as the
lowest risk approach toward meeting the altitude goal. Therefore the design of Centurion
resulted in an aircraft that looks very much like the Pathfinder but had a much longer
wingspan of 206 ft. Although the Centurion shape resembles the Pathfinder, the structure was
designed to be stronger and capable of carrying numerous payloads (up to 600 lbs.) more
efficiently.
The aircraft arrived at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center in September of 1997 to
begin preparations for its maiden flight. The initial flight test series were conducted at
altitudes no greater than 500 feet above the floor of Roger's Dry Lake and were all to be
battery powered. (Solar cells are very expensive and to reduce risk to the program it was
decided early on that they would not be installed until the airplane configuration is thoroughly
tested.) The aircraft showed up with 14 motors and weighed in at 1,385 lbs (including a 150
lb. steel anvil hanging on its centerline to simulate a payload) for it's first flight. The maiden
flight took place on November 10 and lasted a total of 1 hr and 24 minutes.
29
but it appears that all major objectives were successfully met with these three flights and the
Centurion is operating as designed.
The next step for Centurion was the addition of a 6th wing panel to bring the overall
wingspan up to 250 ft. This was being done primarily because although Centurion is designed
to reach 100,000ft, the primary goal for solar powered aircraft is to someday fly at high
altitudes for months at a time. Rather than building a separate aircraft, the Centurion would be
slowly modified over the years into what is called the "Helios" Prototype in order to save
money. The Helios Prototype would perform the 100,000ft flight and then be modified into an
aircraft capable of performing a long duration flight demonstration of 100 hours. The
Centurion was designed, built and test flown by AeroVironment with support from the NASA
ERAST Program Office, Dryden Flight Research Center and Langley Research Center.
Solar Impulse is a Swiss long-range solar powered aircraft project being undertaken at
the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. The project eventually hopes to achieve the
first circumnavigation of the Earth by a pilotedfixed-wing aircraft using only solar power. The
project is led by Swiss psychiatrist and aeronaut Bertrand Piccard, who co-piloted the first
balloon to circle the world non-stop, and Swiss businessman Andre Borschberg.
The first aircraft, bearing the Swiss aircraft registration code of HB-SIA, is a single-
seater monoplane, capable of taking off under its own power, and intended to remain airborne
up to 36 hours. This aircraft first flew an entirediurnal solar cycle, including nearly 9 hours of
night flying, in a 26-hour flight on 7–8 July 2010. Building on the experience of this
prototype, a slightly larger follow-on design (HB-SIB) is planned to make
a circumnavigation of the globe in 20–25 days. This flight was initially planned for 2014, but
following a structural failure of the aircraft's main spar during static testing, a more likely date
is 2015.
General characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 21.85 m (71.7 ft)
Wingspan: 63.4 m (208 ft)
Height: 6.40 m (21.0 ft)
30
Wing area: 11,628 photovoltaic cells: 200 m2 (2,200 sq ft)
Loaded weight: 1,600 kg (3,500 lb)
Max. takeoff weight: 2,000 kg (4,400 lb)
Powerplant: 4 × electric motors, powered by lithium-ion batteries (450 kg), providing 7.5 kW
(10 HP) each
Take-off speed: 35 kilometres per hour (22 mph)
Performance
Cruise speed: 70 kilometres per hour (43 mph)
Endurance: 36 hours (projected)
Service ceiling: 8,500 m (27,900 ft) with a maximum altitude of 12,000 metres (39,000 ft)
Developed By DARPA
DARPA, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, has set a seemingly
impossible task, known as the Vulture program, by calling for an aircraft which can remain in
the sky for five years while generating five kilowatts of power for a 1,000 pound payload.
TheOdysseus by Aurora Flight Sciences, which has been selected as one promising design by
DARPA, doesn't appear capable of flight at all to many onlookers. The odd Z-shaped wing is
actually three separate machines which can change their combined shape in order to catch the
suns rays throughout the day and flatten out at night, when the Odysseus would fly on battery
power alone. Together, the three sections would span almost 500 feet. Advanced composite
materials and double-sided solar panels are employed to make the concept appear possible. If
DAPRA's vision proves successful, aerial vehicles like these could take the place of satellites
for surveillance and communications purposes.
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8. Sky Sailor
Flying Hours 24 Hours
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Type of Solar Panel 216 solar cell
WingSpan-Weight 3.2m-2.5kgs
Year of Development
Unknown
Manufacturing
The Sky-Sailor, an unmanned solar airplane prototype built at ETH Zürich, just proved the
feasibility of solar flight at constant altitude. On the 20th of June 2008 at 12h33, the 3.2
meters airplane took off from the MG Zugerland airfield in Niederwil, Switzerland. During
the afternoon, the half square meter of solar cells gave enough energy to power the motor and
at the same time completely charge the battery, while the airplane was following a circular
trajectory at 200m above ground. The night proved to be quite windy which required more
power than expected. This flight phase from dusk till dawn was particularly critical as the
only source of energy was the battery that slowly discharged.
In the early morning at 6h10, the solar panels started progressively to supply power again.
The battery, which still had 5.8% capacity, started a new charge cycle. At 15h35 on Saturday
21st, it was completely full, which demonstrated an onboard energy higher than 24h before,
proving thus continuous flight using solar energy only. The airplane landed some minutes
later after a flight of more than 27 hours. With an average speed of 32.2 km/h, it covered more
than 874 kilometers what represents more than the distance from Zurich to London. With the
exception of launching and landing, the airplane was flown completely automatically using an
autopilot developed at ETHZ specifically to be lightweight and low power consumption. The
data of the GPS, the pressure sensors and the inertial measurement unit were processed by the
onboard microcontroller that then sent orders to the ailerons, the rudder, the elevator and the
motor to keep following the trajectory. On the ground, a control station allowed to
continuously monitor the airplane status with the data sent five times per second. The
interface contained a 3D representation of the airframe on the region map, with flight
instruments showing speed, altitude, heading, etc. but also a clearview of the energy
exchanges between the solar panels, the battery and the motor. The main challenge lies in the
design and the sizing optimization of the various elements that have to be extremely
lightweight and efficient, and consume extremely low power for what concerns the
electronics. The airframe, made of composite materials, was realized by Walter Engel, a
world expert in ultra-light model airplane construction. Flexible silicon solar cells cover the
wing and supply a maximum power of 90W to the brushless motor that needs under calm
conditions only 14W to 15W for level flight. The surplus is then used to charge the lithium-
ion battery. Thus, the efficiencies all along this energy chain, from the solar panels to the
propeller have to be as high as possible. The History of solar aviation started already 34 years
ago, but with airplanes able to fly only during a very short time around noon. Then with
improvements in key technologies like solar cells, energy storage, motors and electronics, the
performances increased constantly. The objective to fly 24h using only solar energy was
achieved in 2005 inCalifornia by the Solong airplane that used not only solar panels energy
but also warm updrafts to gain altitude. In 2007, the 18 meters wingspan British prototype
Zephyr also showed continuous flight at high altitude in New Mexico. Sky-Sailor is the first
to demonstrate this ability with a wingspan of less than 4 meters at a constant altitude. This
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solar airplane project started within the framework of a study for the European Space Agency
to evaluate the feasibility of continuous solar flight on Mars. A first step was the realization of
such flight on Earth with a demonstrator prototype. That became the subject of the Phd Thesis
of André Noth, member of the Sky-Sailor project team. The thesis, which will be presented in
October 2008, tackles the problems of solar airplane design, presenting a new design
methodology that is valid for micro air vehicles of less than 1m wingspan to manned airplanes
of 80m wingspan. Such long endurance autonomous vehicle can have also numerous
applications on our planet, like traffic monitoring, border surveillance, forest fire fighting or
power line inspection.
Technical specifications
Flight Launch Friday, 20th of June 2008, 12h33m29s Landing Saturday, 21st of June 2008,
15h39m01s
Flight time 27h05m32s
Distance covered 874.4 km
Nominal flight speed 32.3 km/h (8.97 m/s)
Airplane Wingspan 3.2 m
Take-off mass 2.416 kg
Wing area 0.776 m2
Configuration 3 axis V-Tail motorized glider
Materials Carbon, Aramide, Balsa
Nominal flight speed 30.2 km/h (8.4 m/s)
Battery Type Lithium-Ion (Panasonic NCR18650)
Capacity 253 Wh
Min/Max Voltage 24 V / 33.7 V
Mass 1.056 kg
Propulsion group
Motor Brushless (LRK Strecker 228,10; 44Wdg; 0,37; 16 Mag; 440t/V)
Propeller Solariane carbone prop (Prof. Schoeberl)
Controller Jeti Advance 45 Plus
Reduction gearbox ratio 9:1
Min Electrical Power for level flight (calm atmospheric conditions) 14-15 W
Max Electrical Power (for hand launch) 120 W
Solar Panels
Cell type RWE-S-32 Thin Silicon Cells
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Number of cells 216
Max Power ~ 90 W
8. Solar Challenger
Farthest, highest and
Flying Hours longest solar powered
manned flight.
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
Type of Solar Panel Poli Crystalline PV Cell
Year of Development
1981
Manufacturing
DESIGN
The Solar Challenger was designed to be sturdier, more powerful, and more
maneuverable than the Gossamer Penguin so as to be able to withstand sustained high altitude
flight and normal turbulence. It was over three times as heavy (without pilot) as the Gossamer
Penguin and had a shorter wingspan, but was proportionately more powerful, with electricity
supplied by 16,128 solar cells powering two three-horsepower motors. The solar panels were
directly affixed to the wing and large horizontal stabilizer, both of which had to be flat on top
to accommodate them. The two motors, each 3 inches wide and 17 inches long and
incorporating samarium-cobalt permanent magnets, operated in tandem on a common shaft to
drive a single, controllable pitch propeller. The design incorporated advanced synthetic
materials with very high strength to weight ratios, including Kevlar, Nomex, Delrin, Teflon,
and Mylar, all supplied by the aircraft's sponsor, Dupont.
General characteristics
Crew: One
Length: 29 ft in (8.8 m)
Wingspan: 47 ft in (14.3 m)
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Empty weight: 200 lb (90 kg)
Powerplant: 2 × solar-powered electric motors, 3 hp (2.2 kW) each each
Performance
Maximum speed: 40 mph (64 km/h)
Service ceiling: 14,000 ft (4,270 m)
Rate of climb: 150 ft/min (0.765 m/s)
9. Pathfinder Plus
Flying Hours 35 Hours
Type of Battery Lithium-Polymer
High efficiency solar
Type of Solar Panel
cells
Flight Height 80,000 Feet
Year of Development
1983
Manufacturing
Developed By NASA
Solar arrays covering most of the upper wing surface provide power for the aircraft's
electric motors, avionics, communications and other electronic systems. Pathfinder also has a
backup battery system that can provide power for between two and five hours to allow
limited-duration flight after dark.
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was placed in storage for 10 years before being resurrected for a brief program under the
auspices of the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO) in 1993. With the addition of
small solar arrays, five low-altitude checkout flights were flown under the BMDO program at
NASA Dryden in the fall of 1993 and early 1994 on a combination of solar and battery power.
After that program was ended, the aircraft was adopted into NASA's newly-
established Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) project in late
1994. After further flight tests at Dryden that year, additional solar cells were added,
eventually covering most of the upper surface of the wing. Pathfinder was then brought back
for another series of development flights at NASA Dryden in 1995. On Sept. 11, 1995,
Pathfinder reached an altitude of 50,500 feet, setting a new altitude record for solar-powered
aircraft. The National Aeronautic Association presented the NASA-industry team with an
award for one of the "10 Most Memorable Record Flights" of 1995.
After additional upgrades and one checkout flight at Dryden in late 1996, Pathfinder
was transported to the U.S. Navy's Pacific Missile Range Facility (PMRF) at Barking Sands,
Kaua'i, Hawaii, in April, 1997. Kaua'i was chosen as an optimum location for testing the
solar-powered Pathfinder due to predictable weather patterns, high levels of sunlight,
available airspace and radio frequencies and the diversity of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems
for validating scientific imaging applications. While in Hawaii, Pathfinder flew seven high-
altitude flights from PMRF, one of which reached a world altitude record for propeller-driven
as well as solar-powered aircraft of 71,530 feet.
During 1998, the Pathfinder was modified into the longer-winged Pathfinder-Plus
configuration. On Aug. 6, 1998, the modified aircraft was flown to a record altitude of 80,201
feet for propeller-driven aircraft on the third of a series of developmental test flights from
PMRF on Kaua'i. The goal of the flights was to validate new solar, aerodynamic, propulsion
and systems technology developed for the Pathfinder's successor, the Centurion/Helios
Prototype, which was designed to reach and sustain altitudes in the 100,000-foot range.
Essentially a transitional vehicle between the Pathfinder and the follow-on solar
wings, thePathfinder-Plus is a hybrid of the technology that was employed on Pathfinder and
developed for Centurion/Helios.
The most noticeable change is the installation of a new 44-foot-long center wing
section that incorporates a high-altitude airfoil designed for Centurion/Helios. The new
section is twice as long as the original Pathfinder center section and increases the overall
wingspan of the craft from 98.4 feet to 121 feet. The new center section is topped by more-
efficient silicon solar cells developed by SunPower Corp., Sunnyvale, Calif., that can convert
almost 19 percent of the solar energy they receive to useful electrical energy to power the
craft's motors, avionics and communication systems.,That compares with about 14 percent
efficiency for the older solar arrays that cover most of the surface of the mid- and outer wing
panels from the original Pathfinder. Maximum potential power was boosted from about 7,500
watts on Pathfinder to about 12,500 watts on Pathfinder-Plus.
In addition, the Pathfinder-Plus is powered by eight electric motors, two more than
powered the previous version of Pathfinder. Designed for the Centurion/Helios Prototype
follow-on solar wings, the motors are slightly more efficient than the original Pathfinder
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motors. The Pathfinder-Plus also validated a new flight control system for the
Centurion/Helios Prototype, although only the Pathfinder's own system actually controlled the
motors and control surfaces.
Thus far, Pathfinder has flight tested two new scientific instruments, a high spectral
resolution Digital Array Scanned Interferometer (DASI) and a high spatial resolution
Airborne Real-Time Imaging System (ARTIS), both developed at Ames. These flights were
conducted at altitudes between 22,000 and 49,000 feet in 1997.
During the summer of 2002, the Pathfinder-Plus flew several demonstration missions
to confirm the practical utility of high-flying, remotely piloted, environmentally friendly solar
aircraft for commercial purposes. A two-flight series in July funded by Japanese
communications interests and AeroVironment emphasized its potential as a platform for
telecommunications relay services, and another NASA-funded demonstration in September
saw the Pathfinder-Plus soaring aloft on a NASA-sponsored coffee harvest optimization
imaging mission. Both missions were flown from PMRF on the Hawaiian island of Kaua'i.
Pathfinder in flight over California's Mojave Desert. NASA Photo.The ERAST Program
Pathfinder is one of several remotely piloted aircraft being evaluated under NASA's
Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST) program. The ERAST
program is one of NASA's initiatives designed to develop the new technologies needed to
continue America's leadership in the highly competitive aerospace industry.
37
Headquarters, and is managed by the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center.
Aircraft Specifications
Wingspan: Pathfinder 98.4 feet (29.5 meters); Pathfinder-Plus 121 feet (36.3 meters)
Length: 12 feet (3.6 meters)
Wing chord: 8 feet (2.4 meters)
Wing Aspect Ratio: Pathfinder -12 to 1;
Pathfinder-Plus-- 15 to 1
Gross weight: Pathfinder about 560 pounds
(252 kg.); Pathfinder-Plus about 700 pounds
(315 kg.).
Payload: Pathfinder—up to 100 pounds (45
kg.); Pathfinder-Plus up to 150 pounds (67.5
kg.)
Airspeed: Approx. 17-20 mph cruise.
Power: Arrays of solar cells, maximum
output: Pathfinder—about 7,500 watts;
Pathfinder-Plus—about 12,500 watts.
Motors: Pathfinder, six electric motors; Pathfinder-Plus, eight electric motors, 1.5 kW
maximum each.
Endurance: About 14 to 15 hours, daylight limited with two to five hours on backup batteries.
Glide ratio (power off): Pathfinder—18 to 1; Pathfinder-Plus—21 to 1.
Manufacturer: AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif.
Primary materials: Carbon fiber, Nomex, Kevlar, plastic sheeting and plastic foam.
Motor
The Plettenberg 20-10 has long been a very popular motor for the Logo 10 helicopter.
Given that the Logo 10 is almost identical in size and weight to the Century Swift the Orbit
would seem a natural choice for powering the Swift. In the Logo 10 the Orbit is usually
powered with a 5S lipo but for this review I thought I would run the motor at 4S and 5S. This
motor can also be powered at 6S but this will cause it to run beyond its RPM specified limit.
There are many Logo 10 owners running this motor beyond specification but I have not done
so within this review.
We have used two packs within this review, the first is the FlightPower 4S 3700 Evo and the
second is the Polyquest XP 5S 3700.
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In order to record the flight data I have used a BNB products DPR 100 in flight data recorder.
This is the latest generation of this in flight data recorder which includes RPM measurements.
The Orbit motor has been tested with the M.S. Composite 515 mm carbon blades throughout
this review.
Motor Stats
There are not many details available for the Plettenberg range of motors. However the
Orbit 20-10 has a KV of 1130 rpm/v and weighs 215 g.
Flight Performance
Initially I set the motor up to run on a 10 tooth pinion but after some flights realised
that this was not really giving me the optimum performance for 3-D flight. The head speed on
a 10 tooth pinion was peaking at around 1700 RPM when utilising the 5S pack. When using
the 4S pack head speed obviously dropped again. Although flight performance was perfectly
acceptable using the 10 tooth pinion and the Swift was very capable of some nice sports
flying and very basic 3-D the whole machine felt like it needed speeding up to get the best out
of the motor.
Therefore I fitted the 11 tooth pinion and this gave a much stronger performance with
both packs. When running 5S the head speed peaks at around 1950 RPM. This gives ample
power for most 3-D manoeuvres except those that require large amounts of collective pitch in
order to complete. As an example the Swift will tick tock on this setup but the head speed
varies between 1900 RPM & 1650 RPM. This variation in RPM means that the Swift tends to
only manage three or four good tick tock's before the head speed bogging down affects the
crispness of the maneuver.
With the 5S pack the Swift can produce some very nice smooth 3-D and providing the
emphasis is kept on smooth 3-D rather than stick banging 3-D the motor will cope very
nicely. I have been using 515 mm carbon blades with this motor and based on it's
performance I would not recommend using a larger blade size.
With the 4S pack the head speed is obviously a little slower and therefore the crispness
of the 3-D performance is less when compared to the 5S pack. However, the Orbit still does a
very good job and most of the 3-D manoeuvres possible on the larger pack are also possible
on the smaller pack. However, tick tock's are fairly laboured and lack the visual punch
possible on the larger pack. Once again providing the pilot places emphasis on smooth 3-D
and not violent 3-D the Swift can be put through a very nice 3-D display.
Flight times using the 3700 mah packs are around seven minutes or less depending on
how hard you fly the machine. For a basic 3-D flight seven minutes is achievable.
The following are some in-flight graphs from the DPR 100 showing voltage, amp
draw and RPM readings when performing a typical 3-D flight utilising the 5S pack. The first
chart just shows voltage and amperage. This is a typical 3-D flight, I performed loops, rolls,
combinations of loops and rolls, flips and tick tock's. Towards the end of the flight there are
also two autorotations. This flight had a maximum amp draw of 52 amps (no surprise that this
was during the tick tock's). The average amp draw across the flight was 21.76 amps. The
overall flight time was seven minutes 16 seconds.
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The second chart is also of a 3-D flight where I was performing very similar
manoeuvres to the chart above. The focus of this chart is the RPM measurements during the
flight.
Conclusion
The Plettenberg Orbit 20-10 is quite a versatile motor in that it will run very nicely on
either 4S or 5S. I have focused on its potential as a 5S motor when running on an 11 tooth
pinion with 515 mm carbon blades. The Orbit is neither a heavy motor or an expensive motor
and therefore I think it offers good price/performance.
If you are looking for a motor that will give you the option to start learning 3-D flight
without moving to higher voltage packs and more expensive motors then this could be a good
option. Certainly this motor will run quite happily on 4S for sport flying and basic 3-D flying.
Overall I enjoyed flying with the Orbit, it was a very predictable motor, didn't run too
hot and produced a respectable performance. I wouldn't hesitate to recommend this motor to a
pilot looking to progress their skills without investing heavily in more expensive equipment.
This motor would also make a very good first motor for a beginner as it has the ability to
grow with the pilot has their ability improves.
Solar Panels A Solar panel's output is rated in Watts. This rating is the amount of power the
solar panel would be expected to produce in Standard Testing Conditions (STC) of sunlight
intensity 1000w/metre at 25 degrees centigrade.
Obviously, differing geographical locations receive differing quantities of average peak sun
hours per day. That is why it is so important to ensure that your panels are directed to where
the sun will shine on them the most ( in the UK this is normally south facing at around a 45
degree pitch) and with no shading. Lets say that we are, on a daily average, obtaining 4.5
hours of STC sunlight per day and we have an 120w. Thus, we would be generating 540W.H
per day. The rated terminal voltage of a solar panel is usually between 17-22 volts, but
through the use of a regulator, this voltage is reduced to around 13 or 14 volts as required for
safe battery charging. Solar panel output is affected by the solar cell operating temperature.
Panels are rated at a nominal temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. The output of a solar panel
can be expected to vary by 0.25% for every 5 degrees variation in temperature. As the
temperature increases output decreases.
Solar panels are devices that convert light into electricity. They are called "solar" panels
because most of the time, the most powerful source of light available is the Sun, called Sol by
astronomers. Some scientists call themphotovoltaics which means, basically, "light-
electricity."
40
Figure from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory Deep Space One Web Site:
http://nmp.jpl.nasa.gov/ds1/
A solar panel is a collection of solar cells. Lots of small solar cells spread over a large
area can work together to provide enough power to be useful. The more light that hits a cell,
the more electricity it produces, so spacecraft are usually designed with solar panels that can
always be pointed at the Sun even as the rest of the body of the spacecraft moves around,
much as a tank turret can be aimed independently of where the tank is going.
Solar panels convert 22% of their available energy into electrical power. This may not
sound very good, but it is much better than most solar panels. Most solar panels on people's
houses, for example, are fairly inefficient. Less than 14% of the energy that reaches them will
be converted to electricity. Solar panels are so efficient, in fact, that unless the ion propulsion
drive is running.
The solar panels are made of solar cells. A cell is a small disk of a semiconductor like
silicon. They are attached by wire to a circuit. As light strikes the semiconductor, light is
converted into electricity that flows through the circuit. As soon as the light is removed, the
solar cell stops producing power.
Thin-film solar cell manufacturers begin building their solar cells by depositing
several layers of a light-absorbing material, a semiconductor on to a substrate -- coated glass,
metal or plastic. The materials used as semiconductors don't have to be thick because they
absorb energy from the sun very efficiently. As a result, thin-film solar cells are lightweight,
durable and easy to use.
There are three main types of thin-film solar cells, depending on the type of
semiconductor used:amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium
gallium deselenide (CIGS). Amorphous silicon is basically a trimmed-down version of the
traditional silicon-wafer cell. As such, a-Si is well understood and is commonly used in solar-
powered electronics. It does, however, have some drawbacks.
One of the biggest problems with a-Si solar cells is the material used for its
semiconductor. Silicon is not always easy to find on the market, where demand often exceeds
supply. But the a-Si cells themselves are not particularly efficient. They suffer significant
degradation in power output when they're exposed to the sun. Thinner a-Si cells overcome
this problem, but thinner layers also absorb sunlight less efficiently. Taken together, these
41
qualities make a-Si cells great for smaller-scale applications, such as calculators, but less than
ideal for larger-scale applications, such as solar-powered buildings.
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(Source: Credit Suisse, Thin film Technology 2008.03)
This prevents the battery from permanent damage and reduced life expectancy. Solar
regulators are rated by the amount of current they are able to receive from the solar panel or
panels
The solar regulator must be able to handle the maximum current that can be
produced by the solar panels. Reflected sunlight and specific temperature conditions can
increase the output current of a solar panel by as much as 25% above it’s rated output current.
The solar regulator must be correctly sized in order to handle the increased current.
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A solar regulator (also known as a charge controller) is used in conjunction with a
stand alone (off grid) system, or a grid connect solar power system that incorporates a backup
battery bank. For a grid connect solar power system that doesn't use batteries, a solar regulator
is not needed.
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As an additional safety mechanism to protect the regulator, your batteries and
appliances, plus reduce fire risk, it's wise to place an appropriately rated fuse between the
solar panel and the regulator.
An 80w solar panel has a rated output current of 4.55Amps and a rated short circuit of 4.8Amps.
45
If that energy is stored, the solar battery will discharge it at the appropriate time. For
example, that time may be when it is turned on by a person, or it may come on automatically,
as with some lighting applications. The power is then drawn from the solar battery much like
it would be any other battery.
In order for you to size your solar power system correctly, you need to note the power
rating of each appliance that will be drawing power from the system.
Basing our system on a field surveying team operating off grid for a period of time:
Lamps: 1*8W 8W operating 4 hours per day 32WH (only used when switched on)
Laptop 1*50W 50W operating 4 hours per day 200WH (used to charge the laptop for later
use) 2*phones, 1*GPS 5W operating 3 hours per day 15WH (only used when charging
devices)
According to our compares and concepts we always looked for the best for project so
we tried to minimize the weight of aircraft and saving engine power then we used the lighest
materials and styrofoam. Due to dynamic rules we preferred to use spoiler and 1 meter width
was enough for aircraft. All these calculations prove that. On the other hand, we considered
our motor, propellers, battery and solar cell with calculations and features of aircraft.
Last but not least ımportant thıng we should consider thıs constraints on each calluatıon
processes .
We consider;
Weight= 4 kg
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8 Refine Specifications
Satisfy
This
constraint.
1 ml = 1.609344 km
Then ;
20 x = 1.609344 =32.609344 km
32609,344 m/h
(32609,344)/ (60x60)=9,05815111m/sec
9,058151111m/sec is the min speed we need to satisfy with our horizontal component
We consider;
Weight= 4 kg
Under these conditions we assume them 180 tall a person throw plain with 50 N/m sec ,with
30 and 45 degree (with hand)
50=1/2*(m*V^2)
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(Inıtıal velocıty ıs what can u make wıth 15- 20 km/h speed )
And if we assume
y’ =(1/2)m*g*(v+vi)^2 ,
we need
Also
A=2.68 M^2
Y3=100*25=2500cm^2
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R=red area;
G=green area;
=(1/2*4*9.81*1/2V^2) - (1.225*2.68V^2>=9.058151111
In this context
It makes
Solar Cell;
Length 4,88 ; width 1,63 inches then area=length*width=4,88*1,63=7,9544 inches
Area of one solar cell is 7,9544 inches=20,2 cm2
We know our solar cells watt which is 0,77
A. Costs Analysis
49
Product Producer Price Reference
Name
Battery Dualsky XPower 23.28$ http://www.goodluckbuy.com/dualsky-xp13003es-
1300mah-lipo-battery-pack-11-1v-3s1p-20c.html
1000 25C
REFERENCES
1) http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/
2) http://solar-panels.findthebest.com/
3) http://www.siliconsolar.com/commercial-solar-cells.html
4) http://www.siliconsolar.com/1400ma-077w-commercial-solar-cell-p-501122.html
5) http://adamone.rchomepage.com/calc_motor.htm
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