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Digital communications

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PREFACE VI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VIII

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 History Background 3
1.3 Digital and Analog Sources and Systems 4
1.4 Advantages of Digital Communication Systems 5
1.5 Tradeoff in Digital Communication System 7
1.6 Block Diagram of a Communication System 8
1.7 Major Blocks of Digital Communication Systems 8

2. PULSE MODULATION 13
2.1 lntrod uction 15
2.2 Sampling Process 16
2.2-1 Sampling Theorem 16
2.2-2 [deal (Instantaneous) Sampling 17
2.2-3 Practical Sampling 20
2.2-4 Errors in Sampling 21
2.2-5 l3and-pass Sampling Theorem 27
2.3 Pulse Amplitude Modulation 29
2.3-1 Natural Sampling (Gating) PAM 29
2.3-2 Instantaneous Sampling (Flat-Top) PAM 31
2.3-3 PAM Modulators 34
2.3-4 l' AM Demodulators 35
2.3-5 Comparison between PAM Types 36
2.4 Time - Division Multiplexing 36
2.4-\ TDM oj' Signals witil Identical Sampling Rates 37
2.4-2 TDM or Signals with Dissimilar Sampling Rates 38
2.5 Pulse time modulation (PTM) 42
2.5-1 Pulse Width Modulation 42
2.5-2 Pulse Position Modulation 43
2.5-3 Generation and Demodulation of PTM 43
2.5-4 Comparison ofPTM and PAM signals 45
PROBLEMS 45

3. CONVERSION OF ANALOG SIGNALS TO DIGITAL 79

3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Pulse Code Modulation 51
3.2-1 Uniform Quantization 51
3.2-2 NOll-Uniform Quantization 58
3.2-3 Information Transfer Rate and Bandwidth of PCM 63
3.2.4 The Output SNR in PCM 65
3.2-5 11 Carrier System 68
3.2-6 reM Signals Time-Division-Multiplexing 71
DIGIT AL COMMUNICATIONS
3.2-7 Multiplexing Hierarchy of TOM Systems 73
3.3 Differential PCM 75
3.4 Delta Modulation 78
3.4-\ Introduction 78
3.4-2 The Idea of OM 78
3.4-3 Granular (Threshold) and Slope Overload Noises 82
3.4-4 Quantization Noise in OM 84
3.5 Adaptive Delta Modulation 88
3.5-1 Discrete ADM 89
3.5-2 Continuous ADM 91
3.6 Delta Pulse Code Modulation 92
3.7 Delta-Sigma Modulation 94
3.8 Comparison Between PCM and OM Systems 94
PROBLEMS 97

4. BINARY LINE CODING 105

4.1 Introduction 107
4.2 Power Spectral Density of Digital Signaling 107
4.3 Non Return-to-Zero and Return-to-Zero 110
4.4 Polar Signaling 110
4.5 Unipolar or On-Off Signaling 113
4.6 Bipolar Signaling 116
4.7 Duo-Binary Signaling 119
4.8 Manchester Signaling 122
4.9 High - Density Bipolar Signaling 126
4.10 Coded Mark Inversion Signaling 129
4.11 Bipolar with n-Zeros Substituted Codes 131
4.12 Differential Coding of Data 135
4.13 M-any or Multilevel Signaling 136
4.14 Spectral Efficiency of Line Codes 138
4.15 Comparison of Base-band Line Codes 140
PROBLEMS 141

5. PULSE SHAPING AND INTER-SYMBOL 145

INTERFERENCE
5.1 Introd uction 147
5.2 Nyquist First Criterion for Zero lSI 147
5.2-1 Ideal Pulse Shape for Zero lSI 147
5.2-2 Raised Cosine Filter 148
5.2-3 Notes About Full-Cosine Filter 151
5.2-4 Pulse Transmission Rate with NFC for Zero lSI 152
5.3 Nyquist Second Criterion for Zero lSI 154
5.4 Partial Response Signaling 156
5.4-1 Duo-binary Signaling 157
5.4.1-\ Generation of Duo-binary Pulses 158
5.4.1-2 Detection procedure and Decoder for Duo-binary Signaling 159
5.4.1-3 Using Differential Coding with Duo-binary Signaling for Zero lSI 160
5.4-2 Modified Duo-Binary Signaling 164
5.4.2-\ Coding and Detection with Modified Duo-Binary Signaling 166

DIGITAL COMM UNICA nONS II

5.4.2-2 Precoding for Modified Duo-Binary Signaling 168
PROBLEMS 170

6. PERFORMANCE OF BASEBAND DIGITAL 173

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS IN THE PRESENCE OF
NOISE
6.1 Introduction 175
6.2 Matched Filter 176
6.2-1 Matched Filter for White Noise 178
6.2-2 Integrate-And-Dump Matched Filter 179
6.2-3 The Correlator 182
6.3 Generalized Binary Receiver Block Diagram 183
6.4 Probability of Error 185
6.5 Maximum Likelihood Detector 185
6.6 Probability of Error with 'Gaussian Noise 187
6.7 Optimum Detection 193
6.8 Error Probability Performance of Binary Base-band Transmission 194
Systems
6.8-1 Unipolar Class Signaling with Full-wave Rectifier 194
6.8-2 Antipodal Class Base-band Signaling 197
6.8-3 Unipolar Class Signaling with Two Thresholds Devicc 200
PROBLEMS 204

7. DIGITAL CARRIER MODULATION SYSTEMS 207

7.1 Introduction 209
7.2 Amplitude Shift Keying 211
7.2-1 Power Spectral Density and Bandwidth. 211
7.2-2 Cieneration and Pulse Shaping. 212
7.2-3 Amplitudc Shift Keying Detection 212
7.2-4 Multi-Level Amplitude Shift Keying 221
7.3 Frequency Shift Keying 226
7.3-\ Power Spectral Density and Bandwidth 226
7.3-2 (ieneration and Pulse Shaping 227
7.3-3 Frequency Shift Keying Detection 228
7.3-4 M-ary Frequency Shill Keying 234
7.4 Phase Shift Keying 240
7.4-1 Power Spectral Density and Bandwidth 241
7.4-2 Constellation Diagram. 242
7.4-3 Phase Shift Keying Generation 243
7.4-4 Phase Shift Keying Detection 245
7.4-5 Carrier Recovery for Coherent PSK 251
7.4-6 Differential Phase Shift Keying 255
7.5 M-ary Phase Shift Keying 255
7.5-1 Quadrature Phase Shift Kcying 255
7.5-2 n/4- Quadrature Phase Shill Keying 263
7.5-3 OtI<iet Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 265
7.5-4 DilTerential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 268
7.5-5 n!4- Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 271
7.5-6 Minimum Shift Keying 275
DIGITAL COMMUNICAHONS m
7.S-7 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying 280
7.S-R M > 4 -ary Phase Shift Keying 286
7.6 Combined Amplitude and Phase Shift Keying 291
7.6-1 QAM Generation and Detection 291
7.6-2 M-ary Amplitude and Phase Keying 293
6.7-3 Data Modems Table 30 I
7.7 Comparison Between Digital Modulation Types 303
7.7-1 Applications 303
7.7-2 Bandwidth Efficiency 303
7.7-3 Error Performance 303
Problems 312

8. SOURCE CODING 321

8.1 Introduction 323
8.2 Information Measure 324
8.3 Average Information or Entropy 326
8.4 Source Coding Theorems 331
8.4-1 Code Length and Code efficiency 332
8.4-2 Source Coding Theorem I 332
8.4-3 Codes classification 334
8.4-4 Source Coding Theorem II 337
8.5 Variable length Prefix-Free Encoding 337
8.S-1 Decoding of Prefix-Free Codes 338
8.S-2 Shannon-Fano Coding 339
8.S-3 Huffman Coding 342
8.6 Dictionary Codes: Lempel-Ziv Coding 347
Problems 351

9. FUNDAMENTALS OF BLOCK CODES 355

9.1 Introduction 357
9.2 Basic Definitions and Concepts 358
9.3 Matrix Description of Linear Block Codes 361
9.3-1 Coet1icient Matrix of Linear Block Codes 3() I
9.3-2 Generator Matrix of Linear Block Codes 363
9.3-3 The Parity-Check Matrix of Linear Block Codes 367
9.4 Syndrome-Former Trellis Representation of Binary Linear Block Codes 369
9.4-1 The Syndrome and its properties 371
9.4-2 The Hamming Bound 373
9.4-3 The Syndrome -Former Trellis 376
9.5 Examples of Binary Linear Block Codes 376
9.S.1 Repetition Codes 377
9.S.2 Single-Parity-Check Codes 377
9.S.3 Single-Error-Correcting Hamming Codes 380
9.S.4 Reed-Muller Codes 383
9.5-S Hadamard Codes 385
9.S-6 Dual Code 385
9.6 Decoding of Linear Block Codes 385
9.6-1 Standard Array Decoding 385
9.6-2 Syndrome Decoding 387
9.6-3 Maximum Likelihood Decoding 3119
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS
 Problems 391

10 CYCLIC BLOCK CODES 395

10.1 Introduction 397
10.2 Polynomial Description of Cyclic Codes 397
10.2-1 Systematic Cyclic Codes 400
10.3 Matrix Description of Cyclic Codes 403
10.3-1 Shortened cyclic code 407
lOA Encoding of Cyclic Codes 408
10.5 Decoding of Cyclic Codes 410
10.6 Examples of Cyclic 415
10.6-1 Cyclic Hamming Codes 415
10.6-2 Maximum Length Shift-Register Codes 417
10.6-3 Golay Codes 418
10.6-4 Bosc-Chaudh uri -Hocg uenghem Codes 419
10.6-5 Reed-Solomon Codes 420
10.6-6 Cyclic Redundancy Check Codes 422
Problems 425

11 CONVOLUTIONAL CODES 427

11.1 Introduction 429
11.2 Basic Concepts 429
11.2-1 Code Parameters 429
11.2-2 Code Rate 430
11.2-3 Constraint Length 430
11.2-4 Code Generator Polynomial 430
11.2-5 Selection of Code Polynomials 431
11.2-6 Structure of Convolutional Code 431
11.2-7 States of Code 432
11.2-8 Punctured Codes 433
11.2-9 Str'ucturc of a Code for k > J 434
11.2-10 Systematic Convolutional Codes 434
11.3 Coding an Incoming Sequence 435
11.4 Encoder Design of Convolutional Codes 438
11.4-1 Look Up Table 438
I 1.4-2 State Diagram 439
11.4-3 Tree Diagram 440
11.4-4 Trellis Diagram 441
11.5 Convolutional Codes Decoding 444
11.6 Sequential Decoding of Convolutional Codes 445
11.7 Maximnm Likeliho[)d and Vitcrbi Decoding 448
11.8 Soft Decision Decoding 454
Problems 457

REFERENCES 495
INDEX 463

DIGITAL COMMUNICA nONS v

 Preface
Digital communications IS a rapidly advancing applications area. The design and
manufacturing of hardware and software for digital communication networks are among the
fastest growing engineering areas. In order to adapt and contribute effectively to these
changes electrical engineers need to acquire a solid foundation and understanding of digital
communications.
Most of communications have become digital because of advantages of digital
communications over analog communication. Digital communication is rugged in the sense
that it is more immune to channel noise and distortion. It is inherently more efficient than
analog in realizing the exchange of SNR for bandwidth. Also regenerative repeaters along
the transmission path can detect a digital signal and retransmit a new noise-free signal. This
prevents accumulation of noise along the path. Digital signals can be coded to yield
extremely low error rates and high fidelity.
Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits the use of microprocessors,
minicomputers, and digital switching and large-scale integrated circuits. It is easier and more
efficient to multiplex several digital signals than analog.
The book is primarily intended for a technical audience that has been exposed to introductory
communication theory, but that is encountering digital communications for the first time.
The primary background assumed the reader is familiarity with elementary probability
concepts, plus ability in transform calculus and linear system theory. The text should be
appropriate for being under graduate-level courses in digital communications.
The material within the book has been developed and refined over many years of lecturing
on digital communications to fourth year undergraduates.
This book has been written for the beginners. It is the result of class notes from an
undergraduate-level course that was taught to students in electrical and computer
engineering. The level of exposition in this book has been aimed at undergraduate students in
their junior or senior years of study.
The text in this book is organized according to the simplified block diagram of a digital
communication system consisting of a digital transmitter, di~crete noisy channel and a digital
receiver.
In chapter I is described the pulse modulation including sampling process, pulse amplitude
modulation, pulse width modulation, pulse position modulation, and time division
multiplexing of pulse type modulated signals. Types of sampling, errors in sampling and
different types of pulse amplitude modulation are included.
Chapter 2 discusses pulse code modulation in general. Quantization process, types of
quantizers and quantization error is discussed in this chapter. Time-division multiplexing of
digital signals, Tl-carrier system and mUltiplexing hierarchies is provided in this chapter.
Techniques used to reduce the bandwidth of converted to digital analog signal are discussed
in chapter 3. \1ost special types of ADC converters such as delta modulation, adaptive delta
modulation, delta pulse code modulation, differential pulse code modulation and delta-sigma
modulati on are discussed here. Quantization noise, advantages, disadvantages and
comparison between different systems are provided.
Chapter 4 discusses binary line codes, their power spectral densities, and most their
advantages and disadvantages. The following line signaling techniques are considered polar
signaling. unipolar, alternate mark inversion, duo-binary, Manchester, high density bipolar,
coded mark inversion, bipolar With n-zeros substituted and M-Ievel signaling. Differential
coding, spectral efficiency and comparison between line codes are also provided.

DIGlT AL COMMUNICATIONS VI
Chapter 5 discusses the problem of inter-symbol interference, methods of its solution and
effect of the solution on the bandwidth and efficiency of digital signals
[n chapter 6 are discussed the performance of base band line codes of chapter 4 in the
presence of adaptive Gaussian white noise. The concepts of matched filter, integrate and
dump detector, probability of error, and maximum [ikelihood detector are provided.
Equations for minimum probability of error for different line codes in the presence of
adaptive Gaussian white noise and optimum threshold values are found.
Chapter 7 is the main part of the book. Special attention is given to modulation techniques
used in modern digital communication systems. In this chapter are provided amp[itllde shift
keying. frequency shift keying, phase shift keying, and their M-ary versions. Differential
phase shift keying, quadrature phase shift keying, 11/4- quadrature phase shift keying, offsCl
quadrature phase shift keying, differential quadrature phase Shift Keying, 1114- differential
quadrature phase shift keying. minimum shift keying, and Gaussian minimum shift keying
are also studied in details. Special attention is given to quadrature amplitude modulation and
amplitude phase shift keying as an example of combined modulation techniques. A
comparison between different modulation techniques from bandwidth occupancy. bit error
probability, symbol error probability and applications is also provided.
In chapter R is discussed the problem of source coding. And given the basic definiliull:-. 01'
information. source-coding theorems, and coding and decoding variable length prefix-free
codes such as: Shannon-Fano and Huffman, and dictionary codes.
Fundamentals of block codes are discussed in chapter 9.
Chapter 10 discusses cyclic block codes, an important type of block codes usually used ,is an
error detecting technique in data communication networks.
As mentioned in the previous chapter error control coding is concerned with methods of
delivering information from a source to a destination with a minimum of errors. Codes for
error control generally fell into two categories, namely block codes and convolutiona[ codes.
Chapter [I provides one of the most important techniques of error detection and elTor
correction codes. the convolutional codes.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his thanks and acknowledgement to Professor \Ilansur AI-
Abbadi (University of Science and Technology - Jordan) for his ted1l1ical review of the
book. who gave generously of his time and expertise. and his many he[pful and constructive
comments and suggestions for improvement ofthe text.
The author also wishes to thank Dr. Sabbar Saadoon Sultan (AI-Ism Private University-
Jordan) for his language reviewing of the text and for his many comments and suggestions
for improvement of the text language structure.
Acknowledgement is to be made to Professor Sadie Hamed (University of Jordan Jordall)
and Professor Gahnim AI-hissaui (Dean of Scientific Research at AI-Ism Uiliversity
Jordan) for their encouragement and advice

DIGITAL COMMUN[CATIONS VII

ERMES European Radio Message System
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
EVM Lrror Vector Magnitude
FCS Frame check sequence
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FEC Forward error correction
FER Frame Error Rate
FFSK Fast Frequency Shift Keying
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FLEX 4-level FSK-based paging standard developed by Motorola
FM Frequency Modulation
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
FT Fourier Transform
GFSK Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying
Globalstar Satellite system using 48 low-earth orbiting satellites
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
HDBn High-density bipolar coding with n-zeros substituted
HDTV High Definition Television
iDEN integrated Dispatch Enhanced Network (Motorola designed system for
dispatch, cellular, and conference calling)
..
1(;'

IIQ
Intermediate Frequency
[n phase/Quadrature
Iridium Motorola voice/data 66-satel[ite system worldwide
lSI Inter symbol Interference
IS-54 Interim Standard for US Digital Cellular (NADC)
IS-95 Interim Standard for US Code Division Multiple Access
IS-136 Interim Standard for NADC with Digital Control Channels
LAN local area network
LMDS Local Multi-point Distribution System
LPC Linear Predictive Coding
LPF Low Pass Filter
LZC Lempel-Ziv Coding
MASK Multi-level Amplitude Shift Keying
MDPSK Multi-level Ditferential Phase Shift Keying
MLC Maximum length shift-register codes
MT Matched Filter
MFSK Minimum Frequency Shift Keying
MMDS Multi-channel Multi-point Distribution System
MQAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
MPSK Minimum Phase Shift Keying
M-PSK M-ary Phase Shift Keying
MSK Minimum Shift Keying
NADC North American Digital Cellular system
NFC Nyquist First Criterion
NRZ Non Return-to-Zero
NSC Nyquist Second Criterion
OFDM Onhogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OOK On-Oft Keying
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIO:--lS [X
OOS On-Off Signaling
OQPSK Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
PACS Personal Access Communications Service
PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation
pes Personal Communications System
PCM Pulse Code Modulation
POC Pacific Digital Cellular System (formerly JDC)
POF Probability Density Function
PLL Phase-Locked Loop
PHS Personal Handyphone System (formerly PHP)
PPM Pulse Position Modulation
PRBS Pseudo-Random Bit Sequence
PSO Power Spectral Density
PSK Phase Shift Keying
PTM Pulse Time Modulation
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
RAM W ire Ie5S data network
RF Radio Frequency
RS Reed-Solomon
RZ Return-to-Zero
RMS Root Mean Square
SCC systematic cyclic code
SDLC Synchronous Data Link Control
Sl'iR Signal to Noise power Ratio
SQRT Square Root
TOO Time Division Duplex
TDM Time Division Multiplexing
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TETRA Trans European Trunked Radio
TFTS ferrestrial Flight Telephone System
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator
VLSI Vl:ry Large Scale Intl:gration
VSB Vestigial Side Band
WLL Wire\e,s Local Loop

DiGITAL COMMUNICATIONS x
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
\I)C Analog to Digital Converter
AI)M Adaptive Delta Modulation
'\( 'I' Adjacent Channel Power
AI)PCM Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
A(;WN Adaptive Gaussian White Noise
AM Amplitude Modulation
AMI Alternate Mark Inversion
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
'\PK Amplitude Phase Keying
AHQ Automatic-repeat request
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
B-CDMA Broadband Code Division Multiple Access
BCH Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem
BDMS Binary Discrete Memoryless Source
BW Bandwidth
BER Bit Error Rate
BFSK Binary Frequency Shift Keying
BnZS Bipolar with n-Zeros Substituted Codes
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
BW Bandwidth
CC Cyclic Codes
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CDPD Cellular Digital Packet Data
CMI Coded Mark Inversion
COFDM Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
CPFSK Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CT2 Cordless Telephone 2
DAB Digital Audio Broadcast
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
DCS 1800 Digital Communication System 1800 MHz
DCT Discrete Cosine Transform
DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone
DFT Discrete Fourier Transform
DM Delta Modulation
DMCA Digital Multi Channel Access, similar to iDEN
DMS Discrete Memory\ess Source
DPCM Differential Pulse Code Modulation
l!PCM Delta Pulse Code Modulation
DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying
DQPSK Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
DSP Digital Signal Processing
~-L:-M Delta Sigma Modulation
DVB-C Digital Video Broadcast Cable
DVB-S Digital Video Broadcast Satellite
DVB-T Digital Video Broadcast Terrestrial
EGSM Extended Frequency GSM
DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS VIII

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