Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Money Advice Service Habit Formation and Learning in Young Children May2013
The Money Advice Service Habit Formation and Learning in Young Children May2013
and Learning in
Young Children
Dr. David Whitebread and Dr. Sue Bingham
University of Cambridge
2 Section Habit Formation and
Learning in Young Children
Contents
Introduction 3 Interventions to support acquisition of
counting concepts 18
Section 1: How do children learn and develop 4
Conservation 18
The acquisition of knowledge 4
Interventions to support acquisition of
Imitation 5
conservation concepts 18
Statistical or inductive learning 5
Concepts of exchange and equivalence 18
Controlling cognitive processes 5
Interventions to support acquisition of concepts
Metacognition 7 of exchange and equivalence 19
Language 8 Concepts of ‘earning’ and ‘income’ 19
Motivation 9 Interventions to support acquisition of concepts
of ‘earning’ and ‘income’ 19
Section 2: Who are the relevant infuencers
and what are their roles in developing The Development of Executive Functions 20
children’s behaviour? 10
Abilities to plan ahead 20
Parenting practices and parenting styles 10
Interventions to support making the concept
Teacher influences 11 of ‘future’ more tangible 20
Peer influences 12 Interventions to support giving children
experiences in choice-making 20
Media influences 12
Teachers 22
Advertising 14
School interventions shown to foster executive
Section 3: What can parents/caregivers
function development in young children 22
and teachers do to encourage positive habits
of self-regulation in young children and support Media literacy training 23
their financial understanding? 16
Conclusion 24
Parent/caregiver education 16
References 25
Shaping young children’s financial behaviours 16
Interventions to support young children’s financial
cognitive development 17
Counting 17
Habit Formation and Introduction 3
Learning in Young Children
Introduction
various situations, to control their cognitive, Several complex attentional flexibility tasks have
emotional and motivational processes, and to been developed in which the child is asked to
learn intentionally. initially follow a rule (eg: press the button when
you see a red shape) and then switch to a new
The most important executive functions include
or opposite rule (eg: press the button when you
(Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki and Howerter,
see a triangle). Virtually every study that has
2000):
looked at this and similar tasks has found age
Inhibition - being able to restrain one’s instinctive differences from 3 to 5 years in children’s ability
reactions to switch to the new rule (Carlson, 2005; Carlson
and Moses, 2001; Carlson, Moses and Breton,
Attentional
flexibility in applying ideas or rules
2002; Carlson, Moses, and Claxton, 2004; Cole
Working
memory, the ability to hold information and Mitchell, 2000; Dowsett and Livesey, 2000;
in mind while processing it. Jones Rothbart and Posner, 2003). Carlson’s
Each of these functions is vital to the processes (2005) data indicate that this ability develops
whereby children develop the metacognitive and quickly at 3 years of age: Whereas only 51% of
self-regulatory abilities which enable them to young 3s pass this task, the number jumps to
become effective learners. 76% for older 3s (Carlson, 2005), suggesting a
sudden increase in the ability to coordinate
Within the last decade, there has been much inhibition and activation during this age period.
developmental research into young children’s More difficult versions of initiating–suppressing
executive functioning and how these basic tasks includes ‘games’ like Simon Says (Murray
processes enable flexible learning (Kochanska, and Kochanska, 2002), which are challenging
Barry, Jiminez, Hollatz and Woodard, 2008; Zelazo even for 4 and 5 year-olds. Such tasks are made
Muller, Frye and Marcovitch, 2003). Inhibitory difficult by increasing the prepotency of the
control is defined as the increasingly habituated dominant response. For example, Simon Says
capacity to plan, to purposefully control impulses involves inhibiting an action that the experimenter
and to suppress inappropriate behaviours both tells the child to do and demonstrates.
(Rothbart, Ahadi and Hardy, 1994). One task used Children also show a large improvement on this
to measure inhibitory control in young children task at 3 years, with 24% of young 3s, 42% of
requires them to delay gratification of a desire, by older 3s, and 67% of young 4s passing the task
suppressing a ‘prepotent’ (pre-existing and ready) (Carlson, 2005).
response. The child is required to choose between
a small reward now and a larger reward for later. Working memory is the brain system for short-
Cross-sectional studies have found age differences term retention of both visual and speech
in the number of children who choose to delay information enabling the recall of past events and
for a larger reward from 3 to 5 years (Lemmon planning for the future. It comprises a limited
and Moore, 2001; Lemmon and Moore, 2007). space in the brain which can hold information on
Not only do 4 year-olds choose the delayed, larger a temporary basis while it is processed for use in
option more often, but their choices also reflect other cognitive tasks, such as reasoning,
a consideration of size differences between the comprehension and learning (eg. Gathercole,
immediate and delayed options (Lemmon and Pickering, Ambridge and Wearing, 2004). It is
Moore, 2007). termed working memory as information is not
merely stored, but is actively processed and
Habit Formation and Section 1: How do young 7
Learning in Young Children children learn and develop?
Throughout development, as mental habits of self-talk, or as a tool for “thinking out loud.” Initially,
mind and consequent behaviours are being self-talk continues to function as a tool of social
formed, the accumulated metacognitive interaction, used in the presence of others and
knowledge derived from previous metacognitive diminishing when the child is alone. However, it
experiences leads to increasingly efficient gradually becomes a method for directing and
performance. It also ensures that cognitive effort regulating the child’s own behaviour as, by around
on an activity is increasingly smoothly co- 7 years of age, their speech becomes increasingly
ordinated, automatic and efficient, as it becomes internalised and transforms into thought, thus
more familiar and practised. Some of this allowing for self-regulated, conscious functioning
processing is conscious (mostly when unfamiliar on current tasks. Children use this as a technique
tasks are attempted) but much metacognitive for controlling both action and thought to reflect
activity happens completely without conscious on the reasons and motivations for their own
awareness. In these ways specific tendencies or behaviour (Winsler and Naglieri, 2003). Further,
dispositions become habituated into the child’s having verbal labels allows the child to keep two
mental frame of reference, observable in their things in mind at once, and being able to remember
behaviours in approaching further activities. verbal instructions enables staying on track in the
The significance of a child’s ability to monitor and task (Gordon and Olson, 1998).
regulate their own cognitions, and to develop
increasingly sophisticated metacognitive
Language also assists the young child’s
capabilities, has been demonstrated empirically
developing capacities to reflect and plan
across a wide range of human development and
by facilitating their mental consideration
areas of the educational curriculum. This includes,
of alternatives before taking action. As
for example, reasoning and problem-solving
an aid to memory, language helps the
(Kean, 2010), mathematics (de Corte, Verschaffel,
child refer backwards in time or project
Eynde, 2003), reading and text comprehension
forwards into the future, enhancing
(Maki and McGuire, 2002), memory (Reder,
learning from past experience for future
Angstadt, Cary, Ayers and Erickson, 2002) and
occasions.
motor development (Sangster-Jokic and
Whitebread, 2011). It has also been well
established for quite some time that children with It also facilitates the construction, reconstruction
learning difficulties commonly exhibit metacognitive and recombination of material in memory to form
deficits (Sugden, 1989). new concepts, ideas and solutions to problems
(Zimmerman and Schunk, 2001).
Language As the higher level processing and control systems
Developing metacognitive or ‘self-regulatory’ of the brain mature and children’s processing
abilities have been found to be crucially dependent skills become more sophisticated and efficient,
on language development. Although language they are increasingly capable of reflection on their
starts off as being a tool for social interaction, own thinking processes. Astington and Pelletier
from around 3 years of age the child begins to (2005) argue that talking about the mind focuses
guide their own behaviour by using language in the child’s attention on explicit mental explanations
Habit Formation and Section 1: How do young 9
Learning in Young Children children learn and develop?
Parenting style is largely based on the influence clear and conscious goals, or ‘classroom rules’.
of one’s own parents and culture, as well as being They are expected to delay, defer and accept
affected by both the parents’ and children’s changes without becoming aggressive or
temperaments (Whitebread and Basilio, 2012). disorganised by frustration, and cope well with
Perhaps unsurprisingly, the evidence consistently high arousal, whether due to environmental
finds that the ‘authoritative’ parenting style is challenge or fatigue (Sroufe, 1995). As this
associated with a range of positive academic and socialisation proceeds during the Reception year,
well-being outcomes (eg. Grolnick, 2009). Early teachers begin to shift control to the child in age
sensitive parenting is associated with higher level and skill appropriate ways; this social competence
of children’s general abilities to regulate their requires emotion self-regulation and social
cognitive functioning (Lugo-Gill and Tamis- knowledge, pre-dispositions and specific social
LeMonda, 2008), their emotional behaviours skills (Katz and McClellan, 1997). By the age of
(Sroufe, 1996) and with a well-regulated stress seven years, teachers require the child to exhibit
physiology (Gunnar and Quevedo, 2008). increasingly sophisticated aspects of social
competence, such as overcoming shyness
Parenting practices and styles in relation to their
(Coplan and Armer, 2005) improved social skills
children’s activities in the early years have a
such as appropriate eye contact and knowing
powerful influence upon the child’s cognitive ability
when to start, prolong and curtail a conversation,
(e.g. Melhuish et al, 2001, 2008; Grolnick and
for example, as well as the ability to inhibit negative
Ryan, 1989). Practices such as reading and using
behaviours (e.g., aggression) and to comply
complex language, as well as dispositions such
increasingly with classroom display rules (Porges,
as responsiveness and warmth in interactions are
2003). Teachers of seven year old children and
all associated with improved developmental
beyond have low tolerance for behaviourally
outcomes (Bradley, 2002). Such practices and
disordered children who do not exhibit appropriate
dispositions may not only support the child to
social behaviour; they interact with these children
acquire skills directly, but also thereby develop
in a more negative, critical, and punishing manner
their motivation and disposition towards learning
(Coie and Koeppl, 1990).
in general (eg. Grolnick, 2009; Melhuish, 2010;
Love et al, 2005). The implications of this work Several observational studies of early years and
for parenting classes are discussed in a later primary school classrooms have identified
section. characteristics of classroom environments which
impact upon children’s developing self-regulatory
Teacher influences abilities. For example, Perry (1998) observed 2nd
and 3rd grade classrooms in Canada (6-8 year
Several studies have examined how children’s olds) doing literacy activities over a period of six
dispositions and behaviours in school relate to months. Based on her observations she identified
the quality of the pupil-teacher relationship. two different types of classrooms: High and Low
Throughout the challenging and novel school self-regulated learning (SRL) classrooms.
environment to which the child must adjust from
as early as 3 years of age, when they enter a High-SRL classrooms were characterised by
nursery school or class, a high quality pupil- challenging and open-ended writing activities;
teacher relationship supports the child through opportunities for children to control the level of
offering praise, encouragement, guidance, and challenge and opportunities for them to engage
discipline (Pianta, Steinberg and Rollins, 1995). in self-assessment; autonomy support through
Over the course of the academic year spent in strategy instruction and encouragement of a
Reception (4-5 years old), teachers expect children mastery-oriented approach fostering positive
to be able to increasingly regulate their frames of feelings towards challenge and emphasising
mind and behaviours appropriately in line with personal progress and mistakes as opportunities
12 Section 2: Who are the relevant influencers and what Habit Formation and
are their roles in developing children’s behaviour? Learning in Young Children
for learning. In contrast, in Low-SRL classrooms By 3 to 4 years of age, the majority of both boys’
children were more likely to be engaged in and girls’ social interactions are with members of
restricted types of activities with limited choices. the same gender (Fabes, Shepard, Guthrie and
Evaluation procedures were mainly controlled by Martin, 1997; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1987). Cross-
the adult and were similar for all students cultural research also confirms the prevalence of
emphasising performance and triggering social this pattern of social interaction (e.g., Carter, 1987).
comparison. Students in the High-SRL classrooms Through the primary school years the proportion
were more able than the students in the Low-SRL of same-gender peer preferences increases; for
classrooms to engage in systematic and strategic example, Maccoby and Jacklin (1987) reported
approaches towards the tasks, operating in a that 6 1/2 year-olds interacted with same-gender
flexible way and seeking assistance appropriately. peers 11 times more often than they interacted
Further, while the students in the High-SRL with other-gender peers.
classrooms showed prevalence of a mastery-
oriented approach (i.e. children showing intrinsic
Media Influences
motivation to engage with challenging tasks) which
was evident even in students with low ability, the In the UK, fouteen years ago, 63% of all children
students in the Low-SRL classrooms were more aged 2–18 years had a television in their bedroom,
prone to avoid engagement in challenging tasks with substantial proportions of 2-4 year olds (26%)
and to show motivational vulnerabilities (i.e. quickly and 5-7 year olds (39%) enjoying such freedom
giving up when faced with a difficulty or challenge) (Livingston and Bovill, 1999) to spend an average
Perry, Vandekamp, Mercer and Nordby, 2002). of 2½ hours each day watching TV. The Young
Significantly, the evidence further suggests that People New Media survey (Livingstone, 2002;
well self-regulated children are relatively immune Livingstone and Bovill, 2001) showed that in British
from the effects of different classroom children’s bedrooms, around the same time, 21%
environments. Poorly self-regulated children, on of 6-17 year olds had a video recorder, while 34%
the other hand, are much more dramatically had TV-linked games. Just a few years on, the
affected. ‘UK Children Go Online’ project, in updating this
work, found that 19% had internet access in their
bedroom (Livingstone and Bober, 2005). Clearly,
Peer influences the current position is likely to have developed
Success in establishing friendships is a central even further.
issue in development during the early years period
The results of several studies support the
and depends upon a child’s ability to develop an
hypothesis that childhood television viewing may
attitude of negotiation and reciprocity, to regulate
contribute to the development of attention
emotions and control behaviour appropriately in
problems and suggest that the effects may be
relation to the peer group (Eisenberg, Hofer &
long-lasting (e.g. Landhuis et al., 2007); the
Vaughan, 2007). Simply being with other children
hypothesis has been that frequent changes in
is insufficient to create social competence (Clarke-
scenes and content disrupt young children’s ability
Stewart, Gruber and Fitzgerald, 1994); inadequate,
to sustain attention. A study by Christakis,
unsuccessful or aggressive patterns of interaction
Zimmerman and Di Giuseppe, 2004 found that
may continue into adolescence. Children under
early exposure to television during critical periods
the age of 7 years still frequently require adult
of synaptic development in the brain to be
assistance to inhibit impulses, solve social
associated with subsequent attentional problems
problems and to strengthen pro-social attitudes
and a re-analysis of longitudinal data collected
as well as accommodating peers’ individual
during the 1980s (Singer, Zuckerman and Singer,
differences, other children’s desires, suggestions
1980) found a small correlation between early
or needs and to cope with frustration (Katz and
television exposure at ages one and three years
McClellan, 1997).
Habit Formation and Section 2: Who are the relevant influencers and what 13
Learning in Young Children are their roles in developing children’s behaviour?
and subsequent symptoms of attention problems In 2012, Nesta commissioned the London
at age seven (Obel et al., 2004). In another study, Knowledge Lab (LKL) and Learning Sciences
early exposure to violent and non-educational Research Institute (LSRI), University of
entertainment programming was positively Nottingham, to analyse how technology has
associated with later symptoms of attention deficit been used in the UK education systems and
but exposure to educational television was not lessons from around the world, in order to
related to attentional problems (Mistry, Minkovitz, better understand the impact on learning
Strobino and Borzekowski, 2007). experiences. The researchers examined 1,022
academic papers, multiple blogs and reviews
Several studies have found that academic
from the UK, continental Europe, America
achievement is linked to early exposure to
and Asia. From this pool they identified 124
educational television programming (Bryant,
research and 86 teacher–led example cases
Alexander and Brown, 1983; Fisch, 2004); these
of innovation which were backed by sound
studies demonstrated immediate and potentially
evidence. Starting from a focus upon the
long-lasting effects of some educational
types of learning that children do in
programmes on problem-solving skills, especially
classrooms, (such as ‘learning through
for regular viewers of the programmes. Another
making’, ‘learning through enquiry’) the
extensive study reported that viewing educational
researchers asked whether technologies are
programming at age five was positively associated
making learning more effective. The report
with high school grades in English, maths, and
acknowledges that empirical evidence relating
science (Anderson et al, 2001); Early exposure to
to the ‘success’ of digital technology in
educational programming was also positively
classrooms is embryonic and that an early
linked with a range of other factors such as leisure
mistake, that of ‘putting the technology before
time reading and involvement in extracurricular
the pedagogy’ has led to technological
activities.
development for commercial reasons in some
Of course, there are dangers in attributing causal cases. Nonetheless, Decoding Learning
links from these studies of TV viewing and various (Luckin et al, 2012) finds evidence of much
measures of ability and achievement. It could high quality technology supporting effective
easily be, for example, that watching large amounts learning; that emerging technologies show
of ‘entertainment’ or ‘educational’ TV are the potential to have strong effects upon
associated with a range of other parenting and attainment when used to enhance and link
home environment factors, and it is these, rather proven learning practices; but that the overall
than the TV viewing per se, that have an influence potential of effective digital technologies in
on subsequent development. schools will be realised primarily through
innovative teaching practice. The report
concludes that success will come from
There is little evidence of significant commercial developers, researchers, teachers
success in improving children’s and learners working together to develop,
educational outcomes through the use test and spread imaginative new technologies
of digital technologies in schools, in (Luckin et al, 2012, p. 63).
spite of the fact that between 2007 and
2012 more than £1 billion was spent on
items ranging from interactive
whiteboards to tablets in classrooms.
14 Section 2: Who are the relevant influencers and what Habit Formation and
are their roles in developing children’s behaviour? Learning in Young Children
Advertising
Advertising influences preschool and primary On the other hand, because of their
school-aged children on many levels, including increased spending power, children
the relatively immediate product-persuasion and youth have become a valuable
effects intended by the advertiser, as well as more target market for advertisers; web sites
cumulative types of influences that accrue from and other forms of new-media content
exposure to large numbers of commercials over specifically designed for teens and
time. Being able to recognise that advertisements children, have burgeoned in recent
differ from programmes appears to emerge early years.
on in development, but young children do not
realise that a message can portray only positive
There is growing criticism over the ways in which
information, whilst withholding negative
children’s rights to privacy may be violated by
information, in order to manipulate another’s
online advertising and unfair or deceptive practices
mental state (Aloise-Young, 1993; Bennett and
and concerns have been voiced relating to the
Yeeles, 1990). Further, there is evidence that
‘commercial’ dangers of the internet, such as the
young children do not question the authoritative
rise of user data–collection practices, and the
status of television messages, and the younger
migration of violent video games to on-line media.
the child is, the more likely they are to believe that
In the US, The Centre for Media Education has
advertisements always tell the truth (Oates, Blades
identified several new forms of online marketing
and Gunter, 2002).
practices targeted at children, including ‘branded
Dorr’s literature search (1986) found that it is only communities’ and ‘viral marketing’, and has
between 7 and 9 years of age that children expressed concern over the economic pressure
understand the persuasive intent of advertising. towards alliances between civic sites and
In a study by Gaines and Esserman (1981), only commercial ventures, believing that the increasing
1% of 4- to 5-year-olds realised that the goal of commercialization of the web could create a media
an advertisement was ‘‘to try and make you buy environment that may be harmful to children
things’’, rising to 28% in 6- to 8-year-olds. (Montgomery, 2001; Turow, 2000).
The explosive growth of the Internet is ushering Techniques are frequently employed to enhance
in a new digital media culture, but this emergence the appearance of a product of course, in digital
is seen by some as a double-edged sword for media and television advertisements – a fact which
children (Montgomery 2001). Children are adults understand and take into account when
embracing the new technologies much more assessing the product, but which young children
rapidly than adults, and it is possible that the before the age of 4 or 5 years are ‘taken in by’
power of digital technology could be harnessed (Bartsch and London, 2000). There is evidence
as a beneficial force in the lives of young people, that young children are heavily affected by product
opening up new opportunities for self-expression, factors and do not understand that appearances
learning, and community. can differ from reality (Flavell, Flavell, Gree and
Korfmacher, 1990). The ability to distinguish reality
on television from fantasy appears after the age
of 4 years (Berry and Keiko Asamen, 1993), by
which time children typically develop the
appropriate cognitive skills, including a ‘theory of
mind’.
Habit Formation and Section 2: Who are the relevant influencers and what 15
Learning in Young Children are their roles in developing children’s behaviour?
A study by Pine and Nash (2002) found that broader sociological influence and it has been
increasing amounts of commercial television argued that advertising cultivates a materialistic
watched by young children were matched by an value system in young people (e.g. Baran, Mok,
increase in the overall amount of toys requested. Land, and Kang, 1989).
In other words, there is a general effect of
advertising on children’s desires and evidence of
young children’s susceptibility to the persuasive Children who are exposed to many
intent of commercials. However, with the exception adverts are thus educated about a
of two well-established products, there was an particular lifestyle and they learn
overall lack of a relationship between the branded certain attitudes related to the role or
products requested and the frequency of televised importance of money, what products
advertisements for them. Pine and Nash are needed, how they are to be used and
interpreted this to mean that advertisements may how products are supposed to make
not have an individual impact on the under-7s, them feel. Seen thus, materialism can
but may simply contribute to a general increase be defined as the view that products
in desire. and their acquisition are the basis for
More cumulative types of influences accrue from determining one’s personal worth.
exposure to large numbers of commercials over
time (APA report, 2001). Preference for one brand Material possessions become the source of
over another can result from exposure to seeing judgment by others as well as the source of one’s
a commercial just once (Resnik and Stern, 1977; own self-evaluation. In the US, Adler et al. (1980)
Goldberg and Gorn, 1978), although stronger found stronger materialistic values among fourth
effects are more likely to result from repeated to seventh graders who were heavy television
exposure (Gorn and Goldberg, 1982). Both Atkin viewers than among their lighter-viewing
(1978) and Galst and White (1976) found that the classmates. In addition, Bachmann, Roedder &
amount of television viewing was a significant Rao (1993) found that as children progress from
predictor of the frequency of children’s product- early childhood to adolescence, they develop an
purchase requests at the supermarket; 75% of awareness that peer groups are an important
all parent–child exchanges about products were influence in some types of product decisions.
child demands for merchandise advertised on
television. This pattern has been observed more
recently in other countries as well; Buijzen and However, children under 8 years had
Valkenburg (2000) reported that Dutch children’s not yet developed an understanding of
requests for Christmas gifts were significantly the social significance of using products
related to their television viewing and cross-cultural in different contexts, nor of the
research comparing families from Japan, England, difference between luxuries and
and the United States has demonstrated a positive necessities.
relationship between children’s amount of
television viewing and their product-purchase
requests (Robertson, Ward, Gatignon, & Klees,
1989). The cumulative impact from the amount
of advertising seen by children may exert far
16 Section 3: What can parents/caregivers and teachers do Habit Formation and
to encourage positive habits of self-regulation in young Learning in Young Children
children and support their financial understanding?
For example, when a child first receives ‘pocket Lau 1998; Roos et al. 2005). Social context also
money’, or first deposits money in a piggy shapes economic beliefs, attitudes, and values,
bank, he or she is probably being encouraged leading to different levels of knowledge and
and led by a significant adult (parent, financial behaviour (Bowman, 2010). The
grandparent) and it is the social and emotional delineation and abstraction of the specific set of
motivations for interaction which instigate these structures and processes involved in many
behaviours. financial behaviours may be attempted when
further cognitive maturation has been achieved.
The enjoyment of doing something
with the parent, the familiar habit of Interventions to support
the weekly shopping trip or the feeling young children’s financial
of mastery in participating in “adult” cognitive development
activities like going to the bank, provide
As we have seen, the ability of very young children
sufficient meaning and motive for
to understand concepts - including basic financial
young children.
concepts - is dependent upon their cognitive
development. Interventions and policies intended
It is suggested that interventions to introduce or to shape or ‘lever’ children’s habit formation, need
change young children’s financial behaviours to take into account the different level of cognition
should take advantage of such motivations. among young children, since pitched too high,
Children develop financial and economic they may have little educational impact or, at worst,
understanding when they have ‘‘personal may confuse or mislead children.
economic experiences’’ (Schug and Birkey 1985,
p. 41). For example, sources and amounts of
money that children control influence their learning By the age of seven years, several basic
(Doss Marlowe and Godwin, 1995; Furnham 1999; concepts relating broadly to later
Meeks 1998). If parents and teachers support ‘finance’ behaviours will typically have
and model specific decision-making, it is probable developed. These are outlined below.
that children will engage in the behaviour and
potentially develop such financial habits (Beutler
and Dickson 2008; Furnham and Argyle 1998).
Counting
Very young children can often be seen counting
In a wide-ranging review of financial objects in a set more than once and either
socialization in families, Rettig and stopping arbitrarily or not knowing when to stop.
Mortenson (1986) found evidence that Between 2 and 3 years of age, children are able
children learn from observation, to distinguish counting words from other labelling
instruction, and practice. terms (Wynne, 1990) and by four, many children
are able to express counting concepts (Gelman
Although young children under the age of seven and Merk, 1986) such as one-to-one
years are unlikely to develop sophisticated correspondence (understanding that when
understanding or conceptions about the counting a set of objects, each object needs to
processes underpinning such practices, they do be counted); stable order (knowing that numbers
develop a limited understanding relating to why are stated in the same order all the time); order
they are done, and how they are effective (Holden, irrelevance (the order does not matter as long as
Kalish, Scheinholtz, Dietrich and Novak, 2009).; each object is counted once; abstraction (that
18 Section 3: What can parents/caregivers and teachers do Habit Formation and
to encourage positive habits of self-regulation in young Learning in Young Children
children and support their financial understanding?
required to understand that “money” and goods until children reach early adolescence. Younger
can be exchanged through credit cards and children especially are unlikely to understand an
cheques, which are not themselves the “money” allowance as a form of wage, although they become
behind the exchange but ‘represent’ value. aware that adults work for payment (a ‘wage’).
However, it is probably not until after the age of
seven that children begin to understand that Interventions to support
exchanges involve a set of unseen transactions
among other parties (de Clercq, 2009). acquisition of concepts of
‘earning’ and ‘income’
Interventions to support Talking about the different types of work that
acquisition of concepts of adults do, and the different amounts of money
exchange and equivalence that are awarded for different types of work, is a
valuable way to raise children’s awareness of
Since some young children have difficulties
‘earnings’. Allowing the child to take on small-
understanding that money needs to be ‘given up’
scale ‘jobs’ around the home for pocket money
in a transaction, it may be helpful for parents and
may be a method of adults bringing to life for
teachers to initiate situations in which the child is
children the concept of ‘earning’ money, or in
encouraged to use real money to make purchases
other words, giving up time and effort for a
– in order to teach the lesson that money can be
monetary reward. As children age, they have
spent only once. Often a young child might expect
more experiences in this realm, thus more
to have more sweets after buying and eating up
opportunities to fine-tune their understanding.
their packet, or they might expect to be able to
Children will probably experience an occasion on
change their minds about a purchase and have
which they themselves, or a parent, may not be
something different without paying out more
able to afford a particular purchase or else might
money for it. Parents can make special ‘one
not be able to obtain money when they require
pound’ shopping trips to reinforce this concept
it. ‘Window-shopping’ provides good opportunities
of exchange; giving the child one pound to spend
to discuss facts relating to not being able to afford
in the toy or sweet shop means that the child will
everything that is wanted, but that another
need to focus carefully on choosing which item
individual possibly can. These experiences
they really want, so they will not be disappointed
provide a salutary environment in which to reason
later – and then giving their pound up for it. That
about equality or inequality in the economic world
pound is then ‘gone for good’.
and perhaps even fairness or justness.
Concepts of ‘earning’
and ‘income’
Many children receive a regular “income” in the
form of ‘pocket money’ and thereby, many children’s
understanding of income is shaped by this cultural
practice. For young children, pocket money is often
seen as a sign of parental approval, or a way of
being kind; Yamamoto and Takahashi (2008) found
that the financial significance of ‘pocket money’ (i.e.
a grant of money) does not become understood
20 Section 3: What can parents/caregivers and teachers do Habit Formation and
to encourage positive habits of self-regulation in young Learning in Young Children
children and support their financial understanding?
Several studies have shown that younger children money may have been saved up. Opportunities
can be helped to make choices in delay of to explain the bigger financial picture can be taken
gratification situations if they are taught strategies by parents in the daily decisions about how to
to help deal with the delay. Such findings offer spend time; for example, going to see a film
bases for parents or teachers in supporting involves not just the price of admission, but petrol
children in choosing between having and spending for the car, popcorn or snacks and drinks, time
money immediately, or saving it for later spending and energy. This will help children be more aware
instead. For example, if the child is taught when making financial decisions. Understanding
‘distraction techniques’ to take their mind off the the concept of borrowing can be supported by
desirable immediate choice (or the most attractive parent and child actively borrowing an item, paying
characteristic of that choice) they find it less for the opportunity to loan the item and then later
difficult to delay (Mischel, Shoda and Rodriguez, returning it (e.g. a book from the library or a hiring
1989). So parents can distract the child from their video from a shop).
immediate desires to spend by helping them to
In summary, since they are dependent upon
plan and think about an attractive alternative (such
parents and have few property or monetary
as going for a bike ride), which might help them
resources that they control independently, a
overcome any inclination to make an impulse
‘lever’ aiming to teach young children explicit
decision. Alternatively, the adult might direct the
forms of financial ‘curriculum’ knowledge, is
child’s attention towards the specific item of desire
likely to be ineffectual in shaping or changing
in order to influence the child’s decision making
their behaviours.
as a strategy to delay gratification; for example
making a game of focussing upon the design of
money notes and encouraging the child to collect However, there are basic approaches
one of each of a five pound note, a ten pound and skills which can be modelled,
note and so on, so that they can see the different discussed and demonstrated by parents
images on each. with young children, such as the basic
benefits and tools of sharing, saving,
Shopping experiences help to demonstrate buying
and purchasing that will instil efficient
decisions to children. A young child might help
habits and practices.
their parent compile a shopping list of needed
items for the home; lists help people to prioritise
what is needed (sometimes in preference to what A key point here is that situations need to be
is desired) and they help people to plan how much constructed so that the child experiences the
to spend – thereby helping them not to overspend. process or idea rather than just being told
The child may enjoy accompanying the parent to about it.
the shop. Becoming aware of price labels on
items, comparing prices, choosing items which
are less expensive or that are ‘on sale’, deciding
which size packet to buy, how many packets and
how much money to spend in total may be
decisions in which the child can observe or
participate. An important financial lesson may
present itself; that if there is not enough money
to buy a certain item, a decision between two
choices then becomes necessary by the shopper,
who needs to opt either to buy a less expensive
item or wait until another occasion, when enough
22 Section 3: What can parents/caregivers and teachers do Habit Formation and
to encourage positive habits of self-regulation in young Learning in Young Children
children and support their financial understanding?
Conclusion
References
Adler, R. P., Lesser, G. S., Merengoff, L., Bandura, A. (2001) Social Cognitive Theory: An
Robertson, T. S., Rossiter, J. R., and Ward, S. Agentic Perspective. Annual Review of
(1980). Research on the effects of television Psychology 52, p. 1-26
advertising on children. Lexington, MA:
Baran, S. J., Mok, J. J., Land, M., and Kang, T. Y.
Lexington Books
(1989). You are what you buy: Mass-mediated
Aloise-Young, P.A. (1993). The development of judgments of people’s worth. Journal of
self-presentation: Self-promotion in 6- to Communication, 39(2), 46-54.
10-year-old children. Social Cognition, 11, 201–
Bartsch, K., and London, K. (2000). Children’s
222.
use of mental state information in selecting
Alloway, T., Gathercole, S., Willis, C., and Adams, persuasive arguments. Developmental
A. (2004). A structural analysis of working Psychology, 36, 352-365.
memory and related cognitive skills in young
Baumrind, D. (1971) Current patterns of parental
children. Journal of Experimental Child
authority. Developmental Psychology, Vol 4, pp.
Psychology, 87, 85–106.
1–103
Anderson, D. R et al. (2001): Early Childhood
Bennett, M., and Yeeles, C. (1990). Children’s
television viewing and adolescent behavior.
understanding of the self presentational
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child
strategies of ingratiation and self-promotion.
Development. Vol. 66 No.1, P. 264.
European Journalof Social Psychology, 20, 455–
Allen, G. (2011) Early intervention: The next steps 461.
Cabinet Office, London, UK
Berry, G.L., and Keiko Asamen, J. (1993).
APA American Psychology Association (2004): Children and television: Images in a changing
Report of the APA taskforce on advertising and sociocultural world. London: Sage
children.
Berti, A. E., and Bombi, A. S. (1988). The child’s
Astington, J. W. and Pelletier, J. (2005). Theory of construction of economics (G. Duveen, Trans.).
Mind, language, and learning in the early years: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Developmental origins of school readiness. In
Beutler, I., and Dickson, L. (2008) Consumer
The Development of Social Cognition and
economic socialization. In J. J. Xiao (ed.).
Communication. (Eds). B.D. Homer and C.S.
Handbook of Consumer Finance Research
Tamis-LeMonda. Routledge (p. 205-230)
(pp.83-102). New York: Springer
Atkin, C. (1978). Observation of parent–child
Black, P. and William, D. (1998) Inside the Black
interaction in supermarket decision-making.
Box: raising standards through classroom
Journal of Marketing, 42, 41-45
assessment, London: Kings College School of
Bachmann, G.R., Roedder John, D. Rao, A.R. Education.
(1993) ,”Children’s Susceptibility to Peer Group
Blair, C. and Razza, R.P. (2007) Relating effortful
Purchase Influence: an Exploratory
control, executive function, and false belief
Investigation”, in Advances in Consumer
understanding to emerging math and literacy
Research Volume 20, eds. Leigh McAlister and
abilities in kindergarten. Child Development, 78:
Michael L. Rothschild, Advances in Consumer
p. 647-663
Research Volume 20 : Association for Consumer
Research, Pages: 463-468.
26 References Habit Formation and
Learning in Young Children
Bodnar, J. (2005). Raising money-smart kids: Cantor, J., and Wilson, B. J. (1984). Modifying
What they need to know about money and how fear responses to mass media in preschool and
to tell them. Chicago: Kaplan Business elementary school children. Journal of
Broadcasting, 28, 431-443.
Boekaerts, M., De Koning, E., and Vedder, P.
(2006). Goal directed behaviour and contextual Carlson, S. (2005). Developmentally sensitive
factors in the classroom: An innovative approach measures of executive function in preschool
to the study of multiple goals. Educational children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28,
Psychologist, 41(1), 33–54. 595–616.
Boush, D. M. (2001). Mediating advertising Carlson, S.M. and Moses, L.J. (2001) Individual
effects. In J. Bryant and J. A. Bryant (Eds.), differences in inhibitory control and children’s
Television and the American family (2d ed., pp. theory of mind. Child Development 72, p. 1032 –
397-412). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 1053
Bowman, S. W. (2010). Multigenerational Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., and Breton, C.
interactions in Black middle class wealth and (2002). How specific is the relation between
asset decision making. Journal of Family and executive function and theory of mind?
Economic Issues Contributions of inhibitory control and working
memory. Infant and Child Development, 11, 73–
Bradley, R. (2002) Environment and parenting. In
92.
M. Bornstein (Ed) Handbook of parenting.
Hillsdale NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Carlson, S.M., Moses, L.J. and Claxton, L.J.
(2004) Individual difference in executive
Brown, J. A. (1991). Television “critical viewing
functioning and theory of mind: an investigation
skills” education: Major media literacy projects in
of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal
the United States and selected countries.
of experimental child psychology 87, p. 299-319
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Carter, D. B. (1987). The roles of peers in sex role
Brown, D. A. (2001). Media literacy and critical
socialization. In D. B. Carter (Ed.), Current
television viewing in education. In D. G. Singer
conception of sex roles and sex typing (pp. 101—
and J.L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and
121). New York: Praeger
the media (pp. 681-697). Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Chen, Z. and Siegler, R. S. (2000) Across the
Bryant, J., Alexander, A., and Brown, D. (1983).
Great Divide: Bridging the Gap Between
Learning from educational television programs.
Understanding of Toddlers’ and Older Children’s
In M. J. Howe (Ed.), Learning from television:
Thinking. Monographs of the Society for
Psychological and educational research.
Research in Child Development 65(2, Serial No.
London: Academic Press.
261).
Buijzen, M., and Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). The
Christakis, D.A. (2004) ‘Early television exposure
impact of television advertising on children’s
and subsequent attentional problems in
Christmas wishes. Journal of Broadcasting and
children’, Pediatrics, 113 (4): 708–13
Electronic Media, 44, 456-470
Coie J, Koeppl G. (1990) Adapting intervention to
Bull, R., Espy, K., and Senn, T. (2004). A
the problems of aggressive and disruptive
comparison of performance on the Towers of
rejected children. In: Asher S, Coie J, editors.
London and Hanoi in young children. Journal of
Peer rejection in childhood. Cambridge
Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 743–754.
University Press; New York: 1990. pp. 309-337
Habit Formation and References 27
Learning in Young Children
Cole, K., and Mitchell, P. (2000). Siblings in the training programmes. Educational Research
development of executive control and a theory of Review, 3, p. 101-129.
mind. British Journal of Developmental
Dorr, A. (1986). Television and children: A special
Psychology, 18, 279–295.
medium for a special audience. Beverley Hills,
Collins, W. A. (1983). Interpretation and inference CA: Sage
in children’s television viewing. In J. Bryant and
Doss, V. S., Marlowe, J., and Godwin, D. D.
D. R. Anderson (Eds.), Children’s understanding
(1995). Middle school children’s sources and
of television (pp. 125-150). New York: Academic
uses of money. The Journal of Consumer Affairs,
Press.
29(1), 219–241.
Coplan, R. J., and Armer, M. (2005). ‘Talking
Dowsett, S. M., & Livesey, D. J. (2000). The
yourself out of being shy’: Shyness, expressive
development of inhibitory control in
vocabulary, and adjustment in preschool. Merrill-
preschool children: Effects of “executive skills”
Palmer Quarterly, 51, 20–41.
training. Developmental Psychobiology, 36,
Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (Eds) (2008). Learning & 161–174.
Leading with Habits of Mind: 16 essential
Dweck, C. S. (2000) Self-Theories: their role in
characteristics for success. Association of
motivation, personality and development.
Supervision and Curriculum Development:
Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
Alexandria, VA, USA. Retrieved December 17
2012 from www.asdc.org Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T.L. and Morris, A.S.
(2002) Regulation, resiliency and quality of social
Clarke-Stewart, K. A., Gruber, C. P., and
functioning. Self and Identity, 1, p.121-128
Fitzgerald, L. M. (1994). Children at home and in
day care. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., and Vaughan, J. (2007)
Effortful control and its socio- emotional
Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic
consequences In J.J. Gross (Ed) The Handbook
motivation and self-determination in human
of emotion regulation. p. 3-24 New York: Guilford
behaviour. New York: Plenum Press.
Espy, K., and Bull, R. (2005). Inhibitory processes
Deci, E.L., Connell, J.P. and Ryan, R. M (1989)
in young children and individual variation in short-
Self-Determination in a Work Organization.
term memory. Developmental
Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 74, No. 4,
Neuropsychology,28, 669–688.
580-590
Ewing-Cobbs, L., Prasad, M., Landry, S., and
de Clercq, B. (2009). Do our children know
Kramer, L. (2004). Executive functions following
anything about money? An exploratory study.
traumatic brain injury in young children: A
Meditari Accountancy Research, 17(1), 1–13.
preliminary analysis. Developmental
De Corte, E., Verschaffel, L., and Op’t Eynde, P. Neuropsychology, 26, 487–512.
(2003). Self regulation: a characteristic and goal
Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S., Guthrie, I., and Martin,
of self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P.
C. L. (1997). The roles of temperamental arousal
Pintrich, and M. Zeidner (Eds) Handbook of Self
and same-sex play in children’s social
Regulation. Academic Press: San Diego p.687-
adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 33,
747
693-702.
Dignath,C., Buettner, G. and Langfeldt, H-P.
(2008) How can Primary school students learn
self-regulated learning strategies most
effectively? A meta-analysis of self-regulation
28 References Habit Formation and
Learning in Young Children
Feshbach, S., Feshbach, N. D., and Cohen, S. E. Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B.,
(1982). Enhancing children’s discrimination in Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working
response to television advertising: The effects of memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental
psychoeducational training in two elementary Psychology 40 (2), p. 177–190
school-age groups. Developmental Review, 2,
Gathercole, S. (1998). The development of
385-403.
memory. Journal of Child Psychology and
Fisch, S. M. (2004). Children’s learning from Psychiatry, 39, 3–27.
educational television: Sesame Street and
Gelman, R. and Merk, E. (1986) Young children’s
beyond. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
numerical competence. Cognitive Development
Associates.
Vol 1 (1)
Flavell, J.H., Flavell, E.R., Gree, F.L., and
Goldberg, M., and Gorn, G. (1978). Some
Korfmacher, J.E. (1990). Do young children think
unintended consequences of TV advertising to
of television images as pictures or as real
children. Journal of Consumer Research, 5, 22-
objects? Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic
29.
Media, 34, 399–417.
Gordon, A.C.L. and Olsen, D.R. (1998) The
Forman, E.A. and Cazden, C.B. (1985) ‘Exploring
Relation between Acquisition of a Theory of Mind
Vygotskian perspectives in education: the
and the Capacity to Hold in Mind. Journal of
cognitive value of peer interaction’, in J.V.
Experimental Child Psychology Vol 68 (1) p.70-
Wertsch (ed,) Culture, Communication and
83
Cognition: Vygotskian perspectives, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Goldberg, M., Gorn, G., and Gibson, W. (1978).
TV messages for snacks and breakfast foods:
Friedman, W. (2000). The development of
Do they influence children’s preferences?
children’s knowledge of the times of future
Journal of Consumer Research, 5, 73-81.
events. Child Development, 71(4), 913-932.
Goswami, U. (2008) Cognitive Development: The
Furnham, A. (1999) The saving and spending
Learning Brain. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology
habits of young people. Journal of Economic
Press.
Psychology 20 p. 677- 697
Grolnick, W.S. (2009) The role of parents in
Furnham, A., & Argyle, M. (1998). The psychology
facilitating autonomous self-regulation for
of money. New York: Routledge.
education. Theory and Research in Education,
Gaines, L., and Esserman, J.F. (1981). A Vol 7 pp. 164–173
quantitative study of young children’s
Grolnick, W.S. and Ryan R.M. (1989) Parent
comprehension of television programmes and
styles associated with children’s self-regulation
commercials. In J.F. Esserman
and competence in school. Journal of
(Ed.), Television advertising and children, New Educational Psychology, Vol 81, pp. 143–154
York: Child Research Service.
Gunnar, M. R., and Quevedo, K. M. (2008). Early
Galst, J., and White, M. (1976). The unhealthy care experiences and HPA axis regulation in
persuader: The reinforcing value of television and children: A mechanism for later trauma
children’s purchase influence attempts at the vulnerability. Progress in Brain Research, 167, p.
supermarket. Child Development, 47, 1089- 137–147.
1096.
Habit Formation and References 29
Learning in Young Children
Hamre, B.K. and Pianta, R.C. (2001) Early Katz, L. G., and McClellan, D. E. (1997). Fostering
teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s social competence: The teacher’s role.
children’s school outcomes through eighth Washington, DC: National Association for the
grade. Child Development ;72:625–638 Education of Young Children.
Hoffner, C., Cantor, J., and Thorson, E. (1989). Kean, R. (2010) The Development of Problem
Children’s responses to conflicting auditory and Solving in Young Children: A Critical Cognitive
visual features of a televised narrative. Human Skill. Annual Review of Psychology Vol. 62 p.
Communication Research, 16, 256-278. 1-21
Holden, K., Kalish, C., Scheinholtz, L., Dietrich, Kemps, E., Rammelaere, S., and Desmet, T.
D., and Novak, B.(2009). Financial literacy (2000). The development of working memory:
programs targeted on pre-school children: Exploring the complementarity of two models.
Development and evaluation. Credit Union Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77,
National Association (CUNA). 89–109.
Hom, H., and Fabes, R. (1985). The role of choice Kirkham, N.Z., Slemmer, J.A. and Johnson, S.P.
in children’s ability to delay gratification. Journal (2002) Visual statistical learning in infancy:
of Genetic Psychology, 146(3), 429-430. Evidence for a domain general learning
mechanism. Cognition, 83, B35-B42.
Hongwanishkul, D.,Happaney, K.R., Lee, W.S.C.
and Zelazo, P.D. (2005). Assessment of hot and Klett-Davies, M., Skaliotis, E., and Wollny, I.
cool executive function in young children: age- (2009). Mapping and analysis of parenting
related changes and individual differences.
services in England. London, UK: Family and
Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), p.617-
Parenting Institute
614
Kochanska, G., Barry, R.A., Jiminez, N.B.,
Houde, O., and Guichart, E. (2001). Negative
Hollatz, A.L. and Woodard, J (2008). Guilt and
priming effect after inhibition of number/length
Effortful Control: Two Mechanisms that Prevent
interference in a Piaget-like task. Developmental
Disruptive Developmental Trajectories. Journal
Science, 4, 119–123
of Personality and Social Psychology 97(2), p.
Hutchings, J., Gardner, F., and Lane, E. (2004). 322-333
Making evidence-based interventions work. In
Ladd, G.W. and Burgess, K.B. (2001) Do
C. Sutton, D. Utting, and D. Farrington (Eds.),
relational risks and protective factors moderate
Support from the start: Working with young
the linkages between childhood aggression and
children and their families to reduce the risks of
early psychological and school adjustment?
crime and anti-social behaviour. Research
Child Development 72(5):1579-601
report, 524. Norwich, UK: Department for
Education and Skills. Landhuis C.E. et al. (2007) ‘Does early childhood
television viewing lead to attention problems in
Jones, L., Rothbart, M., and Posner, M. (2003).
adolescence? Results from a prospective
Development of executive attention in preschool
longitudinal study’, Pediatrics, 120 (3): 532–7
children. Developmental Science, 6, 498–504.
Lau, S. (1998). Money: What it means to children
John, D.R. (1999) Consumer Socialization of
and adults. Social Behaviour and Personality,
Children: A Retrospective Look At
26(3), 297–306.
Twenty-Five Years of Research. Journal of
Consumer Research Vol 26 (3) pp. 183-213
30 References Habit Formation and
Learning in Young Children
Leat, D. and Lin, M. (2003) ‘Developing a Luckin, R., Bligh, B., Manches, A., Ainsworth, S.,
pedagogy of metacognition and transfer: some Crook, C. and Noss, R. (2012) Decoding
signposts for the generation and use of Learning: The Proof, Promise and Potential of
knowledge and the creation of research Digital Education. Nesta; London. Accessed at
partnerships’, British Educational Research http://w w w.nesta.org.uk /assets/features/
Journal, 29(3): 383-416. Decoding_Learning
Lemmon, K. and Moore, C. (2007) The Lugo-Gill, J. and Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2008)
development of prudence in the face of varying Family resources and parenting quality: links to
future rewards. Developmental Science Vol 10 children’s cognitive development across the first
(4),p 502–511 three years. Child Development 79, p. 1065-
1085
Lemmon, K., and Moore, C. (2001). Binding the
self in time. In C. Moore and K. Lemmon (Eds.), Maccoby, E. E., and Jacklin, C. N. (1987). Sex
The self in time: Developmental perspectives segregation in childhood. In H. W. Reese (Ed.),
(pp. 163–179). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Advances in child development and behaviour
Associates. (Vol. 20, pp. 239-288). New York: Academic
Press.
Livingstone, S., and Bovill, D. (1999). Social
perspectives: Have the media ruined childhood? Maki, R.H. and McGuire, M.J. (2002).
Interactions, 6, 36–41. Metacognition for text: findings and implications
for education. In T. Perfect and B. Schwartz
Livingstone, S. (2002). Young People and New
(Eds) Applied Metacognition. Cambridge
Media: Childhood and the Changing Media
Environment. London: Sage. Meeks, C.B. (1998) Factors Influencing
Adolescents’ Income and Expenditures. Journal
Livingstone, S., and Bovill, M. (Eds.). (2001).
of Family and Economic issues. Vol 19 (2) p. 131-
Children and their Changing Media Environment:
150
A European Comparative Study. Mahwah, N.J.:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Melhuish, E.C. (2010) Impact of the Home
Learning Environment; the Secondary Analysis
Livingstone, S., and Bober, M. (2005). UK
of Data from ‘Growing up in Scotland’.
Children Go Online: Final report of key project
Edinburgh: Copyright Scottish Government
findings. London: London School of Economics
and Political Science. Melhuish, E.C., Sylva, K., Sammonds, P., Siraj-
Blatchford, I., Taggart, B., Phan, M. and Malin, A.
Love, J.M., Kisker, E.E., Ross, C. Constantine, J.,
(2008). Pre-school influences on mathematics
Boller, K., Chazan-Cohen et al (2005) The
achievement. Science 321, p. 1161-1162
effectiveness of the Early Head Start for 3 year
old children and their parents. Lessons for policy Meltzoff, A.N. (1988). Infant imitation and
and programs. Developmental Psychology 41, memory: Nine-month olds in immediate a n d
p. 885-901 deferred tests. Child Development, 59, p. 217-
225.
Luciana, M. (2003). The neural and functional
development of human prefrontal cortex. In M.
de Haan and M. Johnson (Eds.), The cognitive
neuroscience of development (pp. 157–179).
New York: Psychology Press.
Habit Formation and References 31
Learning in Young Children
Meltzoff, A.N. and Moore, M.K. (1999) Imitation Oates, C., Blades, M., and Gunter, B. (2002).
of facial and manual gestures by human Children and television advertising: When do
neonates and Resolving the debate about early they understand persuasive intent? Journal of
imitation. In A. Slater and D. Muir (Eds) The Consumer Behaviour, 1, p. 238-245.
Blackwell Reader in Developmental Psychology.
Obel, C., Henriksen, T. B., Dalsgaard, S., Linnet,
Oxford: Blackwell.
K.,Skajaa, E., and Thomsen, P. H. (2004). Does
Midgley, C., Feldlaufer, H., and Eccles, J. (1989) children’s watching of television cause attention
Change in teacher efficacy and student self- and problems? Retesting the hypothesis in a Danish
task-related beliefs in mathematics during the cohort. Pediatrics, 113, 1372–1374.
transition to junior high school. Journal of
Pelphrey, K., and Reznick, J. (2002). Working
Educational Psychology. 81(2):247-258
memory in infancy. Advances in Child
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., and Rodriguez, M. (1989, Development and Behavior, 31, 173–227.
May). Delay of gratification in children. Science,
Perner, J., Lan, G., and Kloo, D. (2002). Theory of
244(4907), 933-938.
mind and self-control: more than a common
Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., problem of inhibition. Child Development 73, p.
Witzki, A.H., and Howerter, A. (2000) The unity 752-767
and diversity of executive functions and their
Perry, N. (1998) ‘Young children’s self-regulated
contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A
learning and contexts that support it’, Journal of
latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology.41,
Educational Psychology, 90(4): 715-729.
p.49–100
Perry, N., Vandekamp, K. O., Mercer, L. K. and
Mistry, K.B., Minkovitz, C.S., Strobino, D.M. and
Nordby, C. J. (2002) ‘Investigating teacher-
Borzekowski, D.L.G. (2007). Children’s Television
student interactions that foster self-regulated
Exposure and Behavioral and Social Outcomes
learning’, Educational Psychologist, 37: 5-15.
at 5.5 Years: Does Timing of Exposure Matter?
Pediatrics Vol 120 p. 762-769 Pianta, R., and Stuhlman, M. (2004) Teacher-
child relationships and children’s success in the
Moller, A.C., Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (2006)
first years of school. School Psychology
Choice and Ego-Depletion: The Moderating
Review.;33(3):444-458
Role of Autonomy. Society for Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 32 No. 8 Pianta, R.C., Steinberg, M. and Rollins, K. (1995).
The first two years of school: Teacher-child
Montgomery, K. (2001) The New Online
relationships and deflections in children’s
Children’s Consumer Culture. In D. Singer and J.
classroom adjustment. Development and
Singer (Eds) Handbook of Children and the
Psychopathology 7, 295-312
Media (p.635-650)
Pine, K. J. and Nash, A. (2002) Dear Santa: The
Muller, U., Zelazo, P.D. and Imrisek, S. (2005).
effects of television advertising on young
Executive function and children’s understanding
children. International Journal of Behavioral
of false belief: how specific is the relation?
Development 26, 259
Cognitive Development, 20, p.173-189
Pino Pasternak, D. and Whitebread, D (2010) The
Murray, K., and Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful
role of parenting in children’s self-regulated
control: Factor structure and relation to
learning. Educational Research Review Vol 5,
externalizing and internalizing behaviours.
pp220-242
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–
514.
32 References Habit Formation and
Learning in Young Children
Porges S. (2003) The polyvagal theory: Rothbart, M.K., Ahadi, SA. and Hershey, K.
Phylogenetic contributions to social behavior. (1994). Temperament and social behaviour in
Physiology and Behaviour. 79:503-513 childhood . Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, p. 21-
39
Rasmussen, C., and Bisanz, J. (2005).
Representation and working memory in early Ryan, R. M., and Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-
arithmetic. Journal of Experimental Child determination theory and the facilitation of
Psychology, 91,137–157. intrinsic motivation, social development and
well-being. American Psychologist, 55, p.68–78.
Reder, .LM., Angstadt, P., Cary, M., Ayers, M.A.,
and Erickson, M.A. (2002) A re-examination of Sangster Jokic, C. and Whitebread, D. (2011).
stimulus-frequency effects in recognition: Two The role of self-regulatory and metacognitive
mirrors for low- and high-frequency competence in the motor performance
pseudowords. Journal of Experimental difficulties of children with developmental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. coordination disorder: A theoretical and
28, p 138–152 empirical review. Educational Psychology
Review, 23, 75-98
Resnik, A., and Stern, B. (1977). Children’s
television advertising and brand choice: A Schaffer, H.R. (2004) The child as apprentice:
laboratory experiment. Journal of Advertising, 6, Vygotsky’s theory of socio-cognitive
11-17. development. In Introducing Child Psychology.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Rettig, K. D. and Mortenson, M. (1986).
Household production of financial management Schraw, G. and Sinatra, G.M. (2004)
competence. In R. E. Deacon and W. E. Huffman Episemological development and its impact on
(Eds.), Human Resources Research (pp. 137- cognition and academic domains.
145). Ames, IA: College of Home Economics. Contemporary Educational Psychology 29, p.
95-102
Robertson, T., Ward, S., Gatignon, H., and Klees,
D. (1989). Advertising and children: A cross- Schunk, D.H. and Zimmerman B.J., (Eds.) (2008)
cultural study. Communication Research, 16, Motivation and self-regulated learning: Theory,
459-485. research and applications, Lawrence Erlbaum,
Mahwah, NJ pp. 1–30
Roland-Levy, C. (1990). Economic socialization:
Basis for international comparisons. Journal of Schuchardt, J., Hanna, S.D., Hira, T.K., Lyons,
Economic Psychology, 11, 469-482. A.C., Palmer, L. and Xiao, J.J. (2009) Financial
Literacy and Education Research Priorities.
Roos, V., Chiroro, P., van Coppenhagen, C.,
Journal of Financial Counselling and Planning
Smith, I., van Heerden, E., Abdoola, R. E., et al.
Vol 20, (1)
(2005). Money adventures: ntroducing economic
concepts to preschool children in the South Scott, S (2010) National dissemination of
African context. Journal of Economic effective parenting programmes to improve child
Psychology, 5, 243–254. outcomes. The British Journal of Psychiatry 196:
1-3
Rizzolatti, G. and Craighero, L. (2004) The mirror
neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, Schug, M.C., and Birkey, C.J. (1985). The
27, p. 169-192. development of children’s economic reasoning.
Theory and Research in Social Education, 13(1),
31-42.
Habit Formation and References 33
Learning in Young Children
Siegler, R.S. (2002) ‘Microgenetic studies of self- Whitebread, D. and Basilio, M. (2012) The
explanation’, in N. Granott and J. Parziole (eds.) emergence and early development of self-
Microdevelopment: transition processes in regulation in young children. Profesorado;
development and learning, Cambridge: Revista de curriculum y formacion del
Cambridge University Press. profesorado Vol. 16 No. 1 (electronic copy
retrieved at ISSN 1989-639X)
Singer, D. G., Zuckerman, D. M., and Singer, J. L.
(1980). Helping elementary school children learn Wilson, B. J., and Cantor, J. (1987). Reducing
about TV. Journal of Communication, 30(3), 84- children’s fear reactions to mass media: Effects
93. of visual exposure and verbal explanation. In M.
McLaughlin, (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 10,
Sroufe, L. A. (1996). The organization of
(pp. 553-573). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
emotional life in the early years. New York:
Cambridge University Press. Winsler, A. and Naglieri, J.A. (2003) Overt and
covert verbal problem-solving strategies:
Sugden, D. (1989) Skill generalization and
Developmental trends in use, awareness, and
children with learning difficulties. In D. Sugden
relations with task performance in children aged
(ed) Cognitive Approaches In Special Education.
5 to 17. Child Development, 74, 659-678.
London: Falmer Press
Wynne, K. (1990) Children’s understanding of
Turow, J. (2000) Privacy policies on Children’s
counting. Cognition 36, 155-193
websites: Do they play by the rules? Philadelphia,
PA: Annenberg Public Policy Centre Yamamoto, T., and Takahashi, N. (2008). Money
as a cultural tool mediating personal
Tyson, K. (2000) Using the teacher-student
relationships: Child development of exchange
relationship to help children diagnosed as
and possession. In J. Valsiner and A. Rosa (eds.)
hyperactive: An application of intrapsychic
Cambridge handbook of sociocultural
humanism. Child and Youth Care Forum.
psychology (pp. 508-523). New York: Cambridge
29(4):265-289.
University Press.
Urdan, T. and Maehr, M. (1995) Beyond a two-
Zelazo, P. D., Muller, U., Frye, D., and Marcovitch,
goal theory of motivation and achievement: A
S. (2003). The development of executive function
case for social goals. Review of Educational
in early childhood. Monographs of the Society
Research. 65(3):213-243
for Research on Child Development, 68, vii–137
Vygotsky, L.S. ( 1978). Thinking and speech. In
Zimmerman, B. J., and Schunk, D. H. (2001).
R. W. Rieber and A. S. Carton (Eds.), (N. Minick,
Reflections on theories of self-regulated learning
Trans.), The collected works of L. S. Vygotsky.
and academic achievement. In B. J. Zimmerman,
New York: Plenum Press. (Original work
D. H. Schunk, and J. Dale (Eds.), Self-regulated
published 1934)
learning and academic achievement. Theoretical
Watkins, C. (2001) Learning about Learning perspectives (pp. 289-308). Mahwah, New
enhances Performance, Institute of Education Jersey, London: Erlbaum.
School Improvement Network (Research
Matters series no. 13)
Webley, P. (1996). Playing the market: The
autonomous economic world of children. In P.
Lunt & A. Furnham (Eds.), The economic
beliefs and behaviours of young children (pp.
149±161). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Money Advice Service
Holborn Centre
120 Holborn
London EC1N 2TD
© Money Advice Service
May 2013 moneyadviceservice.org.uk