Just intonation [pure]

Just intonation [pure]

Mark Lindley

https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14564
Published in print: 20 January 2001
Published online: 2001

When pitch can be intoned with a modicum of flexibility, the term ‘just intonation’ refers to the
consistent use of harmonic intervals tuned so pure that they do not beat, and of melodic intervals
derived from such an arrangement, including more than one size of whole tone. On normal keyboard
instruments, however, the term refers to a system of tuning in which some 5ths (often including D–A or
else G–D) are left distastefully smaller than pure in order that the other 5ths and most of the 3rds will
not beat (it being impossible for all the concords on a normal keyboard instrument to be tuned pure;
see Temperaments, §1). The defect of such an arrangement can be mitigated by the use of an elaborate
keyboard.

1. General theory.

In theory, each justly intoned interval is represented by a numerical ratio. The larger number in the
ratio represents the greater string length on the traditional Monochord and hence the lower pitch; in
terms of wave frequencies it represents the higher pitch. The ratio for the octave is 2:1; for the 5th 3:2;
for the 4th 4:3. Pythagorean intonation shares these pure intervals with just intonation, but excludes
from its ratios any multiples of 5 or any higher prime number, whereas just-intonation theory admits
multiples of 5 in order to provide for pure 3rds and 6ths.

To find the ratio for the sum of two intervals their ratios are multiplied; the ratio for the difference
between two intervals is found by dividing their ratios. In Pythagorean intonation the whole tone
normally has the ratio 9:8 (obtained by dividing the ratio of the 5th by that of the 4th), and so the
major 3rd has the ratio 81:64 (obtained by squaring 9:8). But a pure major 3rd has the ratio 5:4, which
is the same as 80:64 and thus smaller than 81:64. (The discrepancy between the two (81:80) is called
the syntonic comma and amounts to about one ninth of a whole tone.) Since 5:4 divided by 9:8 equals
40:36, or rather 10:9 (a comma less than 9:8), just intonation has two different sizes of whole tone – a
feature that tends to go against the grain of musical common sense and gives rise to various practical
as well as theoretical complications. Some 18th-century advocates of just intonation and others since
have admitted ratios with multiples of 7 (such as 7:5 for the diminished 5th in a dominant 7th chord;
see Septimal system).

Two medieval British theorists, Theinred of Dover and Walter Odington, suggested that the proper
ratio for a major 3rd might be 5:4 rather than 81:64, and some 15th-century manuscript treatises on
clavichord making include quintal and, in one instance, septimal ratios (see Lindley, 1980). Quintal
ratios were introduced into the mainstream of Renaissance musical thought by Ramis de Pareia, whose
famous theoretical monochord (1482) provided just intonation for the notes of traditional plainchant,
but with G–D, B♭–G and D–B implicitly left a comma impure. Thence Ramis derived the 12-note scale by

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Just intonation [pure]

adding two 5ths on the flat side (A♭ and E♭) and two on the sharp (F♯ and C♯); in this scheme, C♯–A♭
would make a good 5th, hardly 2 cents smaller than pure. Ramis did not intend or expect this tuning to
be used in any musical performances, however, for in his last chapter (giving advice to ‘cantors’ and
describing what he called ‘instrumenta perfecta’) he said that G–D was a good 5th but C♯–A♭ must be
avoided (see Temperaments, §2).

Gioseffo Zarlino (1558) argued that although voices accompanied by artificial instruments would match
their tempered intonation, good singers when unaccompanied would adhere to the pure intervals of
the ‘diatonic syntonic’ tetrachord which he had selected (following the example of Ramis's disciple,
Giovanni Spataro) from Ptolemy's various models of the tetrachord. Zarlino eventually became aware
that this would entail a sour 5th in any diatonic scale consisting of seven rigidly fixed pitch classes; but
he held that the singers' capacity to intone in a flexible manner would enable them to avoid such
problems without recourse to a tempered scale – and that they must do so because otherwise the
‘natural’ intervals (those with simple ratios) ‘would never be put into action’, and ‘sonorous number …
would be altogether vain and superfluous in Nature’. This metaphysically inspired nonsense was to
prove a stimulating irritant in the early development of experimental physics, and during the next
three centuries a number of distinguished scientists paid a remarkable amount of attention to the
conundrum of just intonation (as well as to various attempts to explain the nature of consonance by
something more real than sonorous numbers).

In the 1560s Giovanni Battista Benedetti, a mathematician and physicist, pointed out in two letters to
the distinguished composer Cipriano de Rore (who had been Zarlino's predecessor as maestro di
cappella at S Marco, Venice) that if progressions such as that shown in ex.1 were sung repeatedly in
just intonation, the pitch level would change quite appreciably, going up or down a comma each time.
In 1581 Vincenzo Galilei, a former pupil of Zarlino, denied that just intonation was used in vocal music,
and asserted that the singers' major 3rd ‘is contained in an irrational proportion rather close to 5:4’
and that their whole tones made ‘two equal parts of the said 3rd’. In the ensuing quarrels, Vincenzo
Galilei's search for evidence against Zarlino's mystical doctrine of the ‘senario’ (the doctrine that the
numbers 1–6 are the essence of music) led him to discover by experiment that for any interval the ratio
of thicknesses between two strings of equal length is the square root of the ratio of lengths between
two strings of equal thickness. This undermined the theoretical status of the traditional ratios of just
intonation as far as the eminent Dutch scientist Simon Stevin was concerned; it might have had further
consequences had not Galilei retracted in 1589 his 1581 account of vocal intonation, and had not his
son Galileo's generation devised the ‘pulse’ theory of consonance, according to which the eardrum is
struck simultaneously by the wave pulses of the notes in any consonant interval or chord (thus
mistakenly assuming that the waves are always in phase with one another). Such a theory tended
rather to undermine the concept of tempered consonances, where the wave frequencies are
theoretically incommensurate.

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Just intonation [pure]

Ex.1 One of Benedetti’s demonstrations that just intonation, if used consistently, will disturb the pitch

Descartes found Stevin's dismissal of simple ratios ‘so absurd that I hardly know any more how to
reply’, but Marin Mersenne advanced the real argument that the superiority of justly intoned intervals
is shown by the fact that they do not beat (1636–7). (He probably gained this argument from Isaac
Beeckman, who seems to have invented the ‘pulse’ theory of consonance.) 50 years later, however,
Wolfgang Caspar Printz wrote that a 5th tempered by 1/4-comma remains concordant because ‘Nature
… transforms the confusion into a pleasant beating [which] should be taken not as a defect but rather
as a perfection and gracing of the 5th’. Andreas Werckmeister agreed (Musicalische Temperatur, 2/
1691/R).

About this time Christiaan Huygens developed Benedetti's point (although he did not associate it with
Benedetti) in his assertion that if one sings the notes shown in ex.2 slowly, the pitch will fall (just as in
ex.1); ‘but if one sings quickly, I find that the memory of the first C keeps the voice on pitch, and thus
makes it state the consonant intervals a little falsely’. Rameau stated (Génération harmonique, 1737)
that an accompanied singer is guided by the ‘temperament of the instruments’ only for the
‘fundamental sounds’ (the roots of the triads), and automatically modifies, in the course of singing the
less fundamental notes, ‘everything contrary to the just rapport of the fundamental sounds’. While this
represents a musicianly departure from the common error that there is something natural about
Zarlino’s model of the octave, it does rather overlook the fact that the tuning of the ‘fundamental
sounds’ was normally tempered on keyboard instruments and lutes.

Ex.2. Huygens’s example of a succession of notes for which the use of just intonation would make the pitch
fall

The most eminent scientist among 18th-century music theorists, Leonhard Euler, developed an
elaborate and remarkably broad mathematical theory of tonal structure (scales, modulations, chord
progressions and gradations of consonance and dissonance) based exclusively upon just-intonation
ratios. He failed to observe that a 5th tuned a comma smaller than pure sounds sour, and so allowed

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Just intonation [pure]

himself to be misled by an inept passage in Johann Mattheson's Grosse General-Bass-Schule (1731) into
supposing that keyboard instruments of his day were actually tuned in just intonation. Euler at first
rejected septimal intervals, saying in 1739 that ‘they sound too harsh and disturb the harmony’, but
declared in 1760 that if they were introduced, ‘music would be carried to a higher degree’ (an idea
previously voiced by Mersenne and Christiaan Huygens). He published two articles in 1764 to
demonstrate that ‘music has now learnt to count to seven’ (Leibnitz had said that music could only
‘count to five’).

Another extreme of theoretical elaboration was reached in the early 19th century by John Farey, a
geologist, who reckoned intervals by a combination of three mutually incommensurate units of
measurement derived from just-intonation ratios. Farey's largest unit was the ‘schisma’, which was the
difference between the syntonic and Pythagorean commas. (The Pythagorean comma is the amount by
which six Pythagorean whole tones exceed an octave; the schisma is some 1.95 cents and has the ratio
32805:32768.) His smallest unit was the amount by which the syntonic comma theoretically exceeds 11
schismas (or by which 11 octaves theoretically exceed the sum of 42 Pythagorean whole tones and 12
pure major 3rds; this is some 1/65-cent, and its ratio would require 49 digits to write out). His
intermediate unit (some 0·3 cent) was the amount by which each of the three most common types of
just-intonation semitone (16:15, 25:24 and 135:128) theoretically exceeds some combination of the
other two units or the amount by which 21 octaves theoretically exceed the difference between 37 5ths
and two major 3rds.

2. Instruments.

Rameau reported (1737) that some masters of the violin and basse de viol tempered their open-string
intervals – an idea also found in the writings of Werckmeister (1691) and Quantz (Versuch einer
Anweisung die Flöte traversiere zu spielen, 1752). But Boyden has shown (1951) that evidence from
the writings of 18th-century violinists, particularly Geminiani and Tartini, points to a kind of just
intonation flexibly applied to successive intervals with adjustments when necessary both melodically
and harmonically on each of the four strings, tuned in pure 5ths, as points of reference. In the 1760s
Michele Stratico, a former pupil of Tartini, worked out a fairly efficient system of notation for this kind
of just intonation, including septimal intervals (ex.3).

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Just intonation [pure]

Ex.3 Stratico’s pragmatic notation for just intonation: (a) the basic signs; (b) the harmonic series and its
inversion: (c) some chord progressions

To model a fretted instrument upon just intonation entails the use of zig-zag frets. Dirck
Rembrandtsoon van Nierop, a mathematician who favoured just intonation for all sorts of instruments
as well as voices, worked out (1659) an exact fretting scheme for a cittern, according to which each
position on the highest course could be supplied with one or more justly intoned chords as shown in ex.
4. Some other devotees of just intonation who designed fretted instruments were Giovanni Battista
Doni, Thomas Salmon and Thomas Perronet Thompson (fig.1).

Ex.4 Pure chords available on Nierop’s justly intoned cittern (the fourth fret, ‘e’ in the tablature notation, is
a whole tone above the third fret, ‘d’; the others are a semitone apart)

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Just intonation [pure]

Guitar with frets placed for just intonation, from Thomas Perronet Thompson’s ‘Instructions to my Daughter
for Playing on the Enharmonic Guitar’ (1829)

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Just intonation [pure]

The simplest way to provide all possible pure concords among the naturals of a keyboard instrument
with fixed intonation is to have two Ds, one pure with F and A and the other, a comma higher, pure
with G and B. (The concept of a diatonic scale in just intonation with two Ds a comma apart goes back
to Lodovico Fogliano's Musica theorica, 1529.) If this group of eight notes is then provided with a
complement of ten chromatic notes each natural will have available all six of its possible triadic
concords. This scheme was described by Mersenne and employed by Joan Albert Ban for a harpsichord
built in Haarlem in 1639 (for illustration see Ban, Joan Albert). Mersenne stated that on a keyboard
instrument of this type the ‘perfection of the harmony’ would abundantly repay the difficulty of playing,
‘which organists will be able to surmount in the space of one week’.

The ‘justly intoned harmonium’ of Helmholtz (in mathematical terms not exactly embodying just
intonation, but deviating from it insignificantly from a practical and acoustical point of view) combined
two normal keyboards for the scheme shown in fig.7. The 12 pitch classes shown to the left are on the
upper manual, the 12 to the right on the lower manual. No justly intoned triadic note is present beyond
the lines along the top and bottom of the diagram, but the three notes at the right end (A, C♯ or D♭, and
E) make justly intoned triads with the three at the left (E, G♯ or A♭, and C). Thus the major and minor
triads on F, A, and D♭ or C♯ require the use of both manuals at once. The 12 pitch classes shown in the
upper half of the diagram are each a comma lower in intonation than their equivalents in the lower half
of the diagram. Every 5th except C♯–G♯ or D♭–A♭ is available at two different pitch levels a comma
apart, and the same is true of six triads: the major ones on E, B and F♯, and the minor ones on G♯, D♯
or E♭, and B♭. In the case of triads on C, D, F, G and A, however, the major triad is always intoned a
comma higher than its parallel minor triad.

Various other elaborate keyboard instruments capable of playing in just or virtually just intonation
have been built by Galeazzo Sabbatini, Doni, H.W. Poole, H. Liston, R.H.M. Bosanquet, S. Tanaka, Eitz,
Partch, the Motorola Scalatron Corporation and others (see Microtonal instruments). Playing such an
instrument involves choosing which form of each note to use at which moment. If the proper choice is
consistently made, impure vertical intervals will be avoided and the occurrence of impure melodic ones
minimized. The criteria for choosing, which differ in detail with each kind of elaborate keyboard
pattern, are intricate but capable of being incorporated in a pattern of electric circuits amounting to a
simple computer programme. In 1936 Eivind Groven, a Norwegian composer and musicologist, built a
harmonium with 36 pitches per octave tuned to form an extension of Helmholtz's quasi-just-intonation
scheme, but with a normal keyboard, the choice of pitch inflections being made automatically while the
performer plays as on a conventional instrument. He later (1954) devised a single-stop pipe organ of
the same type, now at the Fagerborg Kirke in Oslo, a complete electronic organ with 43 pitches per
octave (1965), now at the Valerencen Kirke in Oslo, and a complete pipe organ incorporating his
invention (c1970, built by Walcker & Cie.). Groven's work has made just intonation practicable on
keyboard instruments that are no more difficult to play than ordinary ones.

While the distinctive quality of justly intoned intervals is unmistakable, their aesthetic value is bound
to depend upon the stylistic context. In 1955 Kok reported, on the basis of experiments with an
electronic organ capable of performing in various tuning systems, that musicians, unlike other
listeners, heard the difference between equal and mean-tone temperaments, giving preference to the

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Just intonation [pure]

latter, ‘and a fortiori the just intonation, but only in broad terminating chords and for choral-like music.
However, they … do not like the pitch fluctuations caused by instantaneously corrected thirds’.
According to McClure (‘Studies in Keyboard Temperaments’, GSJ, i, 1948, pp.28–40), George Bernard
Shaw recalled that in the 1870s the progressions of pure concords on Bosanquet's harmonium (with 53
pitches in each octave) had sounded to him ‘unpleasantly slimy’. E.H. Pierce (1924), describing the
1906 model of the Telharmonium, which was capable of being played in just intonation with 36 pitches
in each octave, reported:

The younger players whom I taught … at first followed out my instructions, but as time went on they
began to realize (as in fact I did myself) that there is a spirit in modern music which not only does not
demand just intonation, but actually would suffer from its use, consequently they relapsed more and
more into the modern tempered scale.

The composer and theorist J.D. Heinichen remarked (Der General-Bass in der Composition, 1728, p.85)
that because keys with two or three sharps or flats in their signature were so beautiful and expressive
in well-tempered tunings, especially in the theatrical style, he would not favour the invention of the
‘long-sought pure-diatonic’ keyboard even if it were to become practicable. These remarks suggest that
the recently achieved technological feasibility of just intonation on keyboard instruments is but a step
towards its musical emancipation and that further steps are likely to depend on the resourcefulness of
composers who may be inclined in the future to discover and exploit its virtues.

Bibliography

To 1800
MersenneHU

B. Ramis de Pareia: Musica practica (Bologna, 1482, 2/1482/R; Eng. trans., 1993)

G. Spataro: Errori de Franchino Gafurio da Lodi (Bologna, 1521)

G. Zarlino: Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558/R, 3/1573/R; Eng. trans. of pt iii, 1968/R, as
The Art of Counterpoint; Eng. trans. of pt iv, 1983, as On the Modes)

G. Zarlino: Dimostrationi harmoniche (Venice, 1571/R)

F. de Salinas: De musica libri septem (Salamanca, 1577, 2/1592; Sp. trans., 1983)

V. Galilei: Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna (Florence, 1581/R; partial Eng. trans. in
StrunkSR1)

G.B. Benedetti: Diversarum speculationum mathematicarum & physicarum liber (Turin, 1585),
282

G. Zarlino: Sopplimenti musicali (Venice, 1588/R)

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Just intonation [pure]

V. Galilei: Discorso intorno all'opere di Messer Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia (Florence, 1589/R)

S. Stevin: Vande spiegheling der singconst, c1600, ed. D. Bierens de Haan (Amsterdam, 1884);
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G.M. Artusi: ‘Considerationi musicali’, appx to Seconda parte dell'Artusi (Venice, 1603/R)

G.B. Doni: Compendio del trattato de' generi e de' modi della musica (Rome, 1635)

M. Mersenne: Harmonicorum libri, in quibus agitur de sonorum natura (Paris, 1635–6)

G.B. Doni: Annotazioni sopra il Compendio de' generi e de' modi della musica (Rome, 1640)

D.R. van Nierop: Wis-konstige musyka (Amsterdam, 1659)

I. Newton: unpubd MSS on music, 1665 (GB-Cu Add.4000)

C. Huygens: writings on music, ed. in Oeuvres complètes, 20 (The Hague, 1940)

W.C. Printz: Exercitationes musicae theoretico-practicae curiosae, 3–5 (Dresden, 1687–8)

T. Salmon: A Proposal to Perform Musick in Perfect and Mathematical Proportions (London,

1688)

T. Salmon: ‘The Theory of Musick Reduced to Arithmetical and Geometrical Proportion’,

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verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage (Hamburg, 1731/R)

P. Prelleur: The Modern Musick-Master, or The Universal Musician, v: The Art of Playing on the
Violin (London, 1731/R)

L. Euler: Tentamen novae theoriae musicae (St Petersburg, 1739) repr. in Opera omnia, III/i
(Leipzig, 1926), 197–427; Eng. trans. in C.S. Smith: Leonhard Euler's ‘Tentamen novae theoriae
musicae’ (diss., Indiana U., 1960)

F. Geminiani: The Art of Playing the Violin (London, 1751/R1952 with introduction by D.D.
Boyden)

G. Tartini: Trattato di musica secondo la vera scienza dell'armonia (Padua, 1754/R; Eng. trans. in
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U., 1985)

G.B. Doni: Lyra Barberina amphicordos, ed A.F. Gori and G.B. Passeri (Florence, 1763/R)

L. Euler: ‘Conjecture sur la raison de quelques dissonances généralement reçues dans la

musique’; ‘Du véritable caractère de la musique moderne’, Mémoires de l'Academie royale des

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Just intonation [pure]

sciences et des belles lettres de Berlin, 20 (1764), 165, 174–99; repr. in Opera omnia, iii/1, 508–
15, 516–39

L. Euler: Lettres à une princesse d'Allemagne (Berne, 1775, many later edns; Eng. trans., 1975)

I-
M. Stratico: MS treatises on music (Vsm it. iv 341–3)

Since 1800
H. Liston: An Essay on Perfect Intonation (Edinburgh, 1812)

J. Farey: ‘On Different Modes of Expressing the Magnitudes and Relations of Musical Intervals’,
American Journal of Science, 2 (1820), 74

T.P. Thompson: Instructions to my Daughter for Playing on the Enharmonic Guitar (London,
1829)

H.W. Poole: ‘An Essay on Perfect Intonation in the Organ’, American Journal of Science and the
Arts, 2nd ser., 9 (1850), 68–83, 199–216

M. Hauptmann: Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik (Leipzig, 1853, 2/1873; Eng trans.,
1888/R)

C.E.L. Delezenne: Table de logarithmes acoustiques (Lille, 1857)

T.P. Thompson: On the Principles and Practice of Just Intonation with a View to the Abolition of
Temperament (London, 1860)

H. von Helmholtz: Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungnen als physiologische Grundlage für die
Theorie der Musik (Brunswick, 1863, 6/1913/R; Eng. trans., 1875, as On the Sensations of Tone,
2/1885/R)

G. Engel: Das mathematische Harmonium (Berlin, 1881)

S. Tanaka: ‘Studier im Gebiete der reinen Stimmung’, VMw, 6 (1890), 1–90

C.A. Eitz: Das mathematisch-reine Tonsystem (Leipzig, 1891)

M. Planck: ‘Die naturliche Stimmung in der modernen Vokalmusik’, VMw, 9 (1893) 418–40

E.P.L. Atkins: ‘Ear-Training and the Standardization of Equal Temperament’, PMA, 41 (1914–15),
91–111

E.H. Pierce: ‘A Colossal Experiment in Just Intonation’, MQ, 10 (1924), 326–32

N.L. Norton: ‘A New Theory of Untempered Music’, MQ, 22 (1936), 217–33

J.M. Barbour: ‘Just Intonation Confuted’, ML, 19 (1938), 48–60

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Just intonation [pure]

E. Groven: Temperering og renstemning [Temperament and tuning] (Oslo, 1948; Eng. trans.,
1970)

J.M. Barbour: Tuning and Temperament: a Historical Survey (East Lansing, MI, 1951/R, 2/1953)

D. Boyden: ‘Prelleur, Geminiani, and Just Intonation’, JAMS, 4 (1951), 202–19

E. Groven: ‘My Untempered Organ’, Organ Institute Quarterly, 5/3 (1955), 34

W. Kok: Harmonische orgels (The Hague, 1955) [with Eng. summary]

H. Stephani: Zur Psychologie des musikalischen Hörens: Hören wir naturrein, quintengestimmt,
temperiert? (Regensburg, 1956)

C.V. Palisca, ed.: Girolamo Mei (1519–1594): Letters on Ancient and Modern Music to Vincenzo
Galilei and Giovanni Bardi, MSD, 3 (1960, 2/1977)

C.V. Palisca: ‘Scientific Empiricism in Musical Thought’, Seventeenth Century Science and the
Arts, ed. H. Rhys (Princeton, 1961), 91–137; repr. in C. Palisca: Studies in the History of Italian
Music and Music Theory (New York, 1994), 200–35

Ll.S. Lloyd: Intervals, Scales and Temperaments, ed. H. Boyle (London, 1963, 2/1978)

C. Dahlhaus: ‘Die “Reine Stimmung” als musikalisches Problem’, Festskrift til Olav Gurvin, ed. F.
Benestad and P. Krømer (Drammen and Oslo, 1968), 49–55

R. Dammann: ‘Die Musica mathematica von Bartolus’, AMw, 26 (1969), 140–62

E. Groven: Equal Temperament and Pure Tuning (Oslo, 1969)

D.P. Walker: Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London, 1978)

M. Lindley: ‘Pythgorean Intonation and the Rise of the Triad’, RMARC, no.16 (1980) 4–61

M. Lindley: ‘Der Tartini-Schuler Michele Stratico’, GfMKB: Bayreuth 1981, 366–70

M. Lindley: ‘Leonhard Euler als Musiktheoretiker’, GfMKB: Bayreuth 1981, 547–53

R. Rasch: ‘Ban's Intonation’, TVNM, 33 (1983), 75–99

M. Lindley: Lutes, Viols and Temperaments (Cambridge, 1984)

M. Lindley: ‘Stimmung und Temperatur’, Hören, Messen und Rechnen in der frühen Neuzeit, ed.
F. Zaminer (Darmstadt, 1987), 109–331

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