SE 1504 PLANNING AND DESIGN OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

MODULE- I
Fire detection- Need and importance of automatic fire detection system, principle of
detection, classification of detectors; Heat detectors – fixed temperature, rate of rise ,
thermistor rate of rise and rate compensated type detectors; Smoke detectors- optical
and ionization type, photo electric light scattering and light obstruction type
detectors; Flame detectors – infra red and ultra violet detectors; Flammable gas
detection- Pellistor and laser detectors; Testing of fire detection devices as per
relevant Indian standards specifications; Comparison of detectors; Performance
characteristics of detectors; Lag time associated with fire detection.

MODULE -II
Principles of Fire Extinguishments-extinction of premixed flames, diffusion flames
and burning metals, fire triangle, fire tetrahedron; Basic concept of fire fighting with
water, carbon dioxide, powders, foams, inert gases halons; Need for halon
replacement and halon substitutes; Extinguishant performance- flame extinguishing
concentration, inerting concentration, fire trials.

First aid fire protection – fire bucket, sand bucket, fire blanket, fire pails & water
barrels, hose reels; Description, working principle, method of operation of different
types of portable fire extinguishers-water type, foam type, dry powder type, CO2 type,
vapourizing liquid type; Care, inspection, and maintenance of portable extinguishers
as per relevant Indian standards specifications.

MODULE -III
Automatic water sprinkler system- requirement and source of water supply, automatic
pumps; Automatic sprinkler heads-Quartzoid type, fusible link type, modern types;
mounting and protection of sprinkler heads; Sprinkler pipe works-standard and
staggered lay out, hangers; Control valves for wet and dry installations; deluge valve.
Drenchers; High velocity and medium velocity spray system; Principles of water
sprinkler system design as per relevant standards (ISI).

MODULE -IV
Fixed fire fighting system using CO2, Dry chemical powder, and Foam - concept of
total flooding and local application, advantages and disadvantages of each system;
Basic system components; Design principles of fixed fire fighting systems for total
flooding and for local application as per relevant standards (ISI).

Fire alarm system- classification of alarm system as per NBC; Manually operated
system; Automatic alarm system; Component and features of Local system, Auxiliary
system, Remote station system, Central station system and Proprietary system
Text Books
1. Ron Hirst, “Underdowns Practical Fire Precautions”, Gower Publishing
Company Ltd., England, 1989.
2. Jain V.K., “Fire Safety in Buildings”, New Age International (P) Ltd., New
Delhi, 1996
3. Clark, W.E., “Fire fighting principles & practices ”,
4. HMSO : Manual of Firemanship, No. 4 to 7.
5. Kevin Cassidy, “Fire Safety and loss Prevention”
6. N F P A, “ Fire Protection Hand Book”
7. Hubert Walker, “Preventive maintenance/Apparatus”
8. Ervin L.W., “Fire fighting apparatus and procedures”
9. Fire services manual Vol 1 & Vol 2
10. Barendra Mohan Sen “Fire protection and prevention the essential hand book”
11. Relevant IS codes

Type of Questions for University ExaminationQ1. Eight short answer questions of 5

marks each with two questions from each of the four modules.Q2 to Q5 : Two
questions A & B of 15 marks from each module with option to answer either A or B.
MODULE- I
Fire detection- Need and importance of automatic fire detection system, principle of
detection, classification of detectors; Heat detectors – fixed temperature, rate of rise ,
thermistor rate of rise and rate compensated type detectors; Smoke detectors- optical
and ionization type, photo electric light scattering and light obstruction type
detectors; Flame detectors – infra red and ultra violet detectors; Flammable gas
detection- Pellistor and laser detectors; Testing of fire detection devices as per
relevant Indian standards(ISI); Comparison of detectors; Performance characteristics
of detectors; Lag time associated with fire detection.

Ref:- 1) V K Jain “Fire Safety in Building”

2) Ron Hirst “ Underdown’s Practical Fire precautions”

1.0 FIRE DETECTION

Delay in detection of fire leads to issues like
- Difficulty in controlling fire in the incipient stage with first aid fire
fighting appliances
- Delayed evacuation process
- Delayed the initiation of fire fighting
Which may lead to
- Increased loss of life and property.
Automatic fire detection is important in unattended/unoccupied premises during
working hours, or off hours/holidays.
A fire can be detected by sensing the presence of one of the product of combustion
such as

- Heat
- Radiation
- Smoke, etc.

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DETECTORS

Fire detectors can be classified in different ways.
Based on the shape/ Range of Detection, they can be classified as

i) Spot/point/block type detector

- The detector respond only to the conditions existing at the place they are
located.
[IS 2175 - Block Detector; NFPA - Spot detector]
 - Line type detector – The detector may be several meter long and will
respond along its length.

Fig. Line type heat detector

ii) Volume detector/ surveillance Detector

- The detector will respond to a flame anywhere within a volume.

A practical detector must be robust, reliable and sensitive. It should also have
long life, should not give false alarms and should be easily tested and readily
replaced.

Based on the Principle of Operation, detectors can be classified as

i) Smoke or Combustion Product Detectior.

ii) Flame Detector
iii) Heat Detector (Conduction/Convection)
iv) Fire gas detector
v) Other fire detectors
1.2 HEAT DETECTORS
Heat detectors work under the principle of sensing the heat energy produced by the
fire. When the heat energy is sensed at a pre-determined or present condition, the
detector will be activated.
Heat detectors are simple in design, reliable and cheap compared to other detectors.
However, the sensitivity of heat detectors is poor.
The fire has to be quite large before it can be detected by heat detector.
Depending on the method of detection/operation heat detectors are classified into
a) Fixed temperature detector
b) Rate of rise detector
c) Themistor probe type detectors
1.2.1 Fixed Temperature Detector
Fixed temperature detectors are designed to activate alarm when the temperature of
the operating element reaches a specified point.
As heat transfer from the air to the operating element requires time (mostly by
convective method), the surrounding air temperature will always be higher than the
operating temperature of the device. This difference between the operating
temperature of the device and the actual air temperature is known as thermal lag. The
thermal lag is proportional to the rate at which temperature is rising.

Thermal lag describes a material's thermal mass with respect to time. A material with
high thermal mass (high heat capacity and low conductivity) will have a large thermal
lag.

Thermal lag (hr) = 1.38 L √(1/α)

Where,

L = thickness (m)
α = thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

Expansion of materials with temperature has been considered as a reliable mechanism

to devise detector elements of this type. There are different methods by which a fixed
temperature sensing elements can be made, namely by
- using Bimetallic strip
- using fusible alloy
- using heat sensitive cables
- using expansible liquid

1.2.1.1 Fixed temperature detector using bimetallic strip

When two metals having different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded
together and then heated, differential expansion causes banding or flexing towards the
metal having the lower expansion rate. This action breaks or makes a circuit, causing
the detector to activate.

Low expansion metal- invar (alloy of nickel (36%) and iron (64%)

High expansion metal – alloy of

Manganese –copper-nickel;
Nickel-chromium-iron;
Stainless steel
Bi-metals are used in the form of Strips and Snap disc
All bi-metal elements are self-restoring type and hence detections made of this
principle need not require replacement or adjustment
 Fig. Bimetallic type heat
detector

Fig. Fixed temperature-bimetallic-snap disc type heat

detector
1.2.1.2 Fixed temperature detector using fusible alloy
A fusible alloy is used as solder to keep an element (spring, metal strip etc) in the
detector under tension. When the temperature of the solder reaches its melting point,
it melts and the element will close/break the contact and initiates an alarm.

This is a spot type detector and its main drawback is that it can be operated only once
and is not reusable.

The commonly used alloy is Eutectic metal (-alloys of bismuth, lead, tin and
cadmium) which has an approximate melting point of 68 °C

Fig. Fixed temperature- spot

type heat detector with
fusible element

1.2.1.3 Fixed temperature detector using heat sensitive cables

They are line type detectors. In this case, two current carrying wires are kept
separated by a heat-sensitive insulation. The insulation gets softened at its rated
temperature and thus making the wires to have electrical contact.

Fig. Fixed temperature heat detector-Line

type using heat sensitive cables

1.2.1.4 Fixed temperature detector using expansible liquid

- A quartzoid bulb (bulb in the shape of quartz) is filled with highly expansable
liquid with a small amount of gas inside. As the temperature increases, the liquid
expands and the pressure of liquid causes the bulb to burst, leading to the
activation of alarm.
- This type of detections are used in water sprinkler system and are available at
different temperature ranges (49 0C, 60, 74, 121, 160, 204, 2830C)

1.2.2 Rate of rise detector

The rate of rise detector will respond to the rate at which the temperature rises. At a
slow temperature rise it will not respond quickly unless the temperature reaches a pre-
set value. Different principles are used to achieve this response.

1. Pneumatic rate of rise tubing type heat detector

- This is a line type detector

- The tube A (small diameter copper tube) is

fastened in a continuous loop to ceilings or walls
and terminates at both ends in chamber B having
flexible diaphragms C, which control the
electrical contact D.

- When air in the tubing expands under the

influence of heat, pressure builds within the
chambers, causing the diaphragms to move and
close a circuit to alarm transmitter E.

- Small and calibrated vents F compensate for

small pressure changes in the tubing brought
about by small changes in temperature in the
protected spaces.

Fig. : Pneumatic rate of rise tubing type heat detector

2. Pneumatic Rate of Rise cum Fixed Temperature- Spot Type
In spot type, there is an air chamber and the expansion of air in this chamber due to
temperature rise moves a diaphragm and this in turn closes a circuit. The alarm will be
activated once the circuit is activated. A calibrated compensating vent within the
chamber allows the normal fluctuations in the temperature.
A thermostat device fitted to the detector system allows the activation of alarm in case
the temperature rise is at slow rate. The thermostat can be set to a predetermined
temperature (57.2 °C- 82.2 °C)

- The air in the chamber A expands more

rapidly than it can escape from vent B.

- This causes pressure to close electrical

contact D between diaphragm c and contact
screw E.

- Fixed-temperature operation occurs when

fusible alloy F melts, releasing spring G,
which depresses the diaphragm closing
contact points.
Fig. : Pneumatic rate of rise cum fixed temperature type heat detector
1.2.3 Thermistor Probe type (spot type- rate of rise type)
Thermistor is a semiconductor with a negative temperature coefficient- that is, its
electrical resistance decreases with increase in temperature.

The change in resistance of these thermistor is very large. For example, at 20 °C, its
resistance is 100 kΩ while at 100 °C it has only 100 Ω resistance.

- The circuit within the detector is designed to alarm when the change in
the resistance reaches a pre-set value.

- A fixed temperature setting can also be provided in the system so that

the system can detect slow temperature rise, if any.

Fig. : Solid state electronic heat detector with dual thermistor

sensing circuit

Advantages of thermistor type over fusible link type heat detector

Thermistor Type Fusible link type

Large coverage area (40m2) Less coverage area (10m2)
Will not malfunction due to vibration, as During melting, vibrations may cause
they are in solid state problems
Reusable Cannot be reused
Long life Fusible links may deteriorate
More sensitive and fast response Less sensitive and sluggish
Desired temperature can be adjusted Fixed temperature type

1.2.4 Rate Compensated Heat Detector

The rate of rise device are triggered by rate of increase in ambient temperature and are
subjected to false alarm caused by harmless thermal gradient such as flow of warm air
from processes (oven, etc). To overcome this difficulty, rate compensated detectors
are used.

- Here, the outer shell of the detector is made of rapidly expanding alloy stainless
steel, which is sensitive to the changes in the surrounding air temperature.
- The inner struts are made of alloy having lesser co-efficient of expansion.
- At slow rate of heat development, both outer shell and inner strut expands
almost evenly and contact is established at pre-set value.
- Under a rapid rate of rise in temperature, the shell expands at a faster rate and
alarm is activated earlier when the air temperature reaches its pre-set value.
- A transient temperature variation may heat up the outer shell, but may not cause
alarm.

Fine silver contacts

Expansion struts

High Expansion sensing shell, 0.04 anodized aluminium

Heat control sleeve

Adjusting/Setting Screw
Seal

Fig. : Details of a typical rate compensated heat detector

Fig. : Rate compensated heat detectors - Cut section and general view

1.2.5 Performance of Heat Detector

Ref. IS: 2175 :1988)- specification for heat sensitive fire detector for use in
automatic fire alarm system (reaffirmed Nov. 1995).
The code specifies that,

- heat detectors should operate at a temperature of 70 ± 7 ° C when

constantly put in temperature for 50 seconds in air stream at the rate of
80 cm/s.
 - In the case of fixed temperature type detector, the detector shall not
operate when the air flow is maintained just below 62 °C and shall
operate within 50 seconds when suddenly placed in test temperature
maintained at 77 °C.

- When tested under standard conditions (at 27 ± 2 ° C and air stream

velocity of 80 cm/s) the detector must respond as per the details
specified in the following table.

When tested at 27 ± 2 ° C and with an air

stream velocity of 80 cm/s,
Sl.
No. the detector must when tested at a
operate within the temperature rate of
time (Minutes) rise of (°C/ minute)

1 35 to 50 1

2 11 to 18 3

3 6 to 11 5

4 3 to 6 10

5 1.5 to 3.25 20

6 1 to 2.5 30

1.3. SMOKE DETECTORS

Smoke detectors are grouped into different categories such as

- Optical Type
Photo electric light obscuration type
Photo electric light scattering type
- Ionization type and
- Air Sampling Type
Combustion processes release solid and liquid particles, most of which appears as
smoke, with size ranging from 0.5 millimicron to 10 micron (0.5 x 10 -6 mm to 10 x
10 -3 mm).

- Size of particles which are released at temperatures below the fire point of a
fuel (pre-ignition heating) are generally in the range of 0.5-1.0 millimicron.

- Particles released by smoldering combustion have a size ranging from

about 0.10 to 1.0 micron
The fires of fuels which burn without producing smoke can not be detected by smoke
detectors (ionization or optical)- for example, alcohol fire, flaming combustion, etc.
1.3.1 Optical smoke Detectors (Spot type)
The optical smoke detectors work based on the principle of the obscuration
(obstruction) or scattering of light by the smoke particles and hence are further
classified as

i) Photoelectirc light obscuration type and

ii) Phot electric light scattering type
1.3.1.1 Photoelectric light obscuration type smoke detector
Obscuration refers to the ability of solid objects in a beam of light to reduce the
amount of light which arrives on a target. The ability of solid materials to obscure
light decreases as the particle size is reduced.
Principle of working of a light obscuration type photoelectric smoke detector is as
follows:

- An emitter produces a light beam in the infra-red spectrum

- The intensity of light is sensed by a receiver aligned and kept at a

distance (may be upto 100m), which is a photosensitive device.

- When there is a disturbance in the air within the light beam due to
smoke , the intensity of light received by the receiver will be affected
and this variation, when reaches a preset value(say about 50% less)fire
alarm will be activated.

Fig.:- Working
When a turbulent
principlehot air or obscuration
of light gas passes through the light
Fig. beam,
Light the light beam
obscuration
will be irregularly
Type smoke detectors deflected and this may lead to a light flickering effect at
type smoke detector
the receiving end. This flickering effect can also be sensed by the receiver
fitted with appropriate electronic devises and an alarm can be activated based
on the frequency of flickering received (Typical flicker frequency associated
with a fire scenario ranges between 2 Hz and 20 Hz). Hence, this type of
system can detect both smoke and heat (combined heat and smoke detector)
Light obscuration type photoelectric smoke detectors are suitable for

- Buildings with high ceilings

- Large open areas – (one detector will protect an area of 100m x 14m)
- Large ducts, cable tunnels etc.
- Areas where the installation of individual point detectors involves danger or
difficulty (Eg: installations above acid tanks, rotating machinery, live
electrical equipments etc.)

Some of the disadvantages of light obscuration type photoelectric smoke detectors

are:
 - As light is continously received by the cell, its life is short.

- Dirt deposited on either the light source or the cell could cause a false alarm.
1.3.1.2 Photoelectric light scattering type smoke detector
This is a Spot type detector
Principle of working of a light scattering type photoelectric smoke detector is as
follows:
If a beam of light is directed into a cloud of particles some of the light will be
scattered sideways to the beam. There is an optimum angle from which maximum
amount of scattered light can be observed.
The photocell is placed in the detector in such a way that it receives no light from the
source (emitter) under normal condition.
When smoke particles enter the light path, light is scattered onto the photosensitive
receiver and causes the detector to respond (alarm signal)

Fig.: Working principle of light scattering Fig. Light scattering

Type smoke detectors type smoke detector
- LED is normally used as the light source

- Dirt deposit may be a problem- Causes false alarm.

- The life of photocell will be more in this case compared to obscuration type
detector due to the fact that in this case, the cell is exposed to light only when
light is scattered.

- The particle size less than 0.3 micron are too small to scatter light and are
invisible. So, a detector which operates by optical process will fail to detect
the pre-ignition particles and the invisible part of smouldering emission.

- It is relatively insensitive to the visible part of smouldering emission (due to

smaller size particles)

1-Optical Chamber; 2-Cover; 3-Case moulding; 4-Photodiode(detector);

5-Infrared LED
1.3.2 Ionization Type Smoke Detectors

These types of detectors are sensitive to the invisible particles which are released,
particularly in the initial stages of a fire.

Their operation depends on the ionization of a small volume of air in a chamber by a

radioactive source.

The radioactive material is to produce alpha radiation and is usually Americium 241
or Radium 226. Americium has minimum radiation of particles other than α-
radiation and hence it is preferred.
Principle of operation of an ionization type smoke detector is as follows:

- The emission of alpha radiation keeps the air ionized in the air chamber.

- When a potential is applied to the chamber electrode, the ions flow to their
respective electrodes (+ve ions to –ve electrode and –ve ion to +ve electrode)
and hence a small measurable electric current flows across the chamber air
gap.

- When smoke particle enter the chamber, ions are captured on the surface of the
smoke particles and hence the current flow is reduced.

- This change in the current flow is amplified and when the difference in the
current flow is more than a preset value, a signal is transmitted to the fire
alarm control unit.

Fig.: Working principle of ionization Fig.: Cross sectional view of an

type smoke detector ionization type detector
The ionization type smoke detectors require only low power consumption and
Americium provides a permanent source of alpha radiation (the half life of
Americium is 400 years).
Generally, these detectors are of lowest cost, and respond to smaller smoke particles
(the result of high-energy fires).

Since the current detected is very small, a small variation in the current due to other
reasons many make a false alarm. The variation in the current may occur due to

- Radio transmission
- Use of cellular phones
- Reduced radiation due to the dirt or moisture, which may get deposited on the
surface of the emitter/ receiver.
- If there is air movement –(ionized air may get displaced from the chamber due
to wind and leading to a reduced current formation).
In fact, ionization type smoke detectors have the greatest false alarm rate among
smoke detectors from the cooking and other non-fire sources.

1.3.2.3 Comparison of Photoelectric and Ionization type detectors

Photoelectric smoke detectors respond faster to fire in its early, smouldering stage
(before it breaks into flame).

Ionization smoke detectors respond faster in the flaming stage of a fire.

There is serious performance problem with ionization technology in the early,
smoldering stage of fire. Also, ionization detectors are weaker in high air-flow
environments, and because of this, the photoelectric smoke detector is more reliable
for detecting smoke in both the smoldering and flaming stages of a fire.

Ionization smoke alarms may not operate in time to alert occupants early enough to
escape from smouldering fires. So, it has been made mandatory to use photoelectric
smoke alarms rather than ionization type in most of the recommendations meant for
residential buildings (sleeping rooms).

1.3.3 Air sampling type smoke detectors

An Air Sampling Detector consists of a piping or tubing distribution network that runs
from the detector to the area(s) to be protected.

An aspiration fan in the detector housing draws air from the protected area back to the
detector through air sampling ports, piping, or tubing.

At the detector, the air is analyzed for fire products.

Air Sampling Smoke Detectors are capable of detecting a fire at its earliest stage.

Traditional "spot-type" detectors passively detect smoke or heat in their immediate

area.

Air Sampling Smoke Detectors actively pulls room air through a piping network to its
detection chamber where it can detect the presence of particles that are created in the
very early stages of combustion, even before smoke is visible.
They are best suited to detect fires wherein submicron particles are produced during
pyrolysis or precombustion phase of incipient fires.

They are most often used where the protected space has high value and demands very
early warning of incipient fires such as in computer rooms, air conditioning ducts,
archives, etc.

Most air-sampling smoke detection systems are capable of a higher sensitivity

than spot type smoke detectors and provide multiple levels of alarm threshold,
such as Alert, Action, Fire 1 and Fire 2. Thresholds may be set at levels across a
wide range of smoke levels.
Different methods are adopted to detect the smoke from the air samples collected and
accordingly, air sampling detectors are further classified into

Cloud Chamber type

Laser system-Filtered type
Laser system – Particle Counting type

1.3.3.1 Cloud chamber type

Cloud chamber (Wilson cloud chamber) principle detectors operate by drawing an air
sample from the protected area into a high humidity chamber within the detector
(through air sampling ports, piping, or tubing and using an aspirating fan).

After the air sample has been raised to high humidity level (relative humidity
approximately 100%), the pressure is slightly lowered with the help of vacuum pump.

If smoke particles are there in the chamber, they act as condensation nuclei for water
droplets and form cloud.

The density of this cloud is measured with a photoelectric light scattering detector.

When the “cloud” reaches a predetermined density, the detector will respond with an
alarm.

The oldest and original air sampling technology is the Cloud Chamber Systems.
However, the maintenance of these type of systems is difficult due to the fact
that, there is a requirement of frequent replacement of evaporated water and
monitoring of ongoing water levels. Also, there are more more moving parts in
this system than other systems, leading to more mechanical failures and is more
labor intensive to service and repair.

1.3.3.2 Laser Systems – Filtered type

A fan continually drawing air into a pipe network attached to a detector unit, and
passes the air through a dual stage filter to remove dirt and particles larger than 25
microns, sending the clean air to a laser detection chamber for smoke detection.

The detector measures the light scatter caused by any smoke and processes the
detector signal.

1.3.3.3 Laser Systems – Particle Counting Type

Here, a fan continuously draws air from the protected area through the detection
chamber. Once inside, particles pass through the laser beam while the photo collector
measures reflected light from the particles. The collector counts the number of
discrete particles to determine the level of smoke concentration. A particle size
discriminator prevents large particles, such as dust, from contributing to the smoke
concentration.
1.4 FLAME DETECTOR (ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION DETECTOR)

An ideal flame detector would reliably sense a flame of interest, while totally
ignoring
all other flames or signal sources and would, in the process, be totally unaffected
by
ambient operating conditions. However, no completely ideal flame detector
exists.

Flame detector detects the radiation from a fire. The radiation from a flame will travel
at the speed of light. So, flame detections have fastest possible response time. They
are of surveillance type (single unit protects large volume). The ultraviolet and
infrared region of the radiation spectra is considered for the fire detection.

Fig. : UV/IR Spectrum

However, even the sunlight contains the complete spectrum of radiation, which
includes UV and IR radiation. Radiations caused other than from a fire, burning and
welding operations, reflections from rotating machinery, vehicle head lights, etc. may
cause a false alarm in flame detectors.
So, the characteristic of flame fickering is identified to detect the UV & IR radiation
from a fire. A continuous radiation is ignored by the detector. The detectors are
usually set to respond to frequencies between 5 and 15Hz.

Fig. : Typical Hydrocarbon Fire Emission Spectrum

 Solar radiation-Stable Radiation Radiation from
Radiation from from fire environment
light sources

Fig. : Three major spectral areas for Flame Detection

Flame detectors cannot respond to smouldering combustion, unless a sufficiently

glowing surface is exposed to the detector.
Depending on the type of radiation detected, the flame detecors are grouped into
Infra red detectors and
Ultra violet detectors
1.4.1 Infra Red Type Flame Detectors
Infra red radiation from the sun is absorbed by carbon dioxide molecules and water
vapour molecules. The wave lengths affected are between 1.5 and 1.8 microns and
between 4.2 and 4.5 microns. Since CO2 and H2O are the main product of
combustion, and will always be released at flame temperature, photocells sensitive to
these wavelengths are suitable for an IR detector.
An IR detector essentially consists of a lens, optical filter, a photo electric cell, wave
form filter/amplifier and an integrator/ timer

Filter
cum
Visual Indictor
amplifier

Lens and
Photoelectric Relay Alarm
optical
cell
filter
Fig. : Schematic diagram of IR type flame detector

The photoelectric cell converts light energy into electric energy. They are usually
made of materials such as thallons sulphide, lead sulphide, lead telluride, lead
selenide, selenium and silicon.
 The lens and optical filter system filters the radiation and allows the transmission
of the IR radiation of the desired wavelength.
Materials like quartz, cesium bromide and calcium flouride are used for making
this lens cum filter
The filter cum amplifieer has two functions

- To amplify the signals from photoelectric cell

- To filter signals which are in the range of 4Hz to 15Hz, which is the
distinctive frequency ramge for a flame filter.
The relay activates the alarm when the signal from the filter/ amplifier (filter signal)
persists for a pre-set period.

IR sensor

Fig. : IR type flame detector

The IR type detectors are best suited where there is a chance of more smoke in a fire,
fires in chemical factories, generating stations, computer facilities, etc.
1.4.2 Ultra Violet Type Flame Detectors
The UV detector detects the UV radiation with the help of a UV sensitive photocell,
or with a gas filled tube.
The working principle of UV detector having photocell as the sensing element is the
same as that of IR detector, except for the change in the frequency response, which is
normally of the range from 1850 Å to 2450 Å. (sunlight could have a UV radiation as
low as 2900 Å and this radiation should be avoided by flame detectors)
The UV detector with gas filled tube essentially consists of a UV sensing tube,
amplifier, relay and alarm Unit.
The UV detectors consider a wavelength less than 0.30 micron for flame detection to
avoid the UV radiation from sunlight and artificial light. Detectors are sensitive only
to radiation at wavelengths less than 0.3 micron. However, only a small fraction of the
energy emitted by flames is in this region and it is necessary to have a very sensitive
sensing tube. A Geiger- Muller tube is generally used for this purpose.
The UV radiation passes through a quartz glass window and strikes on the sensing
tube. The sensing tube (Geiger-Muller tube) comprises of a glass envelop, which is
transparent to the desired radiation, containing two electrodes and filled with a
suitable gas.
 Gas filled tube

Electrodes

UV UV sensing Amplifier Relay Alarm

Radiation tube

Fig. : Schematic diagram of UV type flame detector

The electrodes are close together and a voltage is applied between them. The metal of
the electrode is selected in such a way that, when a photon of radiation at the right
wavelength is absorbed, it releases electron and this in turn ionizes the gas in the tube.
This ionization sets up a small current between the electrodes and is fed to the
amplifier.
The amplifier sets up the current and transmits it to the relay, which activates the
alarm when the signal to it persists for a preset time period.

UV sensor

Fig. : UV type flame detector

It is important to ensure that the glass window is kept clean, particularly of oil
deposits(thin film of oil will absorb the UV radiation). Also, performance of UV
detector is affected by the presence of smoke and fog, as UV radiation is absorbed by
them. UV detector will respond to the radiation caused by welding, X-rays, etc. Hence
UV detectors are best suited for the monitoring of aircraft engines, fuel storage tanks,
oil drilling rigs, etc.
1.4.3 UV/IR Type Flame Detector
The dual UV/IR type detectors are used to reduce the effect of false alarm and for
specific applications. Since UV and IR detection occurs at different wavelengths (less
than 0.30 micron for UV and 4.2 to 4.5 micron (CO2) for IR, the combination of UV
and IR detection helps to reduce the false alarm caused by individual detection. The
system will activate only if both the detectors are activated as well as based on a pre
set threshold ratio between them.
 UV sensor

IR sensor

Fig. : UV/IR type flame detector

Fig. :Detection of flame

using both UV and
IR radiation

1.4.4 Dual IR and Triple IR Type Flame Detectors

Dual IR (IR/IR) flame detectors compare the threshold signal in two infrared ranges.
In this case one sensor looks at the 4.4 micron range and the other sensor at a
reference frequency.

Fig. :Detection of the flame by the use of three IR wavelength bands

Triple IR flame detectors (IR3) compare three specific wavelength bands within the
IR spectral region and their ratio to each other. In this case one sensor looks at the 4.4
micron range and the other sensors at reference bands above and below. This allows
the detector to distinguish between non flame IR sources, and flames that emit hot
CO2 in the combustion process (which have a spectral characteristic peak at 4.4
micron). As a result, both detection range and immunity to false alarms can be
significantly increased. However, Triple IR, like other IR detector types, is
susceptible to blinding by a layer of water on the detector's window.

IR sensor

IR sensor

IR sensor

Fig. : IR3 type flame detector

1.4.5 Visible sensors with UV and IR type detectors

In some detectors a sensor for visible radiation is added to the design in order to be
able to discriminate against false alarms better or improve the detection range.

Example: UV/IR/vis, IR/IR/vis, IR/IR/IR/vis flame detectors.

Visual flame detectors employ standard charged couple device (CCD) image sensors,
(commonly used in closed circuit television cameras) and flame detection algorithms
to establish the presence of fires. The imaging algorithms process the live video image
from the CCD array and analyze the shape and progression of would be fires to
discriminate between flame and non-flame sources. Unlike IR or UV flame detectors,
CCTV visual flame detectors do not depend on emissions from carbon dioxide, water,
and other products of combustion to detect fires, nor are they influenced by fire’s
radiant intensity. As a result, they are commonly found in installations where flame
detectors are required to discriminate between process fires and fires resulting from an
accidental release of combustible material. However, visual flame detectors cannot
detect flames that are invisible to the naked eye such as hydrogen flames. Heavy
smoke also impairs the detector’s capacity to detect fire, since visible radiation from
the fire is one of the technology’s fundamental parameters.

1.4.6 Comparison of different flame detectors

Detector Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Single • Hydrocarbon fires • Moderate speed Subject to false alarms

Infrared • Indoors • Moderate (in the presence of
(IR) sensitivity flickering IR sources)
• Unaffected by solar
radiation
• Low cost
Single • Hydrocarbon fires • High speed • Subject to false
Ultraviolet • Hydrogen, Silane, • Moderate sensitivity alarms from UV
(UV) Ammonia and • Unaffected by solar sources (arc welding,
other radiation electrical sparks,
hydrogen-based • Unaffected by hot halogen lamps)
fuel objects • Blinded by thick
fires smoke, vapors,
 • Metal Fires • Low cost grease and oil
• Indoors deposits on the
detector’s window
Dual • Hydrocarbon fires Moderate speed • Affected by specific
Band • Hydrogen, Silane, • Moderate sensitivity UV/IR ratio created by
(UV/IR) Ammonia and • Low false alarm false stimuli
other rate • Blinded by thick
hydrogen-based • Unaffected by solar smoke, vapors,
fuel radiation grease and oil
fires deposits on the
• Metal Fires detector’s window
• Indoors and
outdoors

Triple IR • Hydrocarbon fires • Moderate speed • Affected by IR

(IR3) • Indoors and • Highest sensitivity sources only at short
outdoors • High immunity to range in certain rare fire
false alarms scenarios.
• Longer detection
range
• Unaffected by solar
radiation

CCTV • Hydrocarbon Color video picture • Affected by IR sources

(IR3+ fires • More information only at short range in
Video) • Indoors and about the certain rare fire
outdoors hazard scenarios.
• Provides record of
the protected
area before, during
and after fire
scenario
• Automatic switching
of video
upon flame detection
• Moderate speed
• Highest sensitivity
• High immunity to
false alarms
• Longer detection
range
• Unaffected by solar
radiation

1.4.7 Field of View of Flame Detector

A flame detector is an optical device and thus it needs to have a clear view of the
area to properly detect a fire.

Flame detectors have a 3-D cone of vision ranging from 90 degrees to 120 degrees.
Sensitivity of flame detectors diminishes at the edges of the cone of vision. There is
some blind spot at the edges of the cone. The detector would activate only when the
fire becomes larger (say about four times the surface area that needed at the center of
the cone)
 Fig. : Field of view of flame detector – 3D

Blind spots

Fig. : Horizontal Field of view

of flame detector-Typical

Blind spots

Fig. : Vertical Field of view of

flame detector-Typical

Since both sensitivity and range are related to fire size(surface area of fire), if the
detector is placed further away from (or closer to) the fire source, the detectable fire
size will vary according to the inverse square law.

So doubling the detection distance results in only ¼ of the radiant energy reaching the
detector, or conversely, for the same response time, the surface area of the fire then
needs to be 4 times larger.

A single detector with larger range is better compared with many detectors having
smaller range
 Fig. : One 60 m IR3 Detector Verses
Seven 15 m IR/UV detectors
(Typical)

1.5 FLAMMABLE GAS DETECTORS

Flammable gas detection apparatus may be used whenever there is the possibility of a
hazard to life or property caused by the accumulation of a flammable gas-air mixture.
Such apparatus can provide a means of reducing the hazard by detecting the presence
of the flammable gas and issuing suitable audible or visual warnings.

Gas detectors can be used to detect flammable and toxic gases and oxygen depletion.
Gas detectors may also be used to initiate specific precautions (for example plant
shutdown, evacuation, and operation of fire extinguishing procedures).

Flammable gas detecting apparatus may be used to monitor a gas atmosphere below
the lower flammable limit in circumstances where accumulation of gas may result in a
concentration of the gas/air mixture to potentially explosive levels.

Gas detectors are usually battery operated. They transmit warnings via a series of
audible and visible signals such as alarms and flashing lights, when dangerous levels
of gas vapours are detected. As detectors measure a gas concentration, the sensor
responds to a calibration gas, which serves as the reference point or scale. As a
sensor’s detection exceeds a preset alarm level, the alarm or signal will be activated.
As units, gas detectors are produced as portable or stationary devices.

It is recommended that, sensing a gas concentration of 20 percent LFL (or less)

should activate a local alarm (audible or visual, or both, as most appropriate for the
location). Sensing a gas concentration of 40 percent LFL (maximum) or a gas detector
system malfunction should both activate an alarm (audible or visual, or both, as most
appropriate for the area) and initiate automatic disconnection of power from all
electrical devices in the area that are not suitable for Division 2 (Zone 2). [An
inadequately ventilated area containing equipment that could release flammable gas or
vapour can be designated as Division 2 (Zone 2)]

Originally, detectors were produced to detect a single gas, but modern units may
detect several toxic or combustible gases, or even a combination of both types.
Basically the toxic gases or combustion gases can be detected using different
technologies like

Pellister technology and

IR technology

1.5.1 Pellister Type Gas Detectors

Pellistors are solid-state devices used to detect gases which are either combustible or
which have a significant difference in thermal conductivity to that of air. (The
detecting elements consist of small ‘pellets’ of catalyst-loaded ceramic whose
resistance changes in the presence of the target gas hence the term ‘pellistor’ being a
combination of ‘pellet’ and ‘resistor’)

Pellistors were originally developed for the mining industry during the early 1960’s;

Depending on the mode of operation in detecting gas, there are two types of pellistor,
namely
Catalytic type and
Thermal Conductivity (TC) type

The catalytic type sensor works by burning the target gas; the heat generated
producing a change in the resistance of the detecting element of the sensor
proportional to the gas concentration. Most of the pellister type gas detectors are of
catalytic type.

The thermal conductivity sensor works by measuring the change in heat loss (and
hence temperature/resistance) of the detecting element in the presence of the target
gas.

The earliest form of catalytic gas sensor used heated bare coils of platinum wire to
burn the gas. The heat generated by the burning process produced a change in the
resistance of the coil. This change was measured using a simple Wheatstone bridge
circuit. The low catalytic activity of the bare coil necessitated having to run the coils
at high temperatures (800 – 1000 °C) to be able to oxidise the target gas. At these
temperatures it was found that significant evaporation of the wire was taking place.
This produced a reduction in the wire diameter and a subsequent change in the
resistance. This produced a significant level of zero drift and a lifetime of as short as
several days.

The present day pellistor detectors consist of two matched platinum coils, each
embedded in a bead of alumina. The detecting element is coated with a catalyst which
promotes oxidation when in contact with flammable gases and the compensating
element is treated so that catalytic oxidation does not occur. The compensating
element is fitted to ensure that signals are not generated due to environmental effects
(eg changes in ambient temperature or gas flow rate).

Fig. : Mechanism of Pellister

type gas detetcion
Pellistor-based systems operate in a Wheatstone Bridge circuit whereby the pellistor
and compensator in the detector represent one half of the bridge, the other half being
fitted to the control card usually located in the control room. The control card supplies
a voltage to the bridge (typically 2V to 3.5Vdc), which generates a current flow and
raises the temperature of the beads to a level where oxidation of gases will occur
(>300°C). The control card measures a small voltage offset in the bridge due to the
increased resistance in the pellistor element when gas is present. This voltage is then
amplified and used to display the gas level and activate alarms.

Because pellistors are relatively high power devices, and as they operate at a
temperature that will ignite flammable gases they need to be sealed behind a flame
arrestor (sinter). Pellistors are typically fitted within stainless steel housing, mounted
on a Flameproof junction box.

Fig. : Typical Pellister type Gas detector (intrinsically safe)

Advantages of Pellistor Technology

• Low cost technology

• Pellistors will detect a wide range of gases and vapours.

• Correction factors can be applied so that the sensor can be scaled for a
particular substance.

• Pellistors are very simple devices; apart from calibration gas, no special
equipment is required for commissioning or maintenance.
Disadvantages of Pellistor Technology

• Pellistors are vulnerable to permanent poisoning by silicones, lead, sulphurs or

chlorinated compounds. If exposed to these compounds, a pellistor may fail to
respond to flammable gas.

• Pellistors must be operated behind a sinter (flame arrestor) which may become
blocked, thus preventing gas from reaching the sensor.
 • Pellistors do not fail-safe; poisoned pellistors remain electrically operational;
thus the control system will continue to display zero gas when flammable gas
may be present.

• Sensitivity to flammable gas is reduced in the presence of some compounds

(notably hydrogen sulphide and halogens).

• Pellistors need at minimum of 12% volume oxygen present to operate. Their

efficiency reduces in oxygen deficient atmospheres.

• Pellistors may burn-out and require replacement if exposed to gas

concentrations greater than 110% LEL (Lower Explosive Limit) [LFL]

• Pellistor sensitivity degrades over time.

• Pellistors have a limited life-span, sensors typically last 3-5 years.

• Pellistors require regular gas testing to ensure they are operational, and regular
calibration of offset signal loss due to poisoning or bead contamination.

1.5.2 Infrared Type Gas Detectors

Most gases absorb IR radiation at a characteristic wavelength and this behaviour is the
basis in IR type gas detection. When IR radiation transmitted is absorbed by a
particular gas, the strength of reflected IR radiation having wavelength corresponding
to the gas reduces at the receiving end. This difference in radiation intensity is
measured and processed for detecting the gas.

Infrared (IR) gas detectors overcome all of the limitations associated with pellistors to
provide fast and reliable detection of hydrocarbon gases. IR detectors provide rapid
gas detection and fail-safe operation.

Fig. : Typical IR type gas detectors

Advantages of IR Technology

• Very fast response

• Fail-safe operation: no un-revealed failures (power faults, signal faults,
software errors are always reported to the control system).
• Immune to signal inhibition by contaminant gases.
 • No consumable parts; life-span typically > 10 years.
• Reduced maintenance costs.
• Does not require oxygen to be present.
• Will not burn-out in high gas concentrations.
• Premium models do not utilize a sinter (flame arrestor), and thus associated
blockages cannot occur.

Disadvantages of IR Technology

• Price is higher than pellistor based detectors.

• IR detectors cannot detect hydrogen.
• IR detectors cannot provide a linear response to a group of different gases: the
detector is ‘linearised’ for a particular gas, and will respond to others but in a
non-linear fashion.

1.6 Comparison of Detectors

The parameters that are important while comparing detectors are:

a. Sensitivity
b. Reliability- the ability of the system and its components to be in proper
working condition at all times, so as to be ready to perform their intended
function.

c. Maintainability and

d. Stability - relates to its ability to sense fires over extended periods of time
with no change of sensitivity.
A practical detector must be robust, reliable and sensitive. It should also have long
life, should not give false alarms and should be easily tested and readily replaced.
Table shows the comparison of the performances of detectors

Table: Comparison of Performances

Sl. Detector Sensitivity Reliability Maintainability Stability

No.
1 Fixed Low High High High
temperature
2 Rate of rise Medium Medium High High
3 Rate Medium High High High
compensate
4 Particulate High Medium Medium Medium
matter(smoke)
5 Visible smoke Medium Medium Medium Medium
6 Flame High Medium Medium Medium
ultraviolet
7 Flame - medium Medium medium Low
infrared
Approximate coverage area of different types of detectors may be taken as
shown in table.

Table: Approximate coverage area of detectors

S.No. Type of detector Coverage

1 Fusible alloy 19-12 m2
2 Bimetallic 12-50 m2
3 Pneumatic 45 m2
4 Thermistor 16-50 m2
5 Smoke detector ionization type 45 to 90 m2
6 Smoke detector photoelectric type 100 m2
7 Rate compensated heat detector 15 m apart either side
8 Ultraviolet flame detector Cone of visison max. 900
9 Infrared flame detector 1000 m2

A fire develops typically in four stages namely,

• Incipient stage - No visible smoke, no flame and very little heat. A

significant amount of invisible combustion particles may be created. This
stage usually develops slowly.

• Smouldering stage - Smoke, but no flame and little heat.

• Flame stage - Visible flame, more heat, often less or no smoke, particularly
with flammable liquids and gas fires.

• Heat stage - Large amounts of heat, flame, smoke and toxic gases are
produced. The transition from the previous stage can be very fast.

Fire detectors are designed to detect some characteristic effect of one or more of
these stages

Flame detector and optical type smoke detector are fast and can operate
without any time delay, but time delays are purposely inserted which may be 3
to 30 seconds. However, detection of fire is difficult in congested area or in
smoldering fires, as visibility of flame is needed to detect the fire.

Smoke detectors and gas fire detectors should not be provided in areas where
ambient temperature are likely to exceed 38 °C or fall below 0 °C, unless they are
specifically made for this purpose. Radioactive hazard/level should be less than
10 micro curies.
Fixed temperature type heat detectors will operate only when fourth stage of
fire has been reached (heat stage). They may take 1.5 to 1.75 minutes to operate
when fourth stage is reached and temperature changes at the rate of 20 °C/min.
Out of the fixed temperature type detectors, the slowest in operation may be
fusible alloy type and then bimetallic type.

Rate of rise type heat detector will respond quickly to fast heat rise ranging
from 6 to 12 °C/min when compared to fixed temperature type detectors.

Thermistor type have more faster response out of all the heat detectors.

Thermistor type and rate compensated type detectors can sense rate of rise
as slow as 3 °C/min.

Circulation of air near detectors affects their performance. Heat detectors are
not suitable for areas where ventilated air exist, as air circulation will constantly
remove the heat from the detection system. In such areas even the efficiency of
smoke detectors is dependent on amount of air change.

The effective area of smoke detectors based on the number of air changes
recommended by NFPA 72E-1978 is given in the table below

Table: Effect of Air change in Smoke Detector’s Covered Area

Number of Air Area/Detector in

Changes m2
60 11.63
30 23.25
20 34.88
15 46.50
12 58.13
10 69.75
8.6 81.38
7.5 83.70
6.7 83.70
6.0 83.70

Single chamber ionization type smoke detector is cheaper, but is susceptible

to ambient changes, which is compensated in dual chamber smoke detectors.
Ionization detectors respond best to particles size ranging from 1 micron down
to 0.01 micron, whereas photoelectric detectors respond best to particle sizes
from approximately 10 microns down to 0.2 micron.
1.6 SITTING OF DETECTORS
Recommendations for sitting of detectors are specified in IS 2189: 1988- code of
practice for selection, installlation and maintanence of automatic fire detection and
alarm system (Amendment No.1)