CORE 2-Establish Farm Production Plan

Competency-Based Learning Materials
Establish Farm Production Plan
Date Developed:
CBLM in
AGROENTREPRENE January 2022
URSHIP NC II Developed by: Page 1 of 137
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Production Plan Alibania
HOW TO USE THIS COMPETENCY BASED LEARNING MATERIAL
Welcome to this Competency Based Learning Material for the Module

ESTABLISH FARM PRODUCTION PLAN.
This learning material contains activities for you to complete. It covers the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required to complete the competency:
ESTABLISH FARM PRODUCTION PLAN one of the modules in the Core
Competencies for Agroentrepreneurship NC II.
You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

complete each of the learning outcomes of this module. In each learning
outcome, Learning Elements and Reference materials are available for your
further reading to assist you in the required activities. You are expected to
accomplish all the required activities and to answer the self- check after
each learning element. Please note that you need to have 100% correct
answers to each self-check to pass the activity. You are required to obtain
answer sheets, which are available from your trainer or at the end of each
learning element, to reflect your answers for each self-check. If you have
questions, please do not hesitate to ask your facilitator for assistance.
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
You have acquired some or most of the knowledge and skills covered in this
learning material because you have:
 Actual experience on the job;

 Already completed training in this area.
So, if you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a
particular skill, you do not have to do the same training again. Or, if you
feel you have the skills, talk to you trainer about having them formally
recognized. You may also show Certificates of Competence from previous
training. And if you acquired skills are still updated/relevant to the module,
they may become part of the evidence you can present for RPL.
A Learner’s diary can be found at the end of this learning material. Use this
diary to record important dates, jobs undertaken and other workplace
events that will assist you in providing further details to your trainer or
assessor. Record of Achievement is also provided for your trainer to fill-in
upon completion of this module.
This module was prepared to help you achieve the required competency in
Agroentrepreneurship NC II. It will serve as a source of information for you
to acquire required knowledge and skills for AGRI FISHERIES SECTOR,
CBLM in Date Developed:

Establish Farm Caren Grace Justo-
with minimum supervision or help from your trainer. This material will aid
you in acquiring the competency at your own pace, independently. To
achieve the full benefit of this module.
 Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize your
training on this unit. Read through the Competency Based Learning
material carefully. It is divided into sections which will cover all the
skills and knowledge you need to successfully complete this module.
 Most probably, you trainer will be your supervisor. He/She will be
there to support and show you the correct way to do things. Ask for
help if you need one.
 Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to
consider when doing the activities. It is important that you listen and
take notes.
 You will have plenty of opportunities to ask questions and undergo
rigid practice. This will help you in achieving competency your new
skill. Sample practice will improve your speed, memory and even
confident.
 Talk with more experienced colleagues and ask for guidance.
 Answer self-checks at the end of end section to test your own
progress.
 When you finished each element and feel that you are ready,
demonstrate the activities outlined in the learning material to your
trainer.
 As you work through the activities, your trainer will be taking note of
your performance. He/She will be providing feedback on your
progress. Your readiness for assessment will be reflected in his/her
report, if and when you have successfully completed each element.
 When you have completed this module and feel confident that you
have had sufficient practice, you may request you trainer to arrange
an appointment with a registered assessor for your assessment. The
results of the assessment will be recorded in your Competency
Achievement Record.
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
LIST OF COMPETENCIES
No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

1. Assess Market Assessing Market AFF243301
Opportunities Opportunities
2. Establish Farm Establishing Farm AFF243302
Production Plan Production Plan
3. Handle Finances Handling Finances AFF243303
4. Market Produce Marketing Produce AFF243304
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
UNIT OF COMPETENCY : ESTABLISH FARM PRODUCTION PLAN
MODULE TITLE : ESTABLISHING FARM PRODUCTION PLAN
MODULE DESCRIPTOR: This unit deals with the knowledge, skills and
attitudes required to review, prepare and improve farm production plan. It
also includes competencies in monitoring activities, record keeping and
information gathering.
NOMINAL DURATION : 32 hours
SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Upon completion of this module the students/trainees will be able to:
LO1. Review Farm Production Plan;
LO2. Prepare Farm Production Plan;
LO3. Improve Farm Production Plan
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
 Monitored farm production performance according to industry
standard
 Gather information and feedback following industry practices
 Practice record keeping following workplace procedures
 Use farm records according to industry procedures
 Select improvements based on the result of the review
 Identify farm production requirements based on market demand
 Determine farm production activities and cost based on accepted
framing practices
 Compute volume of harvest according to actual production capacity
 Select alternative farm products based on market demand
 Formulate contingency plan based on farm production risks
 Select suppliers and providers based on preference/criteria
 Adjust farm production activities and costing based on the result of
review
 Apply select improvements based on the result of review
 Adjust projected volume target based on the result of review
 Apply corrective measures based on the result of review
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LEARNING OUTCOME # 1 Review farm production plan
CONTENTS:
 Basic self/farm assessment guide
 Importance of gathering of feedback
 Types of records
 Importance of record keeping
 Use of records
 Diversification of farm products
 Types of diversification
1.1. Monitored farm production performance according to industry
standard
1.2. Gather information and feedback following industry practices
1.3. Practice record keeping following workplace procedures
1.4. Use farm records according to industry procedures
1.5. Select improvements based on the result of the review
CONDITIONS:
The students/trainees must be provided with the following:
 Writing materials
 References
 Handouts
METHODOLOGIES:
 Modular self-paced
 Lecture/discussion
 Demonstration/role play
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Direct observation and questioning
 Demonstration
 Oral interview and written test
Date Developed:
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Learning Outcome#1: Conduct Market Visits
Learning Activities Special Instructions
1. Do not write anything on the

1. Read Information Sheet No. 2.1-1
module; provide extra paper in
on Monitored farm production doing the Self-check.
performance according to industry
standard
2. Answer the Self-check 2.1-1 Refer your answer to Answer Key

2.1-1.
on Gather information and
feedback following industry
practices

2.1-2.
on Practice record keeping
following workplace procedures

2.1-3.
on Use farm records according to
industry procedures
8. Answer the Self-Check 2.1-4 Refer your answer to Answer Key 2.1-
4
on Select improvements based on
the result of the review
5
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INFORMATION SHEET 2.1-1
MONITOR FARM PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE ACCORDING TO
INDUSTRY STANDARD
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to monitor
farm production performance according to industry standard
INTRODUCTION:
In putting up a farm, it is important that a certain owner monitor the
productivity of the farm, see if the farm is going up or down.
What Is Agricultural Production?
Agricultural production is the use of cultivated plants or animals to

produce products for sustaining or enhancing human life. People use a vast
array of agricultural products every day—these range from the clothes we
wear to the paper we write on. We decorate with flowers often produced by
agriculture and run our cars in part on ethanol produced by agriculture.
Agricultural crops turned into products fall into one of four groups:
foods, fuels, fibers, or raw materials. Roughly 11% of the planet's land is
dedicated to crop production, and close to 26% is being used for animal
pastures.1
Food
Some examples of food products are grains and cereals. Some of the crops
are turned into feed and fed to animals, which then produce dairy products
like milk or are turned into food for humans or other animals. Honey and
farmed fish are also some examples of food products.
Fuel
Agricultural products can also be used to produce fuel. Ethanol—produced
from corn, sugarcane, or sorghum—is the agricultural fuel product in
widest use.
Fiber
Fiber crops include cotton (one of the top 10 crops produced in the U.S.
every year), wool, and silk. Agricultural producers also use hemp to make
rope and flax for linen. It's even possible to use bamboo fiber to make cloth.
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Raw Materials
Raw materials are the products not refined or processed for use in
one of the other categories. Many of the crops grown are used to feed
animals that become other agricultural products.
How Does Agricultural Production Work?
Land is used to grow crops that have an intended use in one of the
four categories. The crops are purchased by businesses that specialize in
processing them for their expected purposes and then sold to
manufacturers or distributors.
The National Organic Program (NOP)—part of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture—certifies only agricultural products that fall into a specific,
narrow category for use. Examples of agricultural items that the NOP can
certify include such things as textiles, flowers, food, seed, plants, and feed.
Items intended for other uses are not certified as organic.
Farm management
Management and implementation of decision-making process at farm
level involves organizing and operating for higher productivity and
maximum profit. Farm management involves agricultural economics to
draw information on market prices, agricultural policies and economic
institutions for purpose of leases, credit and loans. It is the collective term
for various processes, management methods or strategies employed to
increase productivity and profitability of a farm. It includes soil, plant and
animal sciences for extracting information on soils; seed and fertilizer;
control methods for weeds, insects or pests and diseases; rations and
breeding; agricultural engineering for crop drying, farm machinery and
buildings; irrigation, drainage and erosion control systems; understanding
psychology and sociology of human behavior.
Managing farms hastens decision-making by integrating information
from physical, biological and social science. Farm management expands
research and development enlarging market opportunities; improves
transport facilities, facilitates supplies and improves natural resource
management, encouraging environmental protection and opens wider area
for decision making and managerial choices in agricultural sector.
The concerns related to farm management may differ from farm to
farm.
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Measures to Improve Farming Productivity
Top concerns of management are choice of farming system, degree of
specialization chosen, size of operation and method of financing. The
elements of emerging stream of technology-based products promise to
improve yield of crop and livestock at low cost; increase availability of
products at relative low prices and costs change; attract employment
opportunities to acquire farm labour. Increasing operating scale of output
and specialization allows acquisition of satisfactory income. Procuring,
supervising and managing farming workforce to meet the demand and
supply conditions of hired labour through contractual arrangements are of
critical importance. Soils are tested for any source of nutrient deficiency
that can be responsible for unproductive soil. Weather risks from floods,
drought, prospective yields and price changes can be constant concerns in
farm management. Other major management concerns include increasing
crop and livestock yields; reducing production costs with emphasis on
levels of pesticide, herbicide and fertilizer procured; determining optimal
size of collectives; improving labour incentives; conservation of water and
soil in crop production.
Management of farm requires capital, land and human resources;
technological applications; social and political arrangements. The modern
equipments and machinery, levels of education and training available to
farmers ensure better management of farms and increase in productivity.
Techniques and methods to increase crop yield include efficient crop
management; field scouting, seasonal soil and crop rotation practices;
proper irrigation and water drainage systems. Possible measures to
increase crop yield, crop production and income include efficient
scheduling of land preparation, plantation and harvesting; use of early
maturing crop varieties, seedbeds and transplanting operations for
intensive land through multiple cropping; selection of methods to control
diseases, insects and weeds; efficient use of irrigation and fertilizers.
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SELF-CHECK 2.1-1
TRUE OR FALSE.
Direction: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if the
statement is wrong. Write your answer in a separate sheet.
1. Agricultural production is the use of cultivated plants or

animals to produce products for sustaining or enhancing
human life
2. Roughly 26% of the planet's land is dedicated to crop
production, and close to 11% is being used for animal
pastures.
3. Agricultural products cannot also be used to produce fuel.
4. Management and implementation of decision-making process
at farm level involves organizing and operating for higher
productivity and maximum profit.
5. Weather risks from floods, drought, prospective yields and
price changes can be constant concerns in farm management.
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
ANSWER KEY 2.1-1
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
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GATHER INFORMATION AND FEEDBACK FOLLOWING INDUSTRY
PRACTICES
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to gather
information and feedback following industry practices.
INTRODUCTION:
If you run your own business, I know you do your best to please your
customers, satisfy their needs, and eventually to keep them loyal to your
brand. But how can you be sure that your efforts bring desired results? If
you do not try to find out what your clients actually think about your
service, you will never be able to give them the best customer experience.
Their opinions about experience they have with your brand is helpful
information that you can use to adjust your business to fit their needs
more accurately.
There are plenty of ways you can leverage customer feedback and
profit from it. In this entry I will try to explain why collecting customer
feedback, whether prompted or unprompted, is crucial in managing
customer satisfaction and loyalty, in customer retention, improving
products and services, and in many more areas of your business. Sit
comfortably and continue reading to discover benefits of customer
feedback.
What is customer feedback?
Customer feedback is information provided by clients about whether
they are satisfied or dissatisfied with a product or service and about general
experience they had with a company. Customer opinion is a resource for
improving customer experience and adjusting your actions to their needs.
This information can be collected with different kinds of surveys (prompted
feedback), but you can also find opinions and reviews your clients post
online (unprompted feedback) and collect them using Internet monitoring
tools. Both sources are important to get a full picture of how your clients
perceive your brand.
Top performing companies understand an important role that

customer feedback plays in business. They consistently listen to the voice
of their clients. Not only they search for opinions they clients publish on
social media and reviews they provide on websites designed for gathering
feedback (e.g. TripAdvisor), but they also deliberately ask for feedback using
distinct kinds of surveys. If you want to stay ahead of competition you
Date Developed:
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should never stop listening to customer feedback whether it is positive or
negative, prompted or unprompted.
Here are the in business.

1. Customer feedback helps improve products and services
When you initially introduce a new product, brand, or service to
market you probably have an idea about customer needs. Market research
that you conduct before introduction gives you an idea if potential
customers would be willing to buy it and also, they can give you some top
seven reasons why customer feedback is important tips on how you
could improve it. However, only after your customers use your product or
service you can learn about all the advantages, flaws, and their actual
experience. On top of that, their needs and expectations evolve with time.
Customer feedback is an insight into what is working well about your
product or service and what should be done to make the experience better.
You might have the best expertise in the industry in which your company
operates, but your professional knowledge will never be more valuable to
business performance than customer insights. Their opinions help you
ensure that the end product will actually meet their expectations, solve
their problems and fulfill their needs.
2. Customer feedback helps you measure customer satisfaction
Customer satisfaction and loyalty is a crucial factor that determines a
company’s financial performance. It is directly linked to many benefits,
such as increased market share, lower costs, or higher revenue. Many
studies confirmed the close connection between customer satisfaction and
business performance. Therefore, there is no doubt that you want to make
sure your clients are happy with your products and services. Naturally, the
best way to find out if you meet their expectation is to get their opinions.
Using rating-based questions you can easily estimate the level of
satisfaction and consequently predict your company’s financial condition in
the future.
One of the most accurate methodologies that have helped many

companies measure, manage and improve customer satisfaction is NPS (Net
Promoter Score). The metric is based on one simple question that
investigates how likely it is that a customer would recommend a brand to a
friend. Response options for the loyalty questions are based on a 0–10-point
rating scale, with 0 representing extremely negative and 10 representing
extremely positive. This methodology is both simple and universal, so every
business can apply it in customer satisfaction management.
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3. Collecting customer feedback shows you value their opinions
By asking your clients for feedback you communicate that their

opinion is important to you. You involve them in shaping your business so
they feel more attached to your company. Listening to their voice helps you
create stronger relations with them. This is the best way to gain valuable
brand ambassadors who will spread positive word-of-mouth for you. And I
am sure you are aware that their recommendations is probably the most
effective and, at the same time, the cheapest way to acquire new customers
and become more trustworthy in the eyes of your current and potential
clients.
People always appreciate when you ask them if they are happy (or
unhappy) with your service. It shows you actually value their opinion and
that you are here for them, not the other way around. They feel that your
primary business goal is to solve their problems and fulfill their needs, not
to get their money. It puts a customer in the central position of your
company and this is the right way to run a business.
4. Customer feedback helps you create the best customer experience
Today’s marketing is heavily based on experiences people have with

products, services, and brands. They do not buy Apple products just
because they are good. They want to demonstrate their status and
affiliation to a particular group. They do not buy Nike clothes because they
are durable. They buy courage to extend their boundaries. Therefore, if you
focus on providing the best customer experience at every touchpoint client
will stay loyal to your brand. And naturally, the most effective way to give
them an amazing experience is asking them what they like about your
service and what should be improved.
5. Customer feedback helps to improve customer retention
A satisfied customer will stay with you. An unhappy customer will

eventually find a better alternative to your business and leave. Customer
feedback benefits are significant. It helps you determine if your clients are
satisfied with your service and detect areas where you should improve.
Thanks to asking for opinions regularly you can always keep a finger on the
pulse. Each time a dissatisfied customer expresses his disappointment you
can immediately react and find a solution to fix an issue. This is a perfect
moment to win a client back and even increase his level of loyalty. In many
cases, an unhappy customer who encountered a problem with your service,
but you got it fixed straightaway demonstrates bigger devotion to your
brand that a customer who has never been disappointed with your service.
Date Developed:
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6. Customer feedback is a reliable source for information to other
consumers
In the times of social media, consumers do not trust commercials or
expert advice so much. Opinions provided by other customers who have
already used a product or service are more reliable source for information
these days. When you look for an accommodation in a city you visit or you
want to find a nice new restaurant to have dinner with friends you read
reviews beforehand. When you want to buy new shoes you ask for opinion
on Facebook or go to a trustworthy blog to read a review. Many companies
today incorporate review system in their services and products. Think of
Uber, or AirBnb. They all do their best to ensure that poor service will be
detected and excluded from their business.
7. Customer feedback gives you data that helps taking business
decisions
There is no place for business decisions based on loose guesses on a
highly competitive market. Successful business owners gather and manage
distinct kind of data that helps them develop future strategies. Only in this
way they are able to adjust their products and services to perfectly fit
customer needs.
Customer feedback is one of the most reliable sources for tangible
data that further can be used in taking business decisions. Customer
insights will help you understand clients and their needs more profoundly.
Take their suggestions into consideration and thanks to that find out where
you should allocate your money to get the highest return on investment.
You might discover that, for instance, further product development is not
necessary in your case, but instead you should focus on promoting your
brand to get bigger exposure. Customer feedback is a valuable source for
such data, but you must learn how to listen to it and how to translate it
into actionable takeaways for your business.
If you want to stay on top of things, you should put your customers
in a center of your business and treat their feedback as the most valuable
source for information in your company. They are the ones who use your
products and services, so they know best what could be improved to make
them even more happy. Never ignore their voice. If you fail to meet their
expectations, they will find other company which will do it better than you.
Use customer feedback at all corporate levels and across all departments in
your company. Insights will help you develop your products, improve
customer service, and manage customer satisfaction. Thanks to customer
feedback you can make sure that your clients will stay with you, be loyal to
your brand and in consequence will spread positive word-of-mouth for you.
Having devoted brand ambassadors is gold your company needs to grow!

Remember that customer feedback is everywhere. Learn how to
collect it using different tools and resources. Run surveys in different forms
and search for reviews your clients post on the Internet. Do not
underestimate any comment about your products and services and try too
always be responsive. Your clients will appreciate you value their opinion. It
is a key for developing strong relations with your audience. Customer’s
voice is priceless for your business, so never stop listening!
Aside from customers/buyers’ feedback a certain owner should also
know Farm Production and income based on the farm records, good farm
practices as benchmark from other farmers and information from the
authorities like the government and non-government.
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SELF-CHECK 2.1-2
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Customer feedback is information provided by clients about whether

they are satisfied or dissatisfied with a product or service and about
general experience they had with a company.
2. Top performing companies understand an important role that
customer feedback plays in business. They are not consistently listen
to the voice of their clients.
3. Their opinions help you ensure that the end product will actually
meet their expectations, solve their problems and fulfill their needs.
4. In many cases, an unhappy customer who encountered a problem
with your service, but you got it fixed straightaway demonstrates
bigger devotion to your brand that a customer who has never been
disappointed with your service.
5. Aside from customers/buyers’ feedback a certain owner should also
know Farm Production and income based on the farm records, good
farm practices as benchmark from other farmers and information
from the authorities like the government and non-government .
ENUMARATION
Direction; Enumerate the following;
1. Top seven reasons why customer feedback is important
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ANSWER KEY 2.1-2
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
ENUMARATION
1. Customer feedback helps improve products and services
2. Customer feedback helps you measure customer satisfaction
3. Collecting customer feedback shows you value their opinions
4. Customer feedback helps you create the best customer experience
5. Customer feedback helps to improve customer retention
6. Customer feedback is a reliable source for information to other
consumers
7. Customer feedback gives you data that helps taking business
decisions
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
PRACTICE RECORD KEEPING FOLLOWING WORKPLACE PROCEDURES
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to practice
record keeping following workplace procedures
INTRODUCTION:
One of the first steps in being a successful farm manager is keeping
well-maintained, accurate records and establishing a sound record-keeping
system. Keeping accurate records has its benefits, like helping farmers plan
and complete realistic forecasting for the next year.
What is Farm Record Keeping?
Detailed farm record keeping is
crucial when making important
business or planning decisions for
your operation. Not only is it a poor
business practice to not keep records
of farming activities, but it can be
illegal not to keep your records in
order.
Farm records can include any of the following: expenses, labor,
chemical/pesticide tracking, harvest and yield records, planting records,
shipping records, FSMA and Global GAP compliance records, and more.
Traceability plays a huge role in practicing safe farming, as it is
always important to be able to look back and see the full history of product,
from planting to shipping. Keeping your records in good order will vastly
simplify this process, and make auditing season a breeze.
Why Keep Records:

At a minimum, growers must keep records to comply with legal
requirements for taxes and restricted chemical use applications, but
additional record keeping is a valuable tool. Many growers track their
expenses, from equipment runtime, to labor costs, to chemical and fertilizer
costs. Tracking labor, equipment, and chemical costs enable you to make
informed decisions when pricing your products to ensure greater profits.
Harvest yield records can be used to compare crop yield from year
to year, to help growers make educated decisions regarding crop
management in the future. You can’t manage what you can’t measure, so
record keeping around harvest quantity is essential to growers tracking
their income against cost of production.

Pesticide and Spray records are absolutely essential for both food
and worker safety. Records of spray dates, chemicals used, and safety
intervals such as the re-entry interval and the pre-harvest interval protect
your customers and employees from exposure to potentially harmful
residues. In many countries, chemical use reporting is mandatory to
comply with regulations around food and environmental safety. Chemical
use tracking is also a key part of tracking overall farm expenses.
Labor Tracking and worker productivity records are an aspect of
record keeping that are essential for managing payroll and piecemeal
payouts for your farm workers. More efficient payroll record keeping can
save valuable time and money by speeding up the payroll process.
Effectively tracking piece-rates for harvest can motivate workers, and make
assessing overall productivity easier.
Many farms that employee temporary foreign workers are legally
obligated to track not only hours worked, but hours offered to their
employees, in addition to the usual hourly and overtime tracking, and to
maintain detailed records of all employee activities on the farm.
Food safety and traceability are a growing concern for growers and
consumers worldwide. The Global Food Safety Initiative, or GFSI,
established in 2000 sets global food safety standards, and certifications
that demonstrate that produce has passed its rigorous food safety
standards. Global Good Agricultural Practices (G.A.P.) is the most widely
used international standard for farm production, and includes standards
for food safety and traceability, environmental protection, worker safety and
welfare, animal welfare, and more.
The importance of keeping farm records in agricultural production
According to Agri home Expressions, additional benefits of being
particular about record keeping include:
It may be a requirement
Lenders, government agencies, insurance companies and others often
require detailed and well-maintained records of the farm’s income and
expenditure before giving out loans to farmers.
Better farm planning and forecasting
Farming is a business and good farm record-keeping helps the farmer
plan and do realistic forecasting. Record-keeping provides valuable
information on which methods work. The farmer can better predict price
changes of inputs and produce from expenditures and sales records kept
from previous years.
Track income and expenditure
Date Developed:
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By keeping accurate records, at any time of reconciliation, the farmer
can report the correct amount of money spent or gained from the farm. This
helps for proper planning and budgeting.
Better management of a farm

Someone who keeps records on seed germination rates of seeds
purchased is in a better position to select seeds for seasons. In the case of
livestock, the farm should keep records of bloodlines, pests, disease, feed
types and consumption. These records help to prevent inbreeding, control
pests and disease and provide the best feed for optimum performance.
Date Developed:
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SELF-CHECK 2.1-3
Multiple choices:
Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the letter of your
choice on your answer sheet.
1. Farm records can include any of the following EXCEPT:
a. Expenses
b. Labor
c. chemical/pesticide tracking
d. none of the above
2. It is used to compare crop yield from year to year, to help growers
make educated decisions regarding crop management in the future.
a. Harvest yield record
b. Pesticide record
c. Labour tracking
d. None of the above
3. This are absolutely essential for both food and worker safety.
b. Pesticide record
c. Labour tracking
4. This are an aspect of record keeping that are essential for managing
payroll and piecemeal payouts for your farm workers.
b. Pesticide record
c. Labour tracking
ENUMARATION.
Enumerate at least 3 Importance of Record Keeping.
ANSWER KEY 2.1-3

Multiple choices:
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Establish Farm
1. D
2. A
3. B
4. C
ENUMERATION
1. It may be a requirement
2. Better farm planning and forecasting
3. Track income and expenditure
4. Better management of a farm
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
USE FARM RECORDS ACCORDING TO INDUSTRY PROCEDURES
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to use farm
records according to industry procedures
INTRODUCTION:
Types of farm records and their uses
There are two things a farmer needs to have for proper farm
management, farm records and farm accounts, especially for commercial
farmers. Keeping both farm records and farm accounts are vital if you are
going to be successful in your farming business. In this post, we will be
listing types of farm records and what each of them is used for.
What is a farm record?
A farm record is a document (in most cases a book) that is used to
keep account of different activities, events, materials etc. regarding the farm
operations. Farm records are different from farm accounts in the sense that
farm accounts deal only with the financial aspects of all farm operations.
Farm accounts deal majorly with the farm expenditures and income and
help the farmer to calculate how his business is doing. Most Nigerian and
African farmers don’t keep farm records and accounts, so they have poor
farm management. Mainly it is influenced by the fact that most of the
farmers in Nigeria are illiterates and can hardly read or write.
Why should a farmer keep farm records?
Before we start listing the types of farm records, let learn their
importance;
1. Farm records help a farmer to keep stock and manage each aspect
of the farm properly.
2. They are important for planning and budgeting. They provide a
farmer with enough information needed for proper planning and budgeting
at every point in time.
3. They help farmers know the progress and contributions of each
aspect of the farm to its overall success.
4. They are important for proper farm management.
5. They can be very helpful when a farmer needs to access financial
aids from banks or other financial institutions.
Types of farm records and their uses
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
There are different types of farm records a farmer should keep to run
a successful farm business. They include:
1. Daily farm records-These are the records of all important daily
activities and events that happen on the farm. These records help the
farmer keep track of past farming activities and plan for future activities.
2. Records of farm implements and equipment - This is used to
keep an inventory of all the equipment on the farm and their quantity. It
can also contain the date of purchase of the equipment and sometimes
their description.
3. Record of agricultural inputs- This record is used to keep track
of all agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, etc. The record often also
contains the amount of that was bought, the amount that has been used,
and what is left.
4. Records of livestock and livestock products-Farmers keep
different records of livestock for each type of livestock on the farm. Also, for
livestock that have products e.g., eggs from chickens, the farmer keeps a
record that accounts for the number of eggs laid every day. If a farmer has
cows for milk production, he keeps record of the number of liters of milk
produced per day.
5. Records of animal feeds This record is used for keeping an
inventory of the types of animal feed and the quantity purchased, used, and
also quantity in stock on a daily basis.
6. Production records are used to document everything that is
produced on the farm. These records are prepared every week. And then
summed up at the end of the month and also at the end of the year. Thus,
there is a weekly record, a monthly record, and an annual record of
everything produced on the farm. They help the farmer to keep track of how
well the farm is doing.
7. Records for farm use - Used for recording the date the land was
prepared for farming, the number of plots or hectares used in planting, the
plants planted on the farm and where they are planted.
8. Farm expenditure records are used to keep a record of all
expenditures.
9. Workers records This type is used to keep the record of staffs,
their salaries, and payment. It is also known as labour record.
10. Vehicle records It is used to keep a record of all vehicles used
on the farm, petrol and oil used, and also any repairs and servicing and the
dates of the repair or servicing.
11. Sales record are used to keep a record of all sales made from
farm produce.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Since the importance of farm records in proper farm management
have been highlighted here, farmers are encouraged to start keeping them
at the beginning of every farming season or cycle. An organized farm record,
good management and success go hand in hand.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
SELF-CHECK 2.1-4
Multiple choices:
1. These records help the farmer keep track of past farming activities
and plan for future activities.
a. Farm implement and equipment record
b. Daily farm record
c. Agricultural inputs record
d. Animal feeds record
2. This is used to keep an inventory of all the equipment on the farm
and their quantity.
3. This record is used for keeping an inventory of the types of animal
feed and the quantity purchased, used, and also quantity in stock on
a daily basis.
4. The record often also contains the amount of that was bought, the
amount that has been used, and what is left.
5. This are used to document everything that is produced on the farm.
These records are prepared every week. And then summed up at the
end of the month and also at the end of the year.
a. Animal feeds records
b. Production records
c. Farm use records
d. Workers records
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Keeping both farm records and farm accounts are vital if you are
going to be successful in your farming business.
2. A farm record is a document (in most cases a book) that is used to
keep account of different activities, events, materials etc. regarding
the farm operations.
3. Farm records help a farmer to keep stock and manage each aspect of
the farm properly.
4. Farm records are not important for proper farm management
5. Farm records are important for planning and budgeting. They provide
a farmer with enough information needed for proper planning and
budgeting at every point in time.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
ANSWER KEY 2.1-4
MULTIPLE CHOICES:
1. B
2. A
3. D
4. C
5. B
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
SELECT IMPROVEMENTS BASED ON THE RESULT OF THE REVIEW
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to select
improvements based on the result of the review.
INTRODUCTION:
Agricultural Diversification
Agriculture Diversification refers to either a change in cropping
pattern or the farmers opting for other non-farming options like poultry
farming, animal husbandry, etc. This practice allows farmers to expand the
production, which helps generate a higher level of income.
Changing a cropping pattern implies the Diversification between food
and non-food crops, conventional crops and horticulture, high value and
low-value crops, etc.
After the emergence of Golden Revolution (1991-2003), diversification
has started to flourish rapidly across the country,
Types of Diversification
There are mainly two types of agricultural diversification prominent
in India. They are:
 Horizontal Diversification - This relates to multiple cropping or mix
of crops instead of cultivating a single crop. Horizontal Diversification is
especially useful for small farmers who hold a small piece of land. This
allows them to earn more by escalating cropping intensity.
 Vertical Diversification - It refers to the incorporation of

industrialization along with multiple cropping. In this kind of
Diversification, farmers take a further step and invest in activities like
horticulture, agro-forestry, livestock rearing, culture of aromatic plants, etc.
Major Features of Diversification

 Introduction of multiple or mixed cropping systems.
 Shift from sole agricultural activities to other allied enterprises like
fishery, forest products, poultry and other non-agriculture sectors.
By every mean, Diversification in agricultural activities proves to be

extremely beneficial for small farmers to increase their incomes.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Reasons for Agricultural Diversification
The demand for high-value crops is increasing in India, and this
paves the way for farmers to experiment with several cropping
combinations. Apart from that, some other reasons make diversification an
excellent choice for small and marginal farmers of India.
These include:
 Climate Change - Diversification reasonably controls the damage
that can occur from the unfavorable weather condition. This process
safeguards the farmers from the loss of crops in such a situation.
 Facilitate Several Employment Alternatives - Almost half of the
employment of India revolves around the agriculture sector.
Diversification creates new job opportunities for rural people other
than traditional farming.
 Increases of Income - Opting for Diversification will undoubtedly
increase the income and will let the farmers live a comfortable life.
 Exportation - Diversification, especially of non-farming products,
makes a sizeable export provision for its unique characteristics. India
is now on the front line in exporting several agricultural products to
multiple countries. This contributes to the overall growth of the
economy.
Along with this, you can also read about Agricultural Revolution of India
and how that impacted this essential sector of the country.
Benefits of Diversification
The benefits of employing Diversification are mentioned below.
 It helps in reducing risk factors as it ensures that the farmers do not
lose all of their resources if the weather does not favor the crop
production.
 Since multiple crops can be harvested from a small field, the
production increases ten-fold, which ensures a substantial amount of
income.
 The agriculture sector is already crowded in India; therefore, it makes
provision for additional employment in rural areas.
 The importance of crop diversification lies in the fact that it effectively
increases soil fertility and controls pest incidences.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
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 The boost in rural employment impacts the overall economy of the
nation, as agriculture in India falls into the primary sector of the
country.
Kinds of non-farm Employment in Rural Areas

The scope for employment in non-farm sectors in India is immense. Some of
these are listed below.
1. Livestock - It includes breeding, raising and nurturing the
pastoral animals for food or raw material (like meat, milk, wool,
skin, etc.) that can be used for commercial purposes. It
provides livelihood to over 70 million rural farmers. Livestock is
also used by farmers as an instrument in a farm for transport
and carrying agricultural inputs, and animals like cows are
used in the field for conventional ploughing method.
2. Horticulture - Horticulture refers to the cultivation of garden
crops like fruits, flowers, vegetables, etc. India is a significant
exporter of different fruits like bananas, mangoes, sugarcane,
etc. across the globe. This sector employs almost 19% of
country’s workforce.
3. Fisheries - It involves catching, sorting, selling and
distributing fishes, prawns, oysters, crabs and other marine
and fresh-water fishes. The coastal states like Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala are the key
regions to supply fishes across the country and export to other
countries. This sector contributes to 1.9% of Indian GDP. Since
mostly women are employed in this sector, the scope for women
empowerment in the field is prominent.
4. Dairy - In this industry, cattle like cows, goats, buffaloes, and
sheep are reared for milk. The process comprises collecting,
preserving and distributing the milk and its by-products like
butter, raw-milk powder, ghee, etc.
Impact of Diversification
 Increase in production of high-value crops.
 Better livelihood for farmers and instrumental for lowering the
poverty level.
 Scopes for varied employment.
 Empowerment of women.
 Sustainable water usage.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Do your research on the high-value crops (HVC) cultivated in India and
how it contributes to the economic growth of the country.
Almost 43.21% of people are associated with Agriculture in India,
making it one of the most vital service sectors of the nation. Also, the
possibilities and scopes are unlimited in Agricultural Diversification in
India using advanced farming apparatus.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
SELF-CHECK 2.1-5
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Agriculture Diversification refers to either a change in cropping
pattern or the farmers opting for other non-farming options like
poultry farming, animal husbandry, etc.
2. Vertical Diversification is especially useful for small farmers who hold
a small piece of land. This allows them to earn more by escalating
cropping intensity.
3. Horizontal Diversification - It refers to the incorporation of
industrialization along with multiple cropping.
4. Horticulture refers to the cultivation of garden crops like fruits,
flowers, vegetables, etc.
5. Changing a cropping pattern implies the Diversification between food
and non-food crops, conventional crops and horticulture, high value
and low-value crops, etc.
ENUMERATION;
Enumerate the following;
1. Reasons for Agricultural Diversification
2. Give at least 3 benefits of diversification
3. Give at least 3 impacts of diversification
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
ANSWER KEY 2.1-5
TRUE OR FALSE
1.TRUE
2. FALSE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
ENUMERATION;
Answers are any of the following;
 Climate Change
 Facilitate Several Employment Alternatives
 Increases of Income
 Exportation
2. Benefits of Diversification

production.
income.
country.
3. Impact of Diversification
poverty level.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
LEARNING OUTCOME #2 Prepare Farm production plan
CONTENTS:
 Farm production requirements
 Target volume for succeeding cropping season
 Selection of other farm product
 Production risk
 Contingency Plan
 Selection of suppliers and providers base on the preference/criteria
1.1. Identify farm production requirements base on market demand
1.2. Determine farm production activities and cost based on accepted
farming practices
1.3. Compute volume of harvest according to actual production
capacity
1.4. Select alternative farm products based on market demand
1.5. Formulate contingency plan based on farm production risks
1.6. Select suppliers and providers based on preference/criteria
CONDITIONS:
The students/ Determine farm production activities and cost based on
accepted farming practices trainees must be provided with the following:
 References
 Handouts
METHODOLOGIES:
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Demonstration
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Learning Outcome#2: Prepare Farm production plan
Do not write anything on the

on Identify farm production
doing the Self-check.
requirements base on market demand
2.2-1.
on Determine farm production
activities and cost based on accepted
farming practices
2.2-2.
on Compute volume of harvest
according to actual production
capacity
2.2-3.
on Select alternative farm products
based on market demand
2.2-4.
on Formulate contingency plan based
on farm production risks
5
on Select suppliers and providers
based on preference/criteria
6

Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
IDENTIFY FARM PRODUCTION REQUIREMENTS BASE ON MARKET
DEMAND
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to identify
farm production requirements base on market demand
INTRODUCTION:
Components of a Farm or Ranch Business Plan
Developing a good farm or ranch business plan can have many benefits.
In an earlier Cornhusker Economics article, I outlined six good reasons to
develop a business plan (Parsons 2015). It helps to get your business
organized and moving in the right direction. It lets your lender know you
have a plan to succeed, which opens up your access to capital. It also helps
you organize your thoughts, clarifying the goals and objectives you wish to
achieve. In summary, putting together a written business plan increases
the likelihood of your business achieving success (Scarborough 2011).
A good introduction contains several key subcomponents of information
that summarizes what your business is all about. Even though you may
finish writing it last, you should start your document with an executive
summary paragraph or two that captures the essence of your business.
Provide brief information on the key products or services producing
revenue, the qualifications of the people involved in the operation, the land
resources and any competitive edge built up over the years. Follow this
summary with a mission statement for your operation that captures why
you are in the farming or ranching business. The introduction section
should also provide an overview of the history of the operation and three to
five goals you wish to accomplish in the next five years.
Land Resource Management.
Farmers and ranchers rely on the land to make a living. This section
should describe the land resources involved in the operation, including
maps if you have them available. If livestock and perennial pastures are
involved in the operation, a grazing management plan would fit into this
section. Farmers may want to describe their cropping rotations on various
properties and why they use them. Land monitoring practices and plans for
mitigating soil erosion or noxious weeds are among the many important
elements that can be added to this section over time. Having pages of this
section readily available to print out and show potential landlords or new
employees is a great resource for those communications.
Equipment and Animal Management
Equipment resources and animal resources are the tools that turn land
resources into profits. This section should provide an inventory of
Date Developed:
CBLM in
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Establish Farm
equipment resources along with a general overview of maintenance plans
and replacement decisions. For livestock operations, an inventory of
animals would be included here. Details regarding genetics, breeding plans,
nutrition plans, animal handling protocol, and animal health plans
including vaccination schedules should be added. Like the land resource
management section, this is a section where having pages ready to print
out and share with employees is a great communication resource. It can
also make it easy to share information with your veterinarian or nutritionist
to get his or her feedback on the management plans you have in place for
your livestock.
Marketing Plan
A good marketing plan can take some time to build but starting one is
easy. It starts with identifying the products or services you intend to sell to
generate revenue and the goals you wish to accomplish with your
marketing plan. You then need to complete the marketing plan by
answering several key questions. When will you be selling the products
and/or services? To whom will you be selling? Where will these
transactions be taking place? How will you get these products and/or
services to the customer? What are the tools available to help you get what
you want out of these sales transactions and how do you intend to use
those tools? Marketing plans don’t have to be complicated to be effective,
but there are a lot of things to consider that can be added to this section
over time. If you are not marketing a commodity, it is important to identify
what sets your products or services apart from your competitors and to
clearly identify the size of the market you intend to be selling into. Your
banker will want to know that your sales forecasts are realistic and so
should you.
Human Resources
Personnel management can sometimes be overlooked on a small farm or
ranch operation. However, if you want to attract and keep good employees
(including relatives) you need to have a plan in place to do it. This section
should describe the people involved in ownership as well as the people
managing the operation on a day-to-day basis, including their roles and
responsibilities. What other personnel are involved in the business and who
is responsible for managing them? How do new people get trained within
the business? Having a plan in place describing how they will grow in
knowledge and ability and who will help them do it is a great motivator for
any employee or family member involved in the farm or ranch. This can
include a brief overview of succession plans, too, if you have those
available.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
Financial
The financial section of your business plan includes balance sheets,
income statements, projected cash flows, loan schedules, depreciation
schedules, and descriptions of contingency or financial risk management
plans. Obviously, this section is important. It depends upon having good
financial records and discipline in pulling them together into meaningful
information on a regular basis. Whereas other sections of your business
plan may not need to be updated more than every few years, this section
needs updating on a regular basis. This section will be the section your
lender will be most interested in seeing, but that doesn’t diminish the
importance of the other five sections preceding it.
Business planning is an ongoing process. Business plans need regular
updating after they are developed and are never really done. If you don’t
have a business plan, now is the time to start one. Use these basic sections
to help define your farm or ranch business. Populate each of them with
some information now and then build in more detail as you go focusing on
a few sections at a time. Enlist the help of others. Business plans are best
done as a team as it helps get the best ideas into written form, speeds up
the process of getting them done, and helps create buy-ins from everyone to
follow through with the plan once it is developed. Getting a business plan
down in writing gets you moving in the right direction toward reaping the
full benefits of running a successful farm or ranch business.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
SELF-CHECK 2.2-1
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. The introduction section should also provide an overview of the
history of the operation and three to five goals you wish to
accomplish in the next five years.
2. If livestock and perennial pastures are involved in the operation, a
grazing management plan would fit into this section.
3. Equipment resources and animal resources are not the tools that
turn land resources into profits.
4. A good marketing plan can take some time to build but starting one
is easy.
5. The financial section of your business plan includes balance sheets,
income statements, projected cash flows, loan schedules,
depreciation schedules, and descriptions of contingency or financial
risk management plans.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
SELF-CHECK 2.2-1
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
DETERMINE FARM PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES AND COST BASED ON
ACCEPTED FARMING PRACTICES
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to determine
farm production activities and cost based on accepted farming practices.
INTRODUCTION:
What are the farm production activities?
a. Land preparation
Soil tillage or land preparation is one of the routine activities in most

agricultural systems. Often, land preparation starts with burning fallow
vegetation or previous crop residues in order to clear the land or to scare
away wild animals or snakes.
 CLEANING, PLOWING AND HOEING
Cleaning, plowing and hoeing are primary tillage activities. Primary
tillage includes two major activities, which are cleaning /clearing the
area and plowing or hoeing.
Cleaning/clearing is done to remove litter materials, rocks, weeds,
shrubs, trees and other structures from the surface to make the next
activities easier and to prevent damage of tools and equipment
Plowing or hoeing is the initial breaking of soil surface. Depending
on the degree of hardness and presence of weeds/other plants,
plowing or hoeing could be done two to three times, 5 to 7 days after
first operation.
 Ocular inspection or initial

visit of the area. This will help
you determine succeeding
activities, like what
tools/equipment are needed and
transportation are necessary to
haul materials.
 Determine what tools/equipments are needed. If you see

shrubs or previous crops, cutting tool such as bolo or scythe
and wheelbarrow are needed.
Date Developed:
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Clearing the area
If there are big trees, you will need chain
saw and other equipment like bulldozer to bole
out the tree stumps and dump truck to haul
the cut trees or parts.
If there are big boulders of stone and
other big structures, you would need special
equipment such as crane and bulldozer to
remove them.
Plowing and hoeing
Plowing and hoeing is the initial and

subsequent breaking of the soil
surface using a hoe, spade or a
carabao drawn plow.
So this is the proper way

HOEING of hoeing? Students
should know this!!
Proper way of hoeing:

 Hold the hoe or spade upright with both
hands.
 Start digging in one corner moving toward the
other end of the garden area. Be sure the
entire surface is dug.
PLOWING
This is done using carabao-drawn plow or tractor-pulled plow depending
on the size of the field area.
Date Developed:
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Carabao-drawn plow
Tractor-pulled plow
After the soil has been broken down into smaller particles, it is now
time to break them further. The activities that follow are part of secondary
tillage. It involves further breaking the soil particles, mixing well the soil
and leveling the field or garden.
Date Developed:
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After 7-10 days from the last hoeing or plowing, secondary tillage
activities must be started. During this time, the turn-upside plants/weeds
are already wilted or dried and whatever seeds found in the soil are not yet
germinating or sprouting.
 HARROWING AND OTHER SECOND TILLAGE ACTIVITIES
 Spreading decayed organic matter or compost soil. This

enhances the soil condition or partially restores the nutrient
content in the soil. The usual rate of application is 15 tons per
hectare of land.
 Harrowing. This is done to further breakdown the plowed or
hoed slice of soil to smaller sizes and to loosen the soil particles
using the spading fork or harrow as needed.
 The spading fork can be operated easily just like the hoe.
While the harrow must be drawn either by working animals like
carabao, cow or tractor.
 Pulverization of soil particles. This makes the soil particles
smooth and even in size using the same tools or equipment
until such time that the desired condition has been achieved.
 Mixing pulverized soil with organic matter. You need to dig
the pulverized soil with organic matter to a depth of 30 cm
mixing it at the same time. This is done to fully mix the soil
particles using the spade, spading fork or subsoiler and
harrow.
 Spreading soil evenly. Using the rake or harrow, spread the
soil evenly or level so there will be no low spot where the water
may accumulate later.
Making plot or trenches. Depending on the garden plan,
make plots or trenches. Each plot must be 6 cm high above
the paths of trenches.
B. Planting
 Method of Planting
- Direct Seeding; seeds are directly planted/sown in the field.
Examples; corn, peanut, Mungbean, soybean
- Transplanting; seedlings are used as planting materials.
Examples; rice, asexually propagated plants; most vegetables.
 TYPES OF DIRECT SEEDING;
Date Developed:
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- Broadcast; seed are scattered uniformly in the field without a
definite distance. Requires good land preparation. Done in
small seeded crops such as rice, tobacco, mustard, corn, etc.
- Drilling; seed are planted in rows of specified distance.
Examples are corn, Mungbean, cowpea, sugarcane, etc.
- Dibble; seeds are sown more/less uniform distance. No land
preparation is needed before planting. Only the area where
the hole will be made is the one cultivated. Done in hilly
areas.
 Reasons for transplanting
- Seeds that are difficult to germinate
- Seeds that are expensive
- Small seed; and
- Asexually propagated
 PLANTING/POPULATION DENSITY
- Refers to the number of plants per unit area

Planting density = Area x no of plant per
Area occupied hill
by a single plant
- Each crop species/variety/cultivar has different
optimum planting density
 BENEFITS OF OPTIMUM PLANTING DENSITY
- Early build-up of sufficient leaf area index for
optimum utilization of solar energy
- Early and better weed control of weeds and
- Increase efficiency in the use of land and water
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING THE OPTIMUM
PLANTING DENSITY
- Crop species/variety/cultivar
 Morphology, growth habit, extent of the root
system/canopy; ability to compete etc.
- Soil fertility and management practices
- Method of propagation
- Degree of mechanization
- Cropping system
Date Developed:
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c. Maintenance
 Manuring
Crops need nutrients to grow and

produce yield. Thus, the supply of nutrients
at regular intervals is necessary. Manuring
is the step where nutritional supplements
are provided and these supplements may be
natural (manure) or chemical compounds
(fertilizers). Manure is the decomposition
product of plant and animal wastes.
Fertilizers are chemical compounds
consisting of plant nutrients and are produced commercially. Apart from
providing nutrients to crop, manure replenishes soil fertility as well. Other
methods for soil replenishment are vermicompost, crop rotation, planting of
leguminous plants.
 Irrigation
Irrigation is the supply of water. Sources

of water can be wells, ponds, lakes, canals,
dams etc. Over irrigation may lead to
waterlogging and damage the crop. This
frequency and interval between successive
irrigation need to be controlled.
 Weeding
Weeds are unwanted plants which grow among crops. They are
removed by using weedicides, by
manually pulling them with hands and
some are removed during soil
preparation.
D. Harvesting
Separation of the economic yield
(whether the whole plant biomass or the portion of the whole plant
biomass) when crops have reached highest or optimum level of productivity
(physiological maturity onwards).
Method of Harvesting
a. Pulling
b. Twisting
c. Using knife
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d. Shaking of branches
e. Harvesting aids/tools (ladder, picking pole, catching net, rope)
Traditional Method
The harvesting of crops is traditionally done by manual methods.
Harvesting of cereals, pulse and oilseed crops are done by using sickles
whereas tuber crops are harvested by country plough or spade. All these
traditional methods involve drudgery and consume long time.
Mechanical Harvesting
Timeliness of harvest is prime importance. During harvesting season,
often rains and storms occur causing considerable damage to standing
crops. Rapid harvest facilities extra days for land preparation and earlier
planting of the next crop. The use of machines can help to harvest at proper
stage of crop maturity and reduce drudgery and operation time.
Considering these, improved harvesting tools, equipment, combines are
being accepted by the farmers.
CROP MANNER OF HARVESTING
Handpicking is needed for individual dwarf variety

fruit by twisting until its stalk snaps off for. For tall
plants, harvester should climb the tree using a ladder.
When the container is full, it is gently lowered then
emptied. Fruits should never be dropped to the ground.
Papaya, oranges,
jackfruit, chico, atis,
guyabano
Harvesting is done by hand with the help of a

sharp shear. Grasp the cluster end and cut it off the
cane. Retain a long peduncle on the fruit cluster for
easy display. Handle the fruit cluster through the stem
or peduncle to minimize removal of the bloom on the
berries. Place fruit in the basket as they are picked.
Exchange the full basket for an empty one and
continue picking.
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Grapes
berries. Use a ladder or climb the tree. Place
harvested fruits in a basket which is tied with a rope so
that when the basket is full, the picker can easily lower
it without having to go down the tree.
Lanzones, rambutan
Harvesting is done using a pole picker (salok or
sigpao). Use a ladder of climb to go up the tree. Use the
pole picker to detach the ripe bunch by pulling it, making
sure that the peduncle falls inside the pole. Slowly lower
the pole, transferring the fruits in a basket of kaing.
Replace full baskets with empty ones and continue
picking.
It is advisable to tie a rope on the waist of the picker to
prevent accidents. One end of the rope must be tied to a
Mangoes, santol, star large kaing that serves as a receptacle of another smaller
apple kaing, where fruits are placed and lowered to the ground
when full.
SOME POINTS AND TIPS IN HARVESTING FRUITS
There are other points to consider in

harvesting fruits.
Here are some of them…
1. Minimize mechanical injuries

*Traditional harvesting methods such as
pulling, twisting, jerking or bending can be
improved by using clippers, shears or knives.
This is most effective for guava, citrus, papaya
or pineapple

*The traditional method of harvesting bananas by
severing trunk can be improved by putting a prop
which could be made from 2 crisscrossing
bamboo poles or forked branches, then cut below
the prop. Remove the prop and allow the cut
trunk to fall gently to the ground.
*Attaching knives and shears to the pole and

having a net or bag held open by a ring
beneath the cutting instrument to the catch the
fruit can improve the picking poles and hand
catching method.
*Use gloves if one has long fingernails and use is it

for delicate crops such as strawberries.
*Use padded-collecting baskets instead of rough ones.

A burlap attached to the inner side of the basket with
wire or thread will prove some degree of protection.
*Tie durian fruits to a branch. Fruits are usually

gathered after they have fallen to the ground.
Dropped fruits have short shelf life and must be
consumed within 2-3 days.
*Collecting baskets tied to the waist will minimize throwing

of the harvested fruit
2. Avoid high temperatures
*Harvest as early or as late as possible, especially if

cooling is not available. Exceptions are for mangos
and citrus, which are harvested later in the day
between 9am-3pm. At such time, the sap or latex flow
in mango and citrus is slow, thus, latex stain is lower.
Also the turgor pressure is lower at such time than
early morning or evening.

*Avoid exposure to direct sunlight. Longer
exposure and heat leads to deterioration and
other physiological disorder. If harvesting during
the heat of the day cannot be avoided, more
harvested commodities to shade the fruits is
needed while awaiting transport.
3. Minimize contact with the soil.

Place commodities immediately in
containers to avoid picking up dirt
microorganisms.
4. Harvest during dry weather.

Diseases, especially molds rapidly
develop when crops are harvested
during or shortly after the rain.
E. Post-harvesting
In this information sheet, basic treatments applied to fresh produce

in the field, at the packing house, and prior to storage. In addition, some
fresh produce commodities may require special treatments in order to slow
down their rate of deterioration and minimize losses. The crops involved are
for the most part those which are seasonal and subjected to long-term
storage, or which are highly perishable and are transported over long
distances to market. Some of the special treatments, such as hot water
dipping of mango and degreening of citrus, are often used Just to make the
produce acceptable for a given market rather than for any great need to
prevent their spoilage.
These special treatments may be applied before, during or after

packing of the produce and are supplements to the normal and basic
practices of grading, selecting, cleaning, and temperature and humidity
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management and should never be considered as replacements for such
practices. Fruits, because of their generally higher value, seasonality and
greater perishability are the most common commodities to be given special
post-harvest treatments.
Root crops are often 'cured' to prolong their storage life and minimize
losses, while crops such as onions and potatoes may also be treated with
sprout suppressants prior to long-term storage. Fungicides are now in
widespread use for decay control in many fruits, vegetables and root crops.
These and other treatments are described in more detail below.
Ripening and degreening of fruits
Oranges and grapefruit grown in the Eastern Caribbean remain

green, partly green, or will reach full colouration depending on various
environmental factors but especially night-time temperatures. Regardless of
colour, the local markets recognize that the fruits are perfectly good to eat
and consumers worry more about fullness of flavour, juiciness and
sweetness than appearance of the fruits. The export markets demand full-
coloured fruits and so a degreening process is necessary.
Degreening is the process where the green chlorophyll pigments in

the peel are broken down and the yellow and orange xanthophyll and
carotenoid pigments are formed. In citrus, this natural process is
stimulated by exposing the fruits to 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of
ethylene gas under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and
ventilation, in special degreening rooms operated by skilled management.
Degreening is generally considered uneconomic unless large quantities of
fruit can be treated at one time. The Citrus Growers Cooperative in
Dominica uses large degreening rooms in Roseau to initiate colouring of
their export citrus prior to sea shipment in refrigerated vessels.
Ripening of fruits is a perfectly natural and highly desirable

phenomonen leading to increased sweetness, flavour development and
softening of the edible tissue. However, ripening of certain fruits presents a
dilemma to the export industry because the very act of ripening clearly
marks the onset of senescence rapidly leading to decay and spoilage. The so
called 'climacteric' fruits such as banana, avocado and mango are
harvested and shipped for export in the green state while still hard and
capable of surviving the physical handling with minimum damage and
spoilage during transit. This is a very familiar operation in the Eastern
Caribbean where large volumes of bananas are shipped green every week
on the Geest boats to England, where they are held in store until just before
they are needed by the consumer. The transformation from green unripe to
yellow ripe bananas is achieved by stacking the boxed fruit in special
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airtight rooms where they are exposed to 1,000 ppm of ethylene gas under
controlled temperature and high humidity.
TABLE 1 RIPENING OF BANANAS
Number of Fruit Temperature (pulp) in °F

Days to
Ripen Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
4 64 64 62 60 - - -
5 62 62 62 62 60 - -
6 62 62 60 60 60 58 -
7 60 60 60 60 60 58 58
PLEASE NOTE:
a. The temperatures indicated are for pulp temperature NOT air

temperature.
b. Air temperatures will usually be lower than pulp temperatures.
c. Do not start ripening with ethylene until pulp temperatures stable at
desired temperature.
d. Seal ripening room and gas with 1000 ppm ethylene for 12 to 15
hours.
e. After initial gassing thoroughly ventilate ripening roam with fresh air
for 20 to 30 minutes every 12 hours.
f. Inspect fruit regularly and adjust air temperatures to control pulp
temperature in desired range.
g. Ripening time given is time from hard green to Colour Stage 4
( green-yellow with dark green tips)
h. Always use a proper pulp thermometer.
In the tropics, banana ripening is traditionally achieved by harvesting of

fuller fruit and simply waiting for it to ripen at ambient. On occasion, some
traders may resort to triggering ripening in the same way as with ethylene
but using acetylene generated from small quantities of calcium carbide and
water in an enclosed room. This practice tends to give fruit which are overly
soft for their appearance and with a short market life. In addition, it is very
dangerous to use acetylene because of its explosive properties.
In Barbados, quite large quantities of bananas from local growers and from
imported sources are now regularly ripened under reasonably controlled
conditions using ethylene gas in the same way as Geest, in order to supply
the increased consumer demand for "properly ripened" bananas, but also to
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enable the high-volume retailers, especially supermarkets, to better supply
their customers and control their post-harvest losses.
Ripening of avocado and mango can also be achieved using controlled

ethylene exposure but its use in the tropical exporting countries will
depend upon the market to be supplied and individual importers/buyers’
requirements.
Curing of root crops and onions
One of the most important methods of reducing post-harvest losses in

many root crops such as yam and sweet potato and also for onions, is the
use of surface drying and curing processes.
Curing is a natural wound healing process which in sweet potato and Irish
potato replaces and strengthens damaged areas by forming a corky
layerwhich protects against water loss and infection by decay organisms.
In contrast, the curing of onions is mainly a drying process where excess

moisture is removed from the outer skin and neck of the onion. At the same
time, by exposing the onion to higher temperatures the colour of the skin
darkens and natural fungicidal compounds accumulate in the skin. Both
processes together ensure the formation of protecting layer which greatly
reduces water loss and serves as a physical and chemical barrier to
infection.
Root Crop Curing
The specific details for the curing of different root crops, but regardless
of which root crop is to be cured, the following conditions should be
established for all:
 the roots and tubers must be kept at the right temperature to

stimulate skin growth, and this is normally above ambient
temperature;
 the air around the roots or tubers must be moist but without free
moisture on the surface dry air will cause injured surfaces to dry out
quickly but free moisture will allow spoilage organisms entry into the
tuber before the protective layer forms;
 skin growth needs oxygen so ventilation is needed but not too much
or the produce will dry out and temperatures are also likely to drop.
All root and tuber crops suffer some damage during harvest and handling
so curing should be carried out as soon as possible after harvest. Sweet
potato in the Eastern Caribbean is still largely traded both domestically and
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regionally without a proper curing treatment. Often the uncured tubers are
bundled straight into crocus bags with damp soil still attached to the
surface and the poorly ventilated bags roughly handled and loaded into
unventilated ships holds. It should not be surprising that postharvest
losses are often very high. Considering that sweet potato is indigenous to
the area it is a pity that most farmers and exporters have very little
understanding of how best to harvest and handle the crop.
The simplest curing practice for sweet potato in the Eastern Caribbean
involves firstly careful harvest (not when the soil is too wet) and simple
stacking of the produce in field crates or in small heaps, off the ground in a
shaded, sheltered and well-ventilated spot under ambient conditions. The
curing process should be completed in 3 to 5 days after which the tubers
can be washed, if necessary, graded, packed and distributed.
Onion Curing
Curing of onions is most conveniently performed in the field by the

'windrowing' method. Windrowing of onions is performed by carefully
pulling or lifting the onions at harvest and simply laying them in their
places to dry with the leaves of one row covering the bulbs of the next row
in order to promote thorough drying of the tops while protecting the bulbs
from undue sunburn. the bulbs should be turned regularly to ensure even
drying and curing and should always be turned after a rain shower to make
sure they are not touching wet soil continuously. If rainfall persists, then
the onions must be dried and cured on special racks which can be easily
and cheaply constructed from locally available materials. Polythene sheets
should be fixed to the edge of the roof to let down quickly in the event of
heavy rain showers and removed afterwards.
Curing is considered complete when the outer scales and neck are
sufficiently dry to 'rustle' when handled and they form a tight cover over the
bulb. Development of skin colour is also completed at this stage, some 10
to 12 days after harvest.
Unfortunately, most onions grown in the Eastern Caribbean are not

sufficiently adapted to the local conditions and many of the 'Texas Grano'
types are seldom cured sufficiently, in the field or otherwise, before
marketing and post-harvest losses due to rots and sprouting tend to be
high. The introduction of more suitable red-skinned short day onion
varieties with better postharvest characteristics is strongly recommended.
Date Developed:
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Sprout inhibition
When crops such as onion and potato are placed in long-term storage in
temperate countries they tend to sprout and eventually rot. Sprouting can
be avoided under such conditions by using varieties with long dormancy
periods, proper curing and the use of chemical sprout suppressants such
as 'Tecnazene' (TNCB), 'Chlorpropham' (CIPC), or other proprietary
chemicals.
In the Eastern Caribbean storage is seldom for long enough periods to

worry about sprout control, but nevertheless some sprouting of onions and
potatoes does occur during distribution and home storage before
consumption. The best remedy is avoidance by making sure that these
commodities are not stored under high humidity, such as in unventilated
plastic bags, and not exposed to light for significant periods.
Fungicide application
Why Fungicides Are Necessary!
Most post-harvest losses eventually result from invasion and breakdown of

the produce by micro-organisms, although physical injury and stress
caused by poor handling may predispose the produce to such attacks. In
the spoilage of vegetables, bacteria can be the most important spoilage
organisms, but since bactericides are not suitable for application to fresh
produce, control must be largely by other methods. Chlorinated
disinfectants are beneficial in cooling and washing water but are difficult to
use effectively because the chlorine tends to combine readily with dirt and
debris and ceases to be effective.
Fungi are usually the primary agents in the spoilage of fresh produce and
control is possible by the application of fungicides at dose rates which do
not harm the produce nor the consumer of the produce. If the produce is to
be marketed and consumed rapidly after harvest then fungicides may not
be necessary or their use may be uneconomic if the value of the produce is
low or the effect of the fungicide is not sufficiently significant.
Fruits in particular suffer from fungal infection. Often infections

established in the field may remain dormant until after harvest and decay
only develops during post-harvest ripening. These so-called 'latent'
infections are of great importance to crops such as bananas, mangoes and
avocadoes, where anthracnose infections are not seen by the exporter but
may totally prevent their purchase in the export market if not controlled.
Application Methods for Fungicides

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Fungicides are nearly always applied in the form of an aqueous
solution or suspension and thus only to produce which is normally washed
before packing.
Washed produce should be drained of excess water before the fungicide is

applied or dilution will occur and the fungicide may not work properly - a
waste of money and time.
Almost all fungicides used for post-harvest application are in the form of
wettable powders (WP) or emulsifiable concentrates (EC), and when mixed
with water form suspensions, not solutions. They are both liable to settle
out from the suspensions so it is ESSENTIAL THAT THE TANK MIX BE
CONTINUOUSLY AGITATED TO KEEP THE FUNGICIDE IN SUSPENSION.
Failure to do this will mean that the fungicide will collect at the bottom of
the tank instead of going on to the produce - no fungicide application
means no effect and a waste of time and money.
The most common application methods are:
i. Spray or mist - when application is by a hand-held knapsack

sprayer for small-scale operations, or a mechanical spray set up on a
moving belt or roller-conveyor for large-scale commercial operations.
Both systems normally include provision for agitation of the spray
mixture. Spraying should be done to the point of run-oof to ensure a
complete cover of fungicide.
ii. Drenching - is a simple mechanical re-circulating system in which
the fungicide is pumped in a cascade over produce passing beneath it
on a belt or roller-conveyor. It has the advantage that there are no
spray nozzles to wear away or become blocked. The combination of
reservoir design and a high flow-rate pump keep the mixture
agitated. A disadvantage of the system is that the high flow-rate and
agitation may cause the fungicide to be dragged out of suspension
and float on the foam generated by the agitation. It may be necessary
to add a non-toxic anti-foam agent to prevent this happening.
iii. Dipping - is normally used where small quantities are to be treated.
The fungicide mixture is made up in a small bath and produce
dipped by hand. Excess fungicide is allowed to drain back into the
bath. The fungicide mixture must of course be agitated frequently by
hand. It is advisable to wear rubber gloves because some people
develop allergic skin reactions to the fungicide mixture.
iv. Smoke or fumigant - is rarely used as an application method for
fungicides. Tecnazene, which is a fungicide as well as a sprout
suppressant, is applied in the form of volatile granules in long-term
Irish potato stores, and 'diphenyl' wraps or pads may be used for
citrus.
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Caution When Using Post-Harvest Fungicides!
Pesticides used in the field are subject to removal from the crop by rain,
wind, solar degradation and physical removal by rubbing of leaves etc. by
handling of produce at harvest, and the produce may also be washed after
harvest. However, fungicides applied post-harvest in the packhouse, or
wherever, are not subject to these factors, and what is applied will largely
remain until the produce is purchased by the consumer. The fungicide will
thus remain on the produce and help to control fungal infection but it will
also be there as a possibly toxic chemical at the time of consumption.
For these reasons only a small number of chemicals is available for post-
harvest treatment of fresh produce and is limited to those chemicals with a
very low toxicity. The manufacturers specify strict limitations on the
concentrations to be used so that residues do not exceed the permitted
levels for human consumption. Extra-regional export markets regularly
check on fungicide and other pesticide residue levels on imported produce
and if the permitted levels are exceeded, the produce is rejected and a
warning given that all produce from that source must in future comply with
the legislation or a total ban will be implemented. It makes good sense from
an economic as well as an ethical standpoint to use fungicides carefully
and accurately.
Hot water treatment
Although not used for treatment of vegetables and delicate fruits, hot water
immersion of mango and pawpaw has been shown to help control latent
'Anthracuose' development. The hot water treatment is usually combined
with fungicide application to promote the most effective control and save
additional handling and equipment.
In the Eastern Caribbean, hot-water treatment is recommended for

mangoes exported to the extra-regional markets. The details of the process
have still to be optimized with regard to water temperature and duration of
the dip, and the requirements of different varieties from different growing
areas, and possibly also from different harvest times. Experiments are
being conducted by post-harvest technologists in Dominica at the
Government's Produce Chemist's Laboratory, and at the CENTENO Post-
Harvest Research Unit of the Ministry of Food Production in Trinidad, as
well as individual experimentation by independent exporters including
CATCO.
Generally, there are two main variants of the hot water treatment:
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i. Dip in hot water at 55øC for 5 minutes. Heat injury can develop when
the mangoes are placed in cold storage after treatment - do not
therefore dip in hot water when fruits are to be stored.
ii. Dip in hot water at 52øC with Benomyl (Benlate) at 0.1%
concentration, for 1 to 3 minutes.
Hot water treatment requires a lot more management and supervision to

ensure that the water temperature and dipping time are strictly adhered to
because there is little margin for error. Commercial scale equipment for
treating larger volumes of fruit have yet to be acquired in the region and
even in more developed countries the apparatus is still undergoing further
development.
Fumigation and vapour-heat
Fumigation of fruits was traditionally for control of disease, as in the

case of Sulphur dioxide fumigation of grapes to control Botrytis and other
fungus diseases, or for control of insect pests for quarantine purposes,
principly against fruit flies.
Quarantine regulations in the USA and Japan require that certain produce
from areas where fruit fly is endemic must be disinfested on or during
importation, by approved and controlled methods. This was formerly
achieved by fumigation with ethylene dibromide (EDB) or methyl bromide
(MB). These chemicals have since been banned by many countries fo fear of
toxic residues on the treated fruits. For the present, there are no suitable
alternatives and areas with fruit fly in the Eastern Caribbean have no
opportunity to export fruits such as mango to the USA unless, like Grenada
recently, they are cleared as fruit fly free by USDA inspectors.
Vapour heat treatment may be used where other fumigants may damage
the produce. The treatment consists of circulating saturated water vapour
at high temperature around the produce in an enclosed store until the
produce reaches the required temperature, usually in about eight hours,
and the produce is then held at that temperature for a further six hours.
Clearly most fruits such as avocado, lemon and most vegetables would
injured by this treatment, but other kinds of citrus may be treated with
vapour heat without serious Injury. The method is not in widespread use
on account of its cost and impracticality. The method is not considered a
viable alternative to EDB fumigation for the Eastern Caribbean.
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Basic pre-treatments before storage and/or marketing
Describes various "special" post-harvest treatments necessary for

specific crops, but there are some basic pre-treatments which must be
performed before storage and/or marketing of any fresh produce.
i. Cleaning - all stones, soil clods and plant debris must be removed
before storage, particularly if the crop is to be stored in bulk. Stones
damage the produce and soil and plant debris compacts and restricts
ventilation, leading to localized build-up of heat, but may also carry
spoilage pathogens.
ii. Grading and selecting - small, damaged, infected and over-mature
produce must be removed. Very small produce loses water more
rapidly leading to wilting in storage. Produce which has been bruised
or cut loses water and is easily invaded by spoilage pathogens during
storage. Infected produce deteriorates rapidly, heats up, and provides
a source of infection inoculum for healthy produce. Over-mature
produce has less resistance to disease and reduced -storage
potential, and in the case of fruits such as banana and mango, may
produce ethylene gas which stimulates premature ripening and
senescence throughout the store.
iii. Field heat removal - regardless of the type of storage facility
employed, it is important to remove the 'field heat' from the produce
before bulking up the produce in a store. This field heat removal may
be carried out by temporarily stacking the produce in a shaded, cool,
ventilated area, or more usually by resorting to refrigeration
techniques as described in section 8.5.3. below. Failure to remove
field heat can result in rapid temperature rises and accumulation of
high concentrations of carbon dioxide, to possibly damaging levels,
once the produce in confined in the store.
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SELF-CHECK 2.2-2
TRUE OR FALSE
Direction: Write True if the statement is correct; write False if the
statement is wrong.
__________ 1. Plowing or hoeing is the initial breaking of soil

surface. Depending on the degree of hardness and
presence of weeds/other plants, plowing or hoeing
could be done two to three times, 5 to 7 days after
first operation.
__________ 2. Cleaning, plowing and hoeing are secondary tillage
activities.
__________ 3. Ocular inspection or initial visit of the area will help
you determine succeeding activities, like what
tools/equipments are needed and transportation are
necessary to haul materials.
__________ 4. Drilling; seed are scattered uniformly in the field
without a definite distance
__________ 5. Broadcast; seed are planted in rows of specified
distance.
__________ 6. Manuring is the step where nutritional supplements
are provided and these supplements may be natural
(manure) or chemical compounds (fertilizers)
__________ 7. Irrigation is the supply of water. Sources of water
can be wells, ponds, lakes, canals, dams etc.
__________ 8. Handpicking is needed for individual dwarf variety
plants, harvester should climb the tree using a
ladder.
__________ 9. Curing is the process where the green chlorophyll
pigments in the peel are broken down and the yellow
and orange xanthophyll and carotenoid pigments are
formed.
__________ 10. Degreening is a natural wound healing process
which in sweet potato and Irish potato replaces and
strengthens damaged areas by forming a corky layer
which protects against water loss and infection by
decay organisms.

ANSWER KEY 2.2-2
TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. FALSE
6. TRUE
7. TRUE
8. TRUE
9. FALSE
10. FALSE
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COMPUTE VOLUME OF HARVEST ACCORDING TO ACTUAL
PRODUCTION CAPACITY
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to compute
volume of harvest according to actual production capacity
INTRODUCTION:
Through analysis of comparative yields, the farmer and/or extension
agent can determine which of the available rice varieties is best suited to
local swamp systems and farming practices. Farmers are generally very
shrewd at estimating yields, but they rarely quantify their estimations into
standardized units of measurement. This chapter describes a
straightforward, quick, and reasonably accurate method of yield calculation
which will enable the extension agent to keep track of local yields for
purposes of comparison and planning.
I. Farmers' Estimations
Just because a farmer may be unable to perform mathematical
computations, do not assume that s/he has no accurate sense of crop
yields. Never make the mistake of underestimating the knowledge of
farmers, who after years and years of growing rice tend to become shrewd
economists in their own right. Farmers pay very careful attention to yields
(their livelihood and in fact their very survival depend on them), and
although often they develop their own particular system of accounting,
generally they know exactly how each crop yielded relative to other crops
grown in other years. Some farmers count the number of bundles
harvested, others keep track of numbers of bags filled, still others measure
in terms of bushels of grain. Whatever the methodology, the farmer ends up
with a pretty good idea of how well the crop yielded, and this information
helps in planning for the future.
The extension agent requires a more quantitative and standardized method.
It is important that yield calculations be quantitative (expressible in precise
numbers) so that actual values may be compared from swamp to swamp,
year to year, variety to variety. It is important that the method be
standardized so that in every case measurement is made in exactly the
same way.
II. Yield Calculation
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Note: Since the method of yield calculation described below requires a
certain amount of mathematics, it will not always be possible to teach it to
farmers. Nor will this be necessary, since for their own accounting purposes
farmers can perfectly well continue to rely on their time-tried methods.
However, it may be a good idea to teach the method to other extension
agents. As agriculturalists, they will be working in more than just one
farming system, and it will be useful for them to know how to calculate
yields for comparative purposes.
Calculating yields is a two-step process involving sampling the crop and
calculating the yield.
1. Sampling the Crop
Sampling a crop of rice means measuring the yield of a small fraction
of the total crop area. The sample should be representative of the crop as a
whole (i.e., taken from an "average" section, not from a noticeably lush
section, nor from a section in which there has been unusual crop damage).
The sample should also be large enough to be accurate -generally 10m2 is
considered satisfactory. For ease of measurement, harvest ten
"minisamples of 1m2 each to add up to the total sample of 10m2 Within the
crop area to be sampled, peg out ten "mini-samples" of 1m2 each. Cut all
the panicles within the "minisamples" and collect them in one place. Thresh
the grains, being careful not to lose any (a small error in sampling may lead
to a large error in calculating the yield). Sun-dry the grains for 2-3 days, or
until the moisture content is close to the 14% considered suitable for
storage. (It is important that the grains be well-dried, since undried grains
are considerably heavier and will produce inaccurate yield figures). Winnow
out all unfilled grains and carefully weigh the remaining rice.
2. Calculating the Yield
If taken exactly as described above, the sample will contain the yield of
10m2 of the total crop area. Since yields are generally expressed in terms of
kg/ha (kilograms of grain per hectare), the problem now is to convert the
yield figures derived from the sample (kg/10m2) into the standard units of
measurement (kg/ha). Since
1 ha = 10000m2, the sample area constitutes 10/1000 ha, or 1/1000 ha.

Therefore, to determine the average crop yield in kg /ha simply multiply the
weight of the sample by 1000.
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Example: Careful sampling of ten 1m2 "mini-samples" results in 550g (.55
kg) of dry grain. What is the yield of the crop in terms of kg/ha?
Weight of sample =.55 kg
Area of sample = 10m2
Yield in kg/ha =.55 kg/10m2 x 1000 = 550 kg/ha.
Notes Yields measured in kg/ha can be converted into lbs./acre or
bushels/acre using the following conversion rates:
1 kg = 2.2 lbs. 1 ha = 10000 m2
1 lb. =.453 kg 1 ha = 2.47 acres
1 bushel = 60 lbs. 1 acre = 43560 f2
1 bushel = 27.18 kg 1 acre =.405 ha
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TASK SHEET 2.2-1
Title: COMPUTE VOLUME OF HARVEST
Performance Objective: After calculating the problem trainee

would be able to compute harvest.
Supplies/Materials : paper, pen and tape

recorder/cellphone(optional).
Equipment : none
Steps/Procedure:
1. Read and analyze the given problem
 Mang Kardo has a 1 hectare of rice field. During the planting
season. He decided to plant a hybrid seed “Longping 8869’’ that
costly P8,500 for the 20 kg. (Good for 1 ha.), during fertilization
his technician recommended that he’ll be needed 10 sack of
fertilizer costly P35,500 he also applied insecticide @ P2,500
and a foliar fertilizer of P1,200. After finishing the fertilization,
he decided to compute his labour expenses for land preparation
up to fertilization and he come up with the cost of P17,800.
Upon harvesting he decided to use the combine harvester
rather than manual harvesting and it causes 16 sacks
deducted to his total harvest of 200 sack with an average of 50
kg. After the harvest mang kardo’s elder son said that they
need to sell their harvest fresh because there is a forecast
yesterday that there is a thunderstorm that is coming so, mang
Kardo decided to sell their harvest at P20 per kg. How much
did mang kardo earn in his harvested rice?
2. Categorize the different farm inputs.
3. Patiently perform basic computation.
4. Interpret the result of your computation.
Assessment Method:
Demonstration with Oral Question
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Performance Criteria Checklist 2.2-1
CRITERIA
Did you…. YES NO
1. Read and analyze the problem given?
2. Categorize the different farm inputs
3. Patiently perform basic computation
4. Interpret the result of your computation
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SELECT ALTERNATIVE FARM PRODUCTS BASED ON MARKET
DEMAND
Learning Objective:
alternative farm products based on market demand
INTRODUCTION:
Sustainable Agriculture
Agriculture often places significant pressure on natural resources
and the environment. Sustainable agricultural practices are intended to
protect the environment, expand the Earth’s natural resource base,
maintain and improve soil fertility. Based on a multi-pronged goal,
sustainable agriculture seeks to:
 Increase profitable farm income
 Promote environmental stewardship
 Enhance quality of life for farm families and communities
 Increase production for human food and fiber needs
IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Sustainable agriculture frequently encompasses a wide range of
production practices, including conventional and organic. A regionally
integrated system of plant and animal production practices are designed to
produce long-term results such as:
 Production of sufficient human food, feed, fiber, and fuel to meet the
needs of a sharply rising population
 Protection of the environment and expansion of the natural resources
supply
 Sustainment of the economic viability of agriculture systems
ALTERNATIVE FARM PRODUCTS ARE THE FOLLOWING;

1. Livestock Production Systems
Livestock plays an important role in nutrition - directly through the
consumption of animal products by livestock owners and their families; and
indirectly through the sale of animals and animal products as a source of
income.
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In the past food security studies have concentrated on quantifying
the output of cereal crops and the importance of livestock in providing food
security has seldom been examined. It has been stated that the role of
livestock in food security is usually undervalued. However, it is not simple
to quantify the actual role of livestock to include aspects other than direct
food production; an effective method to quantifying the importance of
livestock has not been developed.
Because of the social and physical diversity of the Asia Pacific region,
this report does not provide a detailed analysis for all countries in the
region. However, this analyses the role of livestock in providing food
security in general for the region, including livestock production and
consumption trends. Three countries are examined: namely Bangladesh,
Vietnam and the Philippines.
Livestock production systems
Livestock can be considered as a production system as shown in
Figure 1, which divides the system into the following: inputs; animal
health; animals which are the unit of production; outputs which are the
products; and the market which purchases the products and sets the price
to the producer. Each of these categories is examined in the following
sections.
Figure 1. The livestock production system
Inputs into livestock production

This section outlines inputs into livestock production in general
terms. A more detailed examination into inputs for different species in the
three countries examined in detail are examined in the sections for the
specific countries.
Inputs into livestock production consist of land, housing, water,
labour (which is often provided by women), and livestock feed. The most
important input into small scale livestock production is livestock feed.
When considering human food security livestock feed can be
subdivided into two categories - (i) food that can be used for human
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consumption, and (ii) food not normally used, or that is unsuitable, for
human consumption. In order to examine livestock, feed it is therefore
useful to consider the following questions:
 What alternative uses does the feed used have? Can it be fed to
people? Can it be used as feed for other livestock?
 Is feed grown specifically for animal feed? If so could the land
be used to grow other crops for human consumption?
Animal health
This section discusses the general role of animal health inputs and
the form of those inputs. Animal health inputs into the livestock production
system are examined separately as disease prevention methods are put in
place to limit the effects of disease which is a negative input on production.
The value of animal health measures is therefore in the form of the
preventive measures, specifically to avoid production loss.
The animals
The genetic composition of animals in the production system
determines the response of the system to the different inputs. Often, local
livestock breeds do not produce at a high level as they have been selected
for survival under difficult conditions, including under-nutrition and
exposure to various diseases. In contrast, highly productive breeds are
more susceptible to disease, thereby increasing the need for animal health
measures. These animals often require a high level of nutrition to gain the
production benefits.
Outputs from livestock production
Outputs from livestock production vary by species. The outputs are
therefore considered in general in this section (specific outputs from each
species are discussed in the next section).
 Direct consumption outputs are those consumed directly by
the farmer's family and can only be consumed once such as
milk and eggs.
 Multiple use consumption outputs are those that can be used
as inputs for the production of additional outputs and are
therefore made use of several times. For example, manure can
be used to generate biogas, and the residue used as fertilizer
which effectively doubles the value of the manure.
 Sale goods are those sold by the farmer to produce income. The
categories are not mutually exclusive. Wastes are goods that
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are not used and produce pollution. These are regarded as
negative outputs.
Livestock statistics generally quantify the products that are eaten and
traded such as meat, milk and eggs and do not consider products such as
draught and manure. Meat milk and eggs are therefore discussed in
Section 3 which analyses the changes in livestock production. Appendix 6
determines the value of all outputs from cattle production in Bangladesh.
Processing
In some cases, suitable processing is essential for an output to be
used. An example is the tanning of leather. The processing of outputs
results in an increase in their value, for example, the production of cheese
from milk. Processing can also increase the shelf life of the product.
The market
The market is included as part of the livestock production system.
Without an available market paying a fair price it is not feasible to consider
the expansion of production by increasing inputs in the other parts of the
system.
2. Poultry Farming
Poultry farming is one of the important research areas in poultry science

which deals with egg and meat production systems, industry structure,
processing, product development, egg and meat quality and economics.
Rising domesticated birds such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese,
domestically or commercially for the purpose of farming meat and eggs for
food but also for feathers is called poultry farming. Poultry farming
classification focuses on the principles and practices of poultry production
and also discusses about food value and processing of poultry products.
Poultry farming has become one the most important aspects of agriculture.
Poultry production is an important and diverse component since egg and
meat are part of health and diet for larger population all over the world.
Thus, many researchers strive to advance knowledge and understanding in
the diverse sector of poultry farming such as Intensive and alternative
poultry farming, Egg-laying chickens - husbandry systems, Meat-producing
chickens - husbandry systems, Issues with poultry farming and world
chicken population. The largest proportion of poultry meat and eggs were
found to be produced by intensive poultry farming. Now-a-days free-range
farming using lower stocking densities is practiced as an alternative to
intensive poultry farming. Research is carried on to resolve the issues rose
due to agitation between the supporters of intensive farming and alternate
farming methods. The important issues with poultry farming include
Humane treatment, Beak trimming, Antibiotics used on poultry, Poultry
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feed including arsenic, Avian influenza, Efficiency in farming and Economic
factors.
3. Crops
Vegetable farming is the growing of vegetables for human consumption.
The practice probably started in several parts of the world over ten
thousand years ago, with families growing vegetables for their own
consumption or to trade locally. At first manual labour was used but in
time livestock were domesticated and the ground could be turned by the
plough. More recently, mechanization has revolutionized vegetable farming
with nearly all processes being able to be performed by machine. Specialist
producers grow the particular crops that do well in their locality. New
methods—such as aquaponics, raised beds and cultivation under glass—
are used. Marketing can be done locally in farmer's markets, traditional
markets or pick-your-own operations, or farmers can contract their whole
crops to wholesalers, canners or retailers.
Vegetable farming is a type of crop production intended primarily for
human consumption of the crop's edible parts such as the shoot, leaves,
fruits, and roots. According to the consume part of the crop, vegetables are
divided into the following groups:
 Leaf vegetables (lettuce, cabbage, spinach)
 Fruit vegetables (pepper, cucumber, tomato)
 Root vegetables (carrot, radish, sweet potato)
 Bulb vegetables (garlic, onion, fennel)
 Flower vegetables (artichoke, cauliflower, broccoli)
Global vegetable crop production has consistently increased in recent

years. The growth of vegetable production is shown in the table below.

Despite the fact that vegetable farming is a labor-intensive practice,
it’s very popular among farmers as a high-income branch of farming. The
secret to vegetable farming profitability lies in its high market price of
crops, as well as in high demands for vegetables year-round.
Moreover, growing of vegetables is a preferable farm practice in

developing and food-insecure countries. Since vegetables are rich in
vitamins, minerals, and fibers, they play an important role in diet
improvement.
Differences in the Sowing and Planting of Vegetables
Growing of vegetables starts with sowing or planting. Vegetable

sowing means putting a seed directly into the prepared soil. On the other
hand, vegetable planting includes the practice of putting already grown
seedlings into the soil. Seedlings can be grown in the field or in
greenhouses.
There are two types of seedlings:
 Bare root seedlings are grown in the field from the seed. As the
name implies, their roots are separated from the soil when they
are moved to the planting site.

 Root ball seedlings are grown in pots or blocks and moved to
the planting site with the soil attached to the roots.
Sowing is a recommended practice for vegetables with delicate roots

and taproots, such as carrots, turnips, and radishes. Growing of vegetables
from seedlings is more appropriate in cases such as slow-growing
perennials, crops with fine and expensive seed, and warm-season crops.
Planting is recommended for annual vegetable crops when the soil is too
cold or moist for direct sowing. For example, onion and asparagus are
vegetables that are usually planted.
Marketing
Several economic models exist for vegetable farms: A relatively small

operation is a market garden while a larger farm may grow large quantities
of few vegetables and sell them in bulk to major markets or middlemen,
which requires large growing operations. A farm may produce for local
customers, which requires a larger distribution effort. A farm may produce
a variety of vegetables for sale through an on-Farm Stalls, a local farmer's
markets, or a u-pick operation. Such operations differ from commodity
farm products like wheat and maize which are less perishable and are sold
in bulk to a local granary. Large cities often have a central produce market
which handles vegetables in a commodity-like manner, and manages
distribution to most supermarkets and restaurants.
4. Fisheries and aquatic resources
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Fish Farms
Fish farms or fish farming is a form of aquaculture. The act of fish

farming is about raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures for
human consumption. There are different types of fish farms that utilize
different aquiculture methods.
Cage System of Fish Farming
The first method is the cage system which use cages that are placed
in lakes, ponds and oceans that contain the fish. This method is also widely
referred to as off-shore cultivation. Fish are kept in the cage like structures
and are “artificially fed” and harvested. The fish farming cage method has
made numerous technological advances over the years, especially with
reducing diseases and environmental concerns. However, the number one
concern of the cage method is fish escaping and being loose among the wild
fish population.
Pond System for fish farming
The second method is irrigation ditch or pond systems for raising

fish. This basic requirement for this method is to have a ditch or a pond
that holds water. This is a unique system because at a small level, fish are
artificially fed and the waste produced from the fish is then used to fertilize
farmers’ fields. On a larger scale, mostly in ponds, the pond is self-
sustaining as it grows plants and algae for fish food.
The third method of fish farming is called composite fish culture

which is a type of fish farming that allows both local fish species and
imported fish species to coexist in the same pond. The number of species
depends, but it is sometimes upwards of six fish species in a single pond.
The fish species are always carefully chosen to ensure that species can
coexist and reduce competition for food.
Fish farming Integrated recycling systems
The fourth method of fish farming is called integrated recycling

systems which is considered the largest scale method of “pure” fish
farming. This approach uses large plastic tanks that are placed inside a
greenhouse. There are hydroponic beds that are placed near the plastic
tanks. The water in the plastic tanks is circulated to the hydroponic beds,
where the fish feed waste goes to provide nutrients to the plant crops that
are grown in the hydroponic beds. The majority of types of plants that are
grown in the hydroponic beds are herbs such as parsley and basil.
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The last type of fish farming method is called classic fry farming this
method is also known as “flow through system”. This is when sport fish
species are raised from eggs and are put in streams and released.
There are a number of different fish species that are raised on fish
farms, the most common fish spices raised are salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish
and cod.
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SELF-CHECK 2.2-4
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Sustainable agricultural practices are intended to protect the
environment, expand the Earth’s natural resource base, maintain
and improve soil fertility.
2. Animal health inputs into the livestock production system are not
examined separately as disease prevention methods are put in place
to limit the effects of disease which is a negative input on production
3. . Poultry farming classification focuses on the principles and
practices of poultry production and also discusses about food value
and processing of poultry products.
4. Vegetable farming is a type of crop production intended primarily for
human consumption of the crop's edible parts such as the shoot,
leaves, fruits, and roots.
5. Fish farms or fish farming is a form of aquaculture. The act of fish
farming is about raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures for
human consumption.
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ANSWER 2.2-4
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
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FORMULATE CONTINGENCY PLAN BASED ON FARM
PRODUCTION RISKS
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to formulate
contingency plan based on farm production risks
INTRODUCTION:
What is Contingency Plan?
All businesses are vulnerable to some amount of risk. Contingency
planning can be effective in mitigating these risks
Contingency planning is defined as a course of action designed to
help an organization respond to an event that may or may not happen.
Contingency plans can also be referred to as ‘Plan B’ because it can work
as an alternative action if things don’t go as planned.
There are seven steps outlined for a contingency plan which are as
follows:
 Develop a Contingency Planning Policy Statement: This will
provide the authority and guidance necessary to develop the plan.
 Conduct the BIA (Business Impact Analysis): The BIA will help
to identify and prioritize information systems and components
that are critical in supporting the organization’s
mission/business functions.
 Identify Preventive Controls: Preventive controls are measures
taken to reduce the effects of system disruptions. They will
increase system availability and reduce contingency life-cycle
costs.
 Create Contingency Strategies: These are thorough recovery
strategies that ensure the system will be recovered quickly in case
of a disruption.
 Create an Information System Contingency Plan: This should
contain detailed guidance and procedures for restoring a system
after emergencies occur. These procedures will be unique to the
system’s security impact level and recovery requirements. Each
third-party vendor must be prepared for working within the
bank’s contingency plan during and after emergencies.

 Provide Plan Testing, Training and Exercises: Testing your
plan will ensure that recovery will be successful while training
prepares personnel so that they know how to act in case of
emergency and with regards to putting the plan into effect.
 Ensure Plan Maintenance: The plan should be updated
regularly to remain current with any changes made within the
organization.
When you run a business, risk comes with the territory and can
occur in the form of accidents, natural disasters, financial risks, IT attacks
and more. Be sure you are prepared by providing comprehensive
contingency planning in your workplace.
As contingency plan defined, we have also to identify what are the

farm production risks that we may encounter in a certain time.
Risk in Agriculture
Risk is an important aspect of the farming business. The
uncertainties inherent in weather, yields, prices, Government policies,
global markets, and other factors that impact farming can cause wide
swings in farm income. Risk management involves choosing among
alternatives that reduce financial effects that can result from such
uncertainties.
The Big Five Risks Faced by Farmers
As you think about managing risk to stabilize farm income, there are
five basic sources of agricultural risk that you should address: Production,
marketing, financial, legal, and human resource risks. Various tools and
strategies can be used to manage each of these risks.
1) Production Risks/Yield Risks

Production risks relate to the possibility that your yield or output
levels will be lower than projected. Major sources of production risks arise
from adverse weather conditions such as drought, freezes, or excessive
rainfall at harvest or planting. Production risks may also result from
damage due to insect pests and disease despite control measures employed,
and from failure of equipment and machinery such as an irrigation pump.
Strategies to manage production risks include:
 Follow recommended production practices.

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 Diversify enterprises by growing different crop varieties and
completely new crops.
 Expand production through more intensive growing practices or by
planting more acreage.
 Purchase federal crop insurance coverage to stabilize income during
times of loss and purchase NAP coverage for noninsured crops.
 Adopt risk mitigating practices such as drip irrigation, tile drainage,
trap crops or resistant varieties.
 Consider site selection - use fields less susceptible to frost or pests
and rotate crops.
 Maintain equipment and keep facilities in good working condition.
2) Marketing Risks
Marketing risks relate to the possibility that you will lose the market
for your products or that the price received will be less than expected.
Lower sales and prices due to increased numbers of competing growers or
changing consumer preferences are common sources of marketing risk.
Marketing risks can also arise from loss of market access due to a
wholesale buyer or processor relocating or closing, or if a product fails to
meet market standards or packaging requirements.
Strategies to manage marketing risks include:
 Develop a marketing plan with realistic sales forecasts and target

prices.
 Form or join a marketing cooperative to enhance prices and
guarantee a market.
 Increase direct marketing efforts to capture a higher price.
 Market through multiple channels or outlets to reduce reliance on a
single market.
 Enter into sales or price contracts with buyers.
 Spread harvest and sales over the season by scheduling planting and
considering storage.
 Conduct essential market research - understand your customers’
needs and preferences.
 Purchase Whole-Farm Revenue Protection to cover unexpected
decline of market prices during the growing year.
3) Financial Risks
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Financial risks relate to not having sufficient cash to meet expected
obligations, generating lower than expected profits, and losing equity in the
farm. Sources of financial risk commonly result from production and
marketing risks described earlier. In addition, financial risks may also be
caused by increased input costs, higher interest rates, excessive borrowing,
higher cash demand for family needs, lack of adequate cash or credit
reserves, and unfavorable changes in exchange rates.
Strategies to manage financial risks include:
 Develop a strategic business plan.

 Monitor financial ratios and enterprise benchmarks.
 Control key farm expenses - consider other suppliers and alternative
inputs.
 Conduct a trend analysis to assess change in farm profits and
owner’s equity over time.
 Consider purchasing Whole-Farm Revenue Protection to provide a
safety net in poor earning years.
 Communicate and renegotiate agreements with suppliers and loan
terms with lenders.
 Consider leasing and rental options rather than purchasing
machinery, equipment or land.
 Evaluate the possibility of expanding or contracting different
enterprises.
 Control or defer unnecessary family and household expenditures.
 Find off-farm employment for a family member, preferably a job with
benefits such health insurance, group life insurance, and a
retirement program.
 Use non-farm investments such as IRAs or mutual funds to diversify
your asset portfolio.
4) Legal and Environmental Risks
In part, legal risks relate to fulfilling business agreements and
contracts. Failure to meet these agreements often carry a high cost.
Another major source of legal risk is tort liability - causing injury to another
person or property due to negligence. Lastly, legal risk is closely related to
environmental liability and concerns about water quality, erosion and
pesticide use.
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Strategies to manage legal risks include:
 Review business insurance policies and carry sufficient liability

coverage.
 Choose a different business legal structure – as an example, a sole
proprietorship is not always best.
 Understand business contracts and agreements - ask questions if
you are unsure.
 Develop good relationships with neighbors and address their
concerns.
 Use good agricultural practices to limit environmental risk.
 Know and follow state and federal regulations related to your farming
operation.
5) Human Resource Management Risks
Human resource risks pertain to risks associated with individuals
and their relationships to each other. These relationships include those
with family members, as well as farm employees and customers. Key
sources of human resource risk arise from one of the “three D’s” — divorce,
death, or disability. The impact of any of these events can be devastating to
a farm. Human resource risks also include the negative impacts arising
from a lack of people management skills and poor communications.
Strategies to manage human resource risks:
 Develop and practice good “people skills” with family members, as

well as employees.
 Evaluate alternative sources of labor.
 Provide adequate training for employees - formalized programs may
help your safety record and improve performance.
 Communicate with employees and family members.
 Recognize and reward good performance.
 Review wills, trusts, and powers of attorney.
 Initiate estate transfer and business succession planning.
 Consider health and life insurance needs.
Risks may possibly include quality risks, contract risk, product liability
risk and relationship risks.
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Managing risk starts with identifying the most crucial risks you face;
understanding the potential impacts and likelihood of undesirable
outcomes; and, identifying and taking possible steps to mitigate or lessen
the impacts. It’s unlikely any one person understands all the areas of risk
faced by a family farm. If you don’t know the answer or find it difficult to
initiate risk management planning on your own, get assistance from
Cooperative Extension, USDA, attorneys, bankers, insurance agents, and
other service providers.
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SELF-CHECK 2.2-5
Multiple choices:
1. It is defined as a course of action designed to help an organization
respond to an event that may or may not happen.
a. Business plan
b. Market plan
c. Contingency plan
2. It is an important aspect of the farming business. _________
management involves choosing among alternatives that reduce
financial effects that can result from such uncertainties.
a. Risk
b. Safety
c. Both A & B
3. __________ relate to the possibility that your yield or output levels will
be lower than projected
a. Marketing risk
b. Financial risk
c. Human resource management risks
d. Production risk
4. ___________ relate to not having sufficient cash to meet expected
obligations, generating lower than expected profits, and losing equity
in the farm.
a. Marketing risk
b. Financial risk
d. Production risk
5. ____________ pertain to risks associated with individuals and their
relationships to each other.
a. Marketing risk
b. Financial risk
d. Production risk
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6. ____________ relate to not having sufficient cash to meet expected
obligations, generating lower than expected profits, and losing equity
in the farm.
a. Marketing risk
b. Financial risk
d. Production risk
7. In part, legal risks relate to fulfilling business agreements and
contracts. Failure to meet these agreements often carry a high cost.
a. Legal and environmental risk
b. Financial risk
c. Marketing risk
d. Production risk
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ANSWER KEY 2.2-5
MULTIPLE CHOICE;
1. C
2. A
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. A
7. A
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SELECT SUPPLIERS AND PROVIDERS BASED ON

PREFERENCE/CRITERIA
Learning Objective:
suppliers and providers based on the preference/criteria.
INTRODUCTION:
Choosing the right supplier can make or break your business. A bad
supplier can reduce your sales revenues and margins, damage customer
relations, reduce the quality of your products and services, disrupt
operations and increase costs.
A good supplier, on the other hand, will provide you with quality
products and services that at least match, if not exceed, your business
needs. They will deliver them reliably and consistently at the right time and
for the right price.
This guide explains the importance of choosing suppliers
strategically. It describes the range of factors affecting your choice and
gives you a list of essential criteria for selecting a supplier.
Finally, it offers best practice advice on shortlisting potential
suppliers, carrying out due diligence checks and managing supplier
relationships.
How to find the right suppliers
Guide
Finding the right supplier is vital for building a successful business.
Think of suppliers as your business partners. Whether they provide you
with services like internet, with distribution or raw materials, your supplier
is an essential link in the chain of your business operations.
Where to find suppliers?
You can find suppliers through a variety of online and offline
channels. Looking at different sources may give you more options to
shortlist possible suppliers. No matter where you look, the search is likely
to be easier if you know exactly what you're looking for.
Decide in advance what type of supplier you need and consider the
levels of service, quality and price you are willing to accept.
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Seek referrals and recommendations
Word of mouth can be a good place to start searching for a supplier.
Ask friends and business acquaintances about their experiences. You're
more likely to get an honest assessment of a supplier's strengths and
weaknesses from someone who has used a supplier before.
Search business directories
If you're looking for a supplier in your local area, it's worth trying
online directories.
Consult business advisers
Business advisers can help steer you in the right direction when it
comes to finding an experienced, well-regarded supplier.
You may want to approach local enterprise agencies and Chambers of
Commerce, or services such as Invest NI's Business Information Centre
where you can use market research reports, company databases and
worldwide business directories to help you find suitable suppliers.
Contact trade associations
If your needs are specific to a particular trade or industry, there will
probably be a trade association that can match you with suitable suppliers.
Visit trade shows and exhibitions
These offer a great opportunity to talk to a number of potential
suppliers in the same place at the same time. Before you go, check that the
exhibitors are relevant and suitable for your business. Use the
nibusinessinfo.co.uk Events Finder to find business events near you.
Check trade press
Trade magazines feature advertisements from potential suppliers. A
selection of trade publications and trade press listings should be available
at your local business library.
When you identify a number of potential suppliers, you'll have to
assess their offering against your business' needs and requirements.
Discover how to set and use criteria for selecting a supplier
Criteria for selecting a supplier
Guide
Suppliers play a critical role in helping companies succeed. In order
to find the right ones, businesses need to consider a number of critical
factors, including:
 price
 value for money
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 quality
 reliability
 responsiveness
 flexibility
Shared culture and location can also play a key role in a successful
partnership. Effective purchasing should focus on what your business
needs and what you want to achieve.
Value for money
If you are a start-up, a key consideration in choosing a supplier may
be affordability. However, cheap suppliers don't always represent the best
value for money. If you want reliability and quality from your suppliers,
you'll have to decide how much you're willing to pay for your supplies. It is
important to strike a balance between cost, reliability, quality and service.
Quality and reliability
The quality of your supplies needs to be consistent - your customers
associate poor quality with you, not your suppliers. Equally, if your
supplier lets you down with a late delivery or faulty supplies, you may let
your customer down.
Speed and flexibility
Being able to place frequent, small orders lets you avoid tying up too
much working capital in stock. Flexible suppliers help you respond quickly
to changing customer demands and sudden emergencies. If you want to cut
down the time it takes you to serve your customers, suppliers that offer you
a quick delivery service will rate higher than those that compete on other
factors - for example, on price alone.
Strong service and clear communication

Communication is important in ensuring a good working relationship
with your supplier. From the initial briefing, through continual feedback
and routine meetings, your supplier should communicate openly and
regularly. You need your suppliers to deliver on time, or to be honest and
give you plenty of warning if they can't.
Financial stability
It's always worth making sure your supplier has sufficiently strong
cashflow to deliver what you want, when you need it. A credit check will
help reassure you that they won't go out of business when you need them
most. You can run a company search with Web Check.
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How many suppliers do you need?
It's well worth examining how many suppliers you really need.
Buying from a carefully targeted group could have a number of benefits:
 it will be easier to control your suppliers

 your business will become more important to them
 you may be able to make deals that give you an extra competitive
advantage
However, it's important to have a choice of supply sources and carefully

weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of single or multiple supplier
strategy.
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SELF-CHECK 2.2-6
TRUE OR FALSE
statement is wrong.
1. A good supplier, on the other hand, will provide you with quality
products and services that at least match, if not exceed, your
business needs.
2. Word of mouth can be a good place to start searching for a supplier.
3. Finding the right supplier is not vital for building a successful
business.
4. The quality of your supplies needs to be consistent - your customers
associate poor quality with you, not your suppliers.
5. Its important to have a choice of supply sources and carefully weigh
up the advantages and disadvantages of single or multiple supplier
strategy.
Date Developed:
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ANSWER KEY 2.2-6
TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
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LEARNING OUTCOME #3 Improve Farm Production Plan
CONTENTS:
 Adjustment of farm production activities and costing
 Application of selected improvements
 Adjustment of projected volume target
 Application of corrective measures in line with improvement
1.1 Adjust farm production activities and costing based on the
result of review
1.2 Apply selected improvements based on the result of review
1.3 Adjust projected volume target based on the result of review
1.4 Apply corrective measures base on the result of review
CONDITIONS:
The students/ Determine farm production activities and cost based on
accepted farming practices trainees must be provided with the following:
 References
 Handouts
METHODOLOGIES:
ASSESSMENT METHODS:
 Demonstration
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Learning Outcome#3: Improve Farm Production Plan
Do not write anything on the

on Adjust farm production activities
doing the Self-check.
and costing based on the result of
review
2.3-1.
on Apply selected improvements
based on the result of review
2.3-2.
on Adjust projected volume target
volume based on the result of review
2.3-3.
on Apply corrective measures base on
the result of review
2.3-4.
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ADJUST FARM PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES AND COSTING BASED
ON THE RESULT OF REVIEW
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to adjust
farm production and costing based on the result of review.
INTRODUCTION:
What are the farm production activities?
b. Land preparation
Soil tillage or land preparation is one of the routine activities in most

agricultural systems. Often, land preparation starts with burning fallow
vegetation or previous crop residues in order to clear the land or to scare
away wild animals or snakes.
 CLEANING, PLOWING AND HOEING
Cleaning, plowing and hoeing are primary tillage activities. Primary
tillage includes two major activities, which are cleaning /clearing the
area and plowing or hoeing.
Cleaning/clearing is done to remove litter materials, rocks, weeds,
shrubs, trees and other structures from the surface to make the next
activities easier and to prevent damage of tools and equipment
Plowing or hoeing is the initial breaking of soil surface. Depending
on the degree of hardness and presence of weeds/other plants,
plowing or hoeing could be done two to three times, 5 to 7 days after
first operation.
 Ocular inspection or initial

visit of the area. This will help
you determine succeeding
activities, like what
tools/equipment are needed and
transportation are necessary to
haul materials.
 Determine what tools/equipments are needed. If you see

shrubs or previous crops, cutting tool such as bolo or scythe
and wheelbarrow are needed.
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Clearing the area
If there are big trees, you will need chain
saw and other equipment like bulldozer to bole
out the tree stumps and dump truck to haul
the cut trees or parts.
If there are big boulders of stone and
other big structures, you would need special
equipment such as crane and bulldozer to
remove them.
Plowing and hoeing
Plowing and hoeing is the initial and

subsequent breaking of the soil
surface using a hoe, spade or a
carabao drawn plow.
So this is the proper way

HOEING of hoeing? Students
should know this!!
Proper way of hoeing:

 Hold the hoe or spade upright with both
hands.
 Start digging in one corner moving toward
the other end of the garden area. Be sure the
entire surface is dug.
PLOWING
This is done using carabao-drawn plow or tractor-pulled plow depending
on the size of the field area.
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Carabao-drawn plow
Tractor-pulled plow
After the soil has been broken down into smaller particles, it is now
time to break them further. The activities that follow are part of secondary
tillage. It involves further breaking the soil particles, mixing well the soil
and leveling the field or garden.
After 7-10 days from the last hoeing or plowing, secondary tillage
activities must be started. During this time, the turn-upside plants/weeds
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are already wilted or dried and whatever seeds found in the soil are not yet
germinating or sprouting.
 HARROWING AND OTHER SECOND TILLAGE ACTIVITIES
 Spreading decayed organic matter or compost soil. This

enhances the soil condition or partially restores the nutrient
content in the soil. The usual rate of application is 15 tons per
hectare of land.
 Harrowing. This is done to further breakdown the plowed or
hoed slice of soil to smaller sizes and to loosen the soil particles
using the spading fork or harrow as needed.
 The spading fork can be operated easily just like the hoe.
While the harrow must be drawn either by working animals like
carabao, cow or tractor.
 Pulverization of soil particles. This makes the soil particles
smooth and even in size using the same tools or equipment
until such time that the desired condition has been achieved.
 Mixing pulverized soil with organic matter. You need to dig
the pulverized soil with organic matter to a depth of 30 cm
mixing it at the same time. This is done to fully mix the soil
particles using the spade, spading fork or subsoiler and
harrow.
 Spreading soil evenly. Using the rake or harrow, spread the
soil evenly or level so there will be no low spot where the water
may accumulate later.
Making plot or trenches. Depending on the garden plan,
make plots or trenches. Each plot must be 6 cm high above
the paths of trenches.
B. Planting
 Method of Planting
- Direct Seeding; seeds are directly planted/sown in the field.
Examples; corn, peanut, Mungbean, soybean
- Transplanting; seedlings are used as planting materials.
Examples; rice, asexually propagated plants; most vegetables.
 TYPES OF DIRECT SEEDING;
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- Broadcast; seed are scattered uniformly in the field without a
definite distance. Requires good land preparation. Done in
small seeded crops such as rice, tobacco, mustard, corn, etc.
- Drilling; seed are planted in rows of specified distance.
Examples are corn, Mungbean, cowpea, sugarcane, etc.
- Dibble; seeds are sown more/less uniform distance. No land
preparation is needed before planting. Only the area where
the hole will be made is the one cultivated. Done in hilly
areas.
 Reasons for transplanting
- Seeds that are difficult to germinate
- Seeds that are expensive
- Small seed; and
- Asexually propagated
 PLANTING/POPULATION DENSITY
- Refers to the number of plants per unit area

Planting density = Area x no of plant per
Area occupied hill
by a single plant
- Each crop species/variety/cultivar has different
optimum planting density
 BENEFITS OF OPTIMUM PLANTING DENSITY
- Early build-up of sufficient leaf area index for
optimum utilization of solar energy
- Early and better weed control of weeds and
- Increase efficiency in the use of land and water
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DETERMINING THE OPTIMUM
PLANTING DENSITY
- Crop species/variety/cultivar
 Morphology, growth habit, extent of the root
system/canopy; ability to compete etc.
- Soil fertility and management practices
- Method of propagation
- Degree of mechanization
- Cropping system
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c. Maintenance
 Manuring
Crops need nutrients to grow and

produce yield. Thus, the supply of nutrients
at regular intervals is necessary. Manuring
is the step where nutritional supplements
are provided and these supplements may be
natural (manure) or chemical compounds
(fertilizers). Manure is the decomposition
product of plant and animal wastes.
Fertilizers are chemical compounds
consisting of plant nutrients and are produced commercially. Apart from
providing nutrients to crop, manure replenishes soil fertility as well. Other
methods for soil replenishment are vermicompost, crop rotation, planting of
leguminous plants.
 Irrigation
Irrigation is the supply of water. Sources of

water can be wells, ponds, lakes, canals, dams
etc. Over irrigation may lead to waterlogging and
damage the crop. This frequency and interval
between successive irrigation need to be
controlled.
 Weeding
Weeds are unwanted plants which
grow among crops. They are removed by
using weedicides, by manually pulling
them with hands and some are removed
during soil preparation.
D. Harvesting
Separation of the economic yield (whether the whole plant biomass or
the portion of the whole plant biomass) when crops have reached highest or
optimum level of productivity (physiological maturity onwards).
Method of Harvesting
a. Pulling
b. Twisting
c. Using knife
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d. Shaking of branches
e. Harvesting aids/tools (ladder, picking pole, catching net, rope)
Traditional Method
The harvesting of crops is traditionally done by manual methods.
Harvesting of cereals, pulse and oilseed crops are done by using sickles
whereas tuber crops are harvested by country plough or spade. All these
traditional methods involve drudgery and consume long time.
Mechanical Harvesting
Timeliness of harvest is prime importance. During harvesting season,
often rains and storms occur causing considerable damage to standing
crops. Rapid harvest facilities extra days for land preparation and earlier
planting of the next crop. The use of machines can help to harvest at proper
stage of crop maturity and reduce drudgery and operation time.
Considering these, improved harvesting tools, equipment, combines are
being accepted by the farmers.
CROP MANNER OF HARVESTING
Handpicking is needed for individual dwarf variety

plants, harvester should climb the tree using a ladder.
When the container is full, it is gently lowered then
emptied. Fruits should never be dropped to the ground.
Papaya, oranges,
jackfruit, chico, atis,
guyabano

berries. Place fruit in the basket as they are picked.
Exchange the full basket for an empty one and
continue picking.
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Grapes
berries. Use a ladder or climb the tree. Place
harvested fruits in a basket which is tied with a rope so
that when the basket is full, the picker can easily lower
it without having to go down the tree.
Lanzones, rambutan
Harvesting is done using a pole picker (salok or
sigpao). Use a ladder of climb to go up the tree. Use the
pole picker to detach the ripe bunch by pulling it, making
sure that the peduncle falls inside the pole. Slowly lower
the pole, transferring the fruits in a basket of kaing.
Replace full baskets with empty ones and continue
picking.
It is advisable to tie a rope on the waist of the picker to
prevent accidents. One end of the rope must be tied to a
Mangoes, santol, star large kaing that serves as a receptacle of another smaller
apple kaing, where fruits are placed and lowered to the ground
when full.
SOME POINTS AND TIPS IN HARVESTING FRUITS
There are other points to consider in

harvesting fruits.
Here are some of them…
1. Minimize mechanical injuries

ds such as
nding can be
ars or knives.
citrus, papaya
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*The traditional method of harvesting bananas by
severing trunk can be improved by putting a prop
which could be made from 2 crisscrossing
bamboo poles or forked branches, then cut below
the prop. Remove the prop and allow the cut
trunk to fall gently to the ground.
*Attaching knives and shears to the pole and

having a net or bag held open by a ring
beneath the cutting instrument to the catch the
fruit can improve the picking poles and hand
catching method.
*Use gloves if one has long fingernails and use is it

for delicate crops such as strawberries.
*Use padded-collecting baskets instead of rough ones.

A burlap attached to the inner side of the basket with
wire or thread will prove some degree of protection.
*Tie durian fruits to a branch. Fruits are usually

gathered after they have fallen to the ground.
Dropped fruits have short shelf life and must be
consumed within 2-3 days.
*Collecting baskets tied to the waist will minimize throwing

of the harvested fruit
2. Avoid high temperatures
*Harvest as early or as late as possible, especially if

cooling is not available. Exceptions are for mangos
and citrus, which are harvested later in the day
between 9am-3pm. At such time, the sap or latex flow
in mango and citrus is slow, thus, latex stain is lower.
Also the turgor pressure is lower at such time than
early morning or evening.
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*Avoid exposure to direct sunlight. Longer
exposure and heat leads to deterioration and
other physiological disorder. If harvesting during
the heat of the day cannot be avoided, more
harvested commodities to shade the fruits is
needed while awaiting transport.
3. Minimize contact with the soil.
Place commodities immediately in
containers to avoid picking up dirt
microorganisms.
4. Harvest during dry weather.

Diseases, especially molds rapidly
develop when crops are harvested
during or shortly after the rain.
E. Post-harvesting
In this information sheet, basic treatments applied to fresh produce

in the field, at the packing house, and prior to storage. In addition, some
fresh produce commodities may require special treatments in order to slow
down their rate of deterioration and minimize losses. The crops involved are
for the most part those which are seasonal and subjected to long-term
storage, or which are highly perishable and are transported over long
distances to market. Some of the special treatments, such as hot water
dipping of mango and degreening of citrus, are often used Just to make the
produce acceptable for a given market rather than for any great need to
prevent their spoilage.
These special treatments may be applied before, during or after

packing of the produce and are supplements to the normal and basic
practices of grading, selecting, cleaning, and temperature and humidity
management and should never be considered as replacements for such
practices. Fruits, because of their generally higher value, seasonality and
greater perishability are the most common commodities to be given special
post-harvest treatments.
Root crops are often 'cured' to prolong their storage life and minimize
losses, while crops such as onions and potatoes may also be treated with
sprout suppressants prior to long-term storage. Fungicides are now in
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widespread use for decay control in many fruits, vegetables and root crops.
These and other treatments are described in more detail below.
Ripening and degreening of fruits
Oranges and grapefruit grown in the Eastern Caribbean remain

green, partly green, or will reach full colouration depending on various
environmental factors but especially night-time temperatures. Regardless of
colour, the local markets recognize that the fruits are perfectly good to eat
and consumers worry more about fullness of flavour, juiciness and
sweetness than appearance of the fruits. The export markets demand full-
coloured fruits and so a degreening process is necessary.
Degreening is the process where the green chlorophyll pigments in

the peel are broken down and the yellow and orange xanthophyll and
carotenoid pigments are formed. In citrus, this natural process is
stimulated by exposing the fruits to 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of
ethylene gas under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and
ventilation, in special degreening rooms operated by skilled management.
Degreening is generally considered uneconomic unless large quantities of
fruit can be treated at one time. The Citrus Growers Cooperative in
Dominica uses large degreening rooms in Roseau to initiate colouring of
their export citrus prior to sea shipment in refrigerated vessels.
Ripening of fruits is a perfectly natural and highly desirable

phenomenon leading to increased sweetness, flavour development and
softening of the edible tissue. However, ripening of certain fruits presents a
dilemma to the export industry because the very act of ripening clearly
marks the onset of senescence rapidly leading to decay and spoilage. The so
called 'climacteric' fruits such as banana, avocado and mango are
harvested and shipped for export in the green state while still hard and
capable of surviving the physical handling with minimum damage and
spoilage during transit. This is a very familiar operation in the Eastern
Caribbean where large volumes of bananas are shipped green every week
on the Geest boats to England, where they are held in store until just before
they are needed by the consumer. The transformation from green unripe to
yellow ripe bananas is achieved by stacking the boxed fruit in special
airtight rooms where they are exposed to 1,000 ppm of ethylene gas under
controlled temperature and high humidity.
TABLE 1 RIPENING OF BANANAS
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Number of Fruit Temperature (pulp) in °F
Days to Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
Ripen
4 64 64 62 60 - - -
5 62 62 62 62 60 - -
6 62 62 60 60 60 58 -
7 60 60 60 60 60 58 58
PLEASE NOTE:
i. The temperatures indicated are for pulp temperature NOT air

temperature.
j. Air temperatures will usually be lower than pulp temperatures.
k. Do not start ripening with ethylene until pulp temperatures stable at
desired temperature.
l. Seal ripening room and gas with 1000 ppm ethylene for 12 to 15
hours.
m. After initial gassing thoroughly ventilate ripening roam with fresh air
for 20 to 30 minutes every 12 hours.
n. Inspect fruit regularly and adjust air temperatures to control pulp
temperature in desired range.
o. Ripening time given is time from hard green to Colour Stage 4
( green-yellow with dark green tips)
p. Always use a proper pulp thermometer.
In the tropics, banana ripening is traditionally achieved by harvesting of

fuller fruit and simply waiting for it to ripen at ambient. On occasion, some
traders may resort to triggering ripening in the same way as with ethylene
but using acetylene generated from small quantities of calcium carbide and
water in an enclosed room. This practice tends to give fruit which are overly
soft for their appearance and with a short market life. In addition, it is very
dangerous to use acetylene because of its explosive properties.
In Barbados, quite large quantities of bananas from local growers and from
imported sources are now regularly ripened under reasonably controlled
conditions using ethylene gas in the same way as Geest, in order to supply
the increased consumer demand for "properly ripened" bananas, but also to
enable the high-volume retailers, especially supermarkets, to better supply
their customers and control their post-harvest losses.
Ripening of avocado and mango can also be achieved using controlled

ethylene exposure but its use in the tropical exporting countries will
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depend upon the market to be supplied and individual importers/buyers’
requirements.
Curing of root crops and onions
One of the most important methods of reducing post-harvest losses in

many root crops such as yam and sweet potato and also for onions, is the
use of surface drying and curing processes.
Curing is a natural wound healing process which in sweet potato and Irish
potato replaces and strengthens damaged areas by forming a corky layer
which protects against water loss and infection by decay organisms.
In contrast, the curing of onions is mainly a drying process where excess

moisture is removed from the outer skin and neck of the onion. At the same
time, by exposing the onion to higher temperatures the colour of the skin
darkens and natural fungicidal compounds accumulate in the skin. Both
processes together ensure the formation of protecting layer which greatly
reduces water loss and serves as a physical and chemical barrier to
infection.
Root Crop Curing
The specific details for the curing of different root crops, but regardless
of which root crop is to be cured, the following conditions should be
established for all:
 the roots and tubers must be kept at the right temperature to

stimulate skin growth, and this is normally above ambient
temperature;
 the air around the roots or tubers must be moist but without free
moisture on the surface dry air will cause injured surfaces to dry out
quickly but free moisture will allow spoilage organisms entry into the
tuber before the protective layer forms;
 skin growth needs oxygen so ventilation is needed but not too much
or the produce will dry out and temperatures are also likely to drop.
All root and tuber crops suffer some damage during harvest and handling
so curing should be carried out as soon as possible after harvest. Sweet
potato in the Eastern Caribbean is still largely traded both domestically and
regionally without a proper curing treatment. Often the uncured tubers are
bundled straight into crocus bags with damp soil still attached to the
surface and the poorly ventilated bags roughly handled and loaded into
unventilated ships holds. It should not be surprising that postharvest
losses are often very high. Considering that sweet potato is indigenous to
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the area it is a pity that most farmers and exporters have very little
understanding of how best to harvest and handle the crop.
The simplest curing practice for sweet potato in the Eastern Caribbean
involves firstly careful harvest (not when the soil is too wet) and simple
stacking of the produce in field crates or in small heaps, off the ground in a
shaded, sheltered and well-ventilated spot under ambient conditions. The
curing process should be completed in 3 to 5 days after which the tubers
can be washed, if necessary, graded, packed and distributed.
Onion Curing
Curing of onions is most conveniently performed in the field by the

'windrowing' method. Windrowing of onions is performed by carefully
pulling or lifting the onions at harvest and simply laying them in their
places to dry with the leaves of one row covering the bulbs of the next row
in order to promote thorough drying of the tops while protecting the bulbs
from undue sunburn. the bulbs should be turned regularly to ensure even
drying and curing and should always be turned after a rain shower to make
sure they are not touching wet soil continuously. If rainfall persists, then
the onions must be dried and cured on special racks which can be easily
and cheaply constructed from locally available materials. Polythene sheets
should be fixed to the edge of the roof to let down quickly in the event of
heavy rain showers and removed afterwards.
Curing is considered complete when the outer scales and neck are
sufficiently dry to 'rustle' when handled and they form a tight cover over the
bulb. Development of skin colour is also completed at this stage, some 10
to 12 days after harvest.
Unfortunately, most onions grown in the Eastern Caribbean are not

sufficiently adapted to the local conditions and many of the 'Texas Grano'
types are seldom cured sufficiently, in the field or otherwise, before
marketing and post-harvest losses due to rots and sprouting tend to be
high. The introduction of more suitable red-skinned short day onion
varieties with better postharvest characteristics is strongly recommended.
Sprout inhibition
When crops such as onion and potato are placed in long-term storage in
temperate countries they tend to sprout and eventually rot. Sprouting can
be avoided under such conditions by using varieties with long dormancy
periods, proper curing and the use of chemical sprout suppressants such
as 'Tecnazene' (TNCB), 'Chlorpropham' (CIPC), or other proprietary
chemicals.
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In the Eastern Caribbean storage is seldom for long enough periods to
worry about sprout control, but nevertheless some sprouting of onions and
potatoes does occur during distribution and home storage before
consumption. The best remedy is avoidance by making sure that these
commodities are not stored under high humidity, such as in unventilated
plastic bags, and not exposed to light for significant periods.
Fungicide application
Why Fungicides Are Necessary!
Most post-harvest losses eventually result from invasion and breakdown of

the produce by micro-organisms, although physical injury and stress
caused by poor handling may predispose the produce to such attacks. In
the spoilage of vegetables, bacteria can be the most important spoilage
organisms, but since bactericides are not suitable for application to fresh
produce, control must be largely by other methods. Chlorinated
disinfectants are beneficial in cooling and washing water but are difficult to
use effectively because the chlorine tends to combine readily with dirt and
debris and ceases to be effective.
Fungi are usually the primary agents in the spoilage of fresh produce and
control is possible by the application of fungicides at dose rates which do
not harm the produce nor the consumer of the produce. If the produce is to
be marketed and consumed rapidly after harvest then fungicides may not
be necessary or their use may be uneconomic if the value of the produce is
low or the effect of the fungicide is not sufficiently significant.
Fruits in particular suffer from fungal infection. Often infections

established in the field may remain dormant until after harvest and decay
only develops during post-harvest ripening. These so-called 'latent'
infections are of great importance to crops such as bananas, mangoes and
avocadoes, where anthracnose infections are not seen by the exporter but
may totally prevent their purchase in the export market if not controlled.
Application Methods for Fungicides
Fungicides are nearly always applied in the form of an aqueous

solution or suspension and thus only to produce which is normally washed
before packing.
Washed produce should be drained of excess water before the fungicide is

applied or dilution will occur and the fungicide may not work properly - a
waste of money and time.
Date Developed:
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Almost all fungicides used for post-harvest application are in the form of
wettable powders (WP) or emulsifiable concentrates (EC), and when mixed
with water form suspensions, not solutions. They are both liable to settle
out from the suspensions so it is ESSENTIAL THAT THE TANK MIX BE
CONTINUOUSLY AGITATED TO KEEP THE FUNGICIDE IN SUSPENSION.
Failure to do this will mean that the fungicide will collect at the bottom of
the tank instead of going on to the produce - no fungicide application
means no effect and a waste of time and money.
The most common application methods are:
v. Spray or mist - when application is by a hand-held knapsack

sprayer for small-scale operations, or a mechanical spray set up on a
moving belt or roller-conveyor for large-scale commercial operations.
Both systems normally include provision for agitation of the spray
mixture. Spraying should be done to the point of run-oof to ensure a
complete cover of fungicide.
vi. Drenching - is a simple mechanical re-circulating system in which
the fungicide is pumped in a cascade over produce passing beneath it
on a belt or roller-conveyor. It has the advantage that there are no
spray nozzles to wear away or become blocked. The combination of
reservoir design and a high flow-rate pump keep the mixture
agitated. A disadvantage of the system is that the high flow-rate and
agitation may cause the fungicide to be dragged out of suspension
and float on the foam generated by the agitation. It may be necessary
to add a non-toxic anti-foam agent to prevent this happening.
vii. Dipping - is normally used where small quantities are to be treated.
The fungicide mixture is made up in a small bath and produce
dipped by hand. Excess fungicide is allowed to drain back into the
bath. The fungicide mixture must of course be agitated frequently by
hand. It is advisable to wear rubber gloves because some people
develop allergic skin reactions to the fungicide mixture.
viii. Smoke or fumigant - is rarely used as an application method for
fungicides. Tecnazene, which is a fungicide as well as a sprout
suppressant, is applied in the form of volatile granules in long-term
Irish potato stores, and 'diphenyl' wraps or pads may be used for
citrus.
Caution When Using Post-Harvest Fungicides!
Pesticides used in the field are subject to removal from the crop by rain,
wind, solar degradation and physical removal by rubbing of leaves etc. by
handling of produce at harvest, and the produce may also be washed after
harvest. However, fungicides applied post-harvest in the packhouse, or
wherever, are not subject to these factors, and what is applied will largely
Date Developed:
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remain until the produce is purchased by the consumer. The fungicide will
thus remain on the produce and help to control fungal infection but it will
also be there as a possibly toxic chemical at the time of consumption.
For these reasons only a small number of chemicals is available for post-
harvest treatment of fresh produce and is limited to those chemicals with a
very low toxicity. The manufacturers specify strict limitations on the
concentrations to be used so that residues do not exceed the permitted
levels for human consumption. Extra-regional export markets regularly
check on fungicide and other pesticide residue levels on imported produce
and if the permitted levels are exceeded, the produce is rejected and a
warning given that all produce from that source must in future comply with
the legislation or a total ban will be implemented. It makes good sense from
an economic as well as an ethical standpoint to use fungicides carefully
and accurately.
Hot water treatment
Although not used for treatment of vegetables and delicate fruits, hot water
immersion of mango and pawpaw has been shown to help control latent
'Anthracuose' development. The hot water treatment is usually combined
with fungicide application to promote the most effective control and save
additional handling and equipment.
In the Eastern Caribbean, hot-water treatment is recommended for

mangoes exported to the extra-regional markets. The details of the process
have still to be optimized with regard to water temperature and duration of
the dip, and the requirements of different varieties from different growing
areas, and possibly also from different harvest times. Experiments are
being conducted by post-harvest technologists in Dominica at the
Government's Produce Chemist's Laboratory, and at the CENTENO Post-
Harvest Research Unit of the Ministry of Food Production in Trinidad, as
well as individual experimentation by independent exporters including
CATCO.
Generally, there are two main variants of the hot water treatment:
iii. Dip in hot water at 55øC for 5 minutes. Heat injury can develop when
the mangoes are placed in cold storage after treatment - do not
therefore dip in hot water when fruits are to be stored.
iv. Dip in hot water at 52øC with Benomyl (Benlate) at 0.1%
concentration, for 1 to 3 minutes.
Hot water treatment requires a lot more management and supervision to

ensure that the water temperature and dipping time are strictly adhered to
Date Developed:
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because there is little margin for error. Commercial scale equipment for
treating larger volumes of fruit have yet to be acquired in the region and
even in more developed countries the apparatus is still undergoing further
development.
Fumigation and vapour-heat
Fumigation of fruits was traditionally for control of disease, as in the

case of Sulphur dioxide fumigation of grapes to control Botrytis and other
fungus diseases, or for control of insect pests for quarantine purposes,
principly against fruit flies.
Quarantine regulations in the USA and Japan require that certain produce
from areas where fruit fly is endemic must be disinfested on or during
importation, by approved and controlled methods. This was formerly
achieved by fumigation with ethylene dibromide (EDB) or methyl bromide
(MB). These chemicals have since been banned by many countries fo fear of
toxic residues on the treated fruits. For the present, there are no suitable
alternatives and areas with fruit fly in the Eastern Caribbean have no
opportunity to export fruits such as mango to the USA unless, like Grenada
recently, they are cleared as fruit fly free by USDA inspectors.
Vapour heat treatment may be used where other fumigants may damage
the produce. The treatment consists of circulating saturated water vapour
at high temperature around the produce in an enclosed store until the
produce reaches the required temperature, usually in about eight hours,
and the produce is then held at that temperature for a further six hours.
Clearly most fruits such as avocado, lemon and most vegetables would
injured by this treatment, but other kinds of citrus may be treated with
vapour heat without serious Injury. The method is not in widespread use
on account of its cost and impracticality. The method is not considered a
viable alternative to EDB fumigation for the Eastern Caribbean.
Basic pre-treatments before storage and/or marketing
Describes various "special" post-harvest treatments necessary for

specific crops, but there are some basic pre-treatments which must be
performed before storage and/or marketing of any fresh produce.
iv. Cleaning - all stones, soil clods and plant debris must be removed
before storage, particularly if the crop is to be stored in bulk. Stones
damage the produce and soil and plant debris compacts and restricts
ventilation, leading to localized build-up of heat, but may also carry
spoilage pathogens.

v. Grading and selecting - small, damaged, infected and over-mature
produce must be removed. Very small produce loses water more
rapidly leading to wilting in storage. Produce which has been bruised
or cut loses water and is easily invaded by spoilage pathogens during
storage. Infected produce deteriorates rapidly, heats up, and provides
a source of infection inoculum for healthy produce. Over-mature
produce has less resistance to disease and reduced -storage
potential, and in the case of fruits such as banana and mango, may
produce ethylene gas which stimulates premature ripening and
senescence throughout the store.
vi. Field heat removal - regardless of the type of storage facility
employed, it is important to remove the 'field heat' from the produce
before bulking up the produce in a store. This field heat removal may
be carried out by temporarily stacking the produce in a shaded, cool,
ventilated area, or more usually by resorting to refrigeration
techniques as described in section 8.5.3. below. Failure to remove
field heat can result in rapid temperature rises and accumulation of
high concentrations of carbon dioxide, to possibly damaging levels,
once the produce in confined in the store.
Moreover, adjustment of the farm activities and costing are based on the
availability of capital, time and upon the decision making of the farm
owner.
Date Developed:
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SELF-CHECK 2.3-1
TRUE OR FALSE
statement is wrong.
__________ 11. Plowing or hoeing is the initial breaking of soil

surface. Depending on the degree of hardness and
presence of weeds/other plants, plowing or hoeing
could be done two to three times, 5 to 7 days after
first operation.
__________ 12. Cleaning, plowing and hoeing are secondary
tillage activities.
__________ 13. Ocular inspection or initial visit of the area will
help you determine succeeding activities, like what
tools/equipments are needed and transportation are
necessary to haul materials.
__________ 14. Drilling; seed are scattered uniformly in the field
without a definite distance
__________ 15. Broadcast; seed are planted in rows of specified
distance.
__________ 16. Manuring is the step where nutritional
supplements are provided and these supplements
may be natural (manure) or chemical compounds
(fertilizers)
__________ 17. Irrigation is the supply of water. Sources of water
can be wells, ponds, lakes, canals, dams etc.
__________ 18. Handpicking is needed for individual dwarf
variety fruit by twisting until its stalk snaps off for.
For tall plants, harvester should climb the tree using
a ladder.
__________ 19. Curing is the process where the green chlorophyll
pigments in the peel are broken down and the yellow
and orange xanthophyll and carotenoid pigments are
formed.
__________ 20. Degreening is a natural wound healing process
which in sweet potato and Irish potato replaces and
strengthens damaged areas by forming a corky layer
which protects against water loss and infection by
decay organisms.
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
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ANSWER KEY 2.3-1
TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. FALSE
6. TRUE
7. TRUE
8. TRUE
9. FALSE
10. FALSE
Date Developed:
CBLM in
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APPLY SELECTED IMPROVEMENTS BASED ON THE RESULT OF
REVIEW
Learning Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to apply
selected improvements based on the result of review.
INTRODUCTION:
Agricultural Diversification
Agriculture Diversification refers to either a change in cropping
pattern or the farmers opting for other non-farming options like poultry
farming, animal husbandry, etc. This practice allows farmers to expand the
production, which helps generate a higher level of income.
Changing a cropping pattern implies the Diversification between food
and non-food crops, conventional crops and horticulture, high value and
low-value crops, etc.
After the emergence of Golden Revolution (1991-2003), diversification
has started to flourish rapidly across the country,
Types of Diversification
There are mainly two types of agricultural diversification prominent
in India. They are:
 Horizontal Diversification - This relates to multiple cropping or mix
of crops instead of cultivating a single crop. Horizontal Diversification is
especially useful for small farmers who hold a small piece of land. This
allows them to earn more by escalating cropping intensity.
 Vertical Diversification - It refers to the incorporation of

industrialization along with multiple cropping. In this kind of
Diversification, farmers take a further step and invest in activities like
horticulture, agro-forestry, livestock rearing, culture of aromatic plants, etc.
Major Features of Diversification
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 Introduction of multiple or mixed cropping systems.
 Shift from sole agricultural activities to other allied enterprises like
fishery, forest products, poultry and other non-agriculture sectors.
By every mean, Diversification in agricultural activities proves to be

extremely beneficial for small farmers to increase their incomes.
Reasons for Agricultural Diversification

The demand for high-value crops is increasing in India, and this
paves the way for farmers to experiment with several cropping
combinations. Apart from that, some other reasons make diversification an
excellent choice for small and marginal farmers of India.
These include:
 Climate Change - Diversification reasonably controls the damage
that can occur from the unfavorable weather condition. This process
safeguards the farmers from the loss of crops in such a situation.
 Facilitate Several Employment Alternatives - Almost half of the
employment of India revolves around the agriculture sector.
Diversification creates new job opportunities for rural people other
than traditional farming.
 Increases of Income - Opting for Diversification will undoubtedly
increase the income and will let the farmers live a comfortable life.
 Exportation - Diversification, especially of non-farming products,
makes a sizeable export provision for its unique characteristics. India
is now on the front line in exporting several agricultural products to
multiple countries. This contributes to the overall growth of the
economy.
Along with this, you can also read about Agricultural Revolution of India
and how that impacted this essential sector of the country.
Benefits of Diversification
production.
income.
Date Developed:
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country.
Kinds of non-farm Employment in Rural Areas

The scope for employment in non-farm sectors in India is immense. Some of
these are listed below.
1. Livestock - It includes breeding, raising and nurturing the
pastoral animals for food or raw material (like meat, milk, wool,
skin, etc.) that can be used for commercial purposes. It
provides livelihood to over 70 million rural farmers. Livestock is
also used by farmers as an instrument in a farm for transport
and carrying agricultural inputs, and animals like cows are
used in the field for conventional ploughing method.
2. Horticulture - Horticulture refers to the cultivation of garden
crops like fruits, flowers, vegetables, etc. India is a significant
exporter of different fruits like bananas, mangoes, sugarcane,
etc. across the globe. This sector employs almost 19% of
country’s workforce.
3. Fisheries - It involves catching, sorting, selling and
distributing fishes, prawns, oysters, crabs and other marine
and fresh-water fishes. The coastal states like Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala are the key
regions to supply fishes across the country and export to other
countries. This sector contributes to 1.9% of Indian GDP. Since
mostly women are employed in this sector, the scope for women
empowerment in the field is prominent.
4. Dairy - In this industry, cattle like cows, goats, buffaloes, and
sheep are reared for milk. The process comprises collecting,
preserving and distributing the milk and its by-products like
butter, raw-milk powder, ghee, etc.
Impact of Diversification
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poverty level.
Do your research on the high-value crops (HVC) cultivated in India and

how it contributes to the economic growth of the country.
Almost 43.21% of people are associated with Agriculture in India,
making it one of the most vital service sectors of the nation. Also, the
possibilities and scopes are unlimited in Agricultural Diversification in
India using advanced farming apparatus.
Moreover, the application of the improvements is always based on the
assessment of the farm owner on his farm. This information can help
him/her to decide whether what type of diversification are he/she going to
use.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
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SELF-CHECK 2.3-2
TRUE OR FALSE.
1. Agriculture Diversification refers to either a change in cropping
pattern or the farmers opting for other non-farming options like
poultry farming, animal husbandry, etc.
2. Vertical Diversification is especially useful for small farmers who hold
a small piece of land. This allows them to earn more by escalating
cropping intensity.
3. Horizontal Diversification - It refers to the incorporation of
industrialization along with multiple cropping.
4. Horticulture refers to the cultivation of garden crops like fruits,
flowers, vegetables, etc.
5. Changing a cropping pattern implies the Diversification between food
and non-food crops, conventional crops and horticulture, high value
and low-value crops, etc.
ENUMERATION;
Enumerate the following;
2. Give at least 3 benefits of diversification
3. Give at least 3 impacts of diversification
Date Developed:
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ANSWER KEY 2.3-2
TRUE OR FALSE
1.TRUE
2. FALSE
3. FALSE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
ENUMERATION;
Answers are any of the following;
 Climate Change
 Facilitate Several Employment Alternatives
 Increases of Income
 Exportation
2. Benefits of Diversification

production.
income.
country.
3. Impact of Diversification
• Increase in production of high-value crops.
Date Developed:
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• Better livelihood for farmers and instrumental for lowering the
poverty level.
• Scopes for varied employment.
• Empowerment of women.
• Sustainable water usage.
Date Developed:
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Caren Grace Justo-
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ADJUST PROJECTED VOLUME TARGET BASED ON THE RESULT OF
REVIEW
LEARNING Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to adjust
projected volume target based on the result of review
INTRODUCTION:
Volume projections enable marketers to forecast sales by sampling
customer intentions through surveys and market studies. By estimating
how many customers will try a new product, and how often they’ll make
repeat purchases, marketers can establish the basis for such projections.
Projections from customer surveys are especially useful in the early stages
of product development and in setting the timing for product launch.
Through such projections, customer response can be estimated without the
expense of a full product launch. In a survey of nearly 200 senior
marketing managers, 56 percent responded that they found volume
projections very useful.
Purpose
When projecting sales for relatively new products, marketers typically
use a system of trial and repeat calculations to anticipate sales in future
periods. This works on the principle that everyone buying the product will
either be a new customer (a 'trier') or a repeat customer. By adding new and
repeat customers in any period, we can establish the penetration of a
product in the marketplace. It is challenging, however, to project sales to a
large population on the basis of simulated test markets, or even full-fledged
regional rollouts. Marketers have developed various solutions to increase
the speed and reduce the cost of test marketing, such as stocking a store
with products (or mock-ups of new products) or giving customers money to
buy the products of their choice. These simulate real shopping conditions
but require specific models to estimate full-market volume on the basis of
test results.
A specific profit target can be a powerful force for improvement
throughout your company. A minimum goal to start should be to attain the
average profitability for your industry. Then you can aim for higher.
Follow these six steps to set and achieve a profit goal.
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1. Determine a targeted return on invested capital
Start by setting a target net profit. Understanding how it is calculated
is key to figuring out what is the right target for your business.
Also called net income, net profit is the measure of sales revenue
retained by your company after operating expenses, interest expenses and
income taxes have been paid.
To measure your return on invested capital, divide net profit by total
invested capital (long-term debt plus shareholder equity). This is also an
important measure because shareholders want to understand how much
better off they are investing in your business compared to other alternatives
presented to them.
2. Calculate the target gross profit margin you will need to achieve
this profit goal
Take your projected net profit and add forecasted selling, general and
administrative expenses as well as interest and tax expenses. This will give
you a forecasted gross profit. In coming up with your expense projection,
plan to keep a tight rein on costs, but remember you might want to beef up
selling and marketing spending to deliver more revenue and help achieve
your goals.
You’ll then want to calculate the difference between your targeted
gross profit and last year’s actual gross profit. The gap between these two
numbers is what you have to make up through a combination of higher
sales, increased productivity and improved material utilization.
Periodically, you should take time to calculate your business’s gross
margin and compare it to that of other companies in your industry.
Benchmarking in this way can:
 indicate how your business is performing versus similar companies

 help you identify opportunities to increase profitability
You can get free industry financial performance data on the Innovation,
Science and Economic Development Canada website.
3. Prepare a sales forecast by month and product line

Your target gross margin will determine the level of sales you need to
strive for. The sales forecast is calculated by dividing gross profit by the
gross margin percentage you strive to earn for your business.
Date Developed:
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Use the exercise as an opportunity to contact your customers to ask
about their purchasing intentions and validate your target revenue. This is
where you may find that you need beef up your sales and marketing efforts
and perhaps spend a little money to make more sales.
Estimate the sales you expect to receive from customers and the
additional sales you will need to generate through a marketing and sales
program.
4. Forecast cost of goods sold
Target sales less your target gross profit will determine the forecast
cost of goods sold. Compare this target to previous years and make
adjustments—you may find that you have to make productivity
improvements and, then again, have to determine whether additional
investments are needed to realize those improvements.
5. Meet with your management team and develop a plan
Here’s where you and your team agree on specific actions to boost
sales, improve labour productivity and tighten supply and expense
management.
It can help to make specific people responsible for delivering results
in their areas. Also make sure to take a close look at your pricing and
inventory management. Questions to ask at this point include:
 Are you charging customers enough?

 Are you working to increase sales of your highest margin items?
 For lower performing items, do you have a plan to boost your
margins or eliminate them?
Create three to four different scenarios and set your action plan that
you and your management team collectively agree on.
6. Execute on your plan
Closely monitor your progress in implementing your plan and adjust
as necessary through the year.
It’s essential to seek out and listen to the input from your employees
when looking for innovative ways to improve your business and achieve
goals. Make sure the employees know you want their ideas.
Date Developed:
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SELF-CHECK 2.3-3
TRUE OR FALSE.
statement is wrong. Write your answer in a separate sheet .
1. Volume projections enable marketers to forecast sales by sampling
customer intentions through surveys and market studies.
2. Through such projections, customer response cannot be estimated
without the expense of a full product launch.
3. A minimum goal to start should be to attain the average
profitability for your industry.
4. Take your projected net profit and add forecasted selling, general
and administrative expenses as well as interest and tax expenses.
This will give you a forecasted gross profit.
5. Target sales less your target gross profit will determine the forecast
cost of goods sold.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
ANSWER KEY 2.3-3
TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. FALSE
3. TRUE
4. TRUE
5. TRUE
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
APPLY CORRECTIVE MEASURES BASE ON THE RESULT OF REVIEW
LEARNING Objective:
After reading this information sheet you should be able to apply
selected improvements based on the result of review.
INTRODUCTION:
What is corrective measure?
Corrective and preventive action (CAPA or simply corrective action)
consists of improvements to an organization's processes taken to eliminate
causes of non-conformities or other undesirable situations. It is usually a
set of actions, laws or regulations required by an organization to take in
manufacturing, documentation, procedures, or systems to rectify and
eliminate recurring non-conformance.
7 Key Steps to Plan and Implement an Effective Corrective Action
System
The purpose of a quality management system is to help businesses

improve abilities to consistently meet customer or regulatory requirements.
A major component of a successful system is a corrective action program
that adequately addresses nonconformances.
Quality pioneer W. Edwards Deming introduced the Plan-Do-Study-
Act (PDSA) cycle as a planning, implementation, and continuous
improvement tool. In quality circles, it evolved into the Plan-Do-Check-Act
(PDCA) cycle. This tool can be applied to a quality management system as a
whole or to individual components.
By using the cycle, wayward corrective action systems can regain
steady footing in seven essential steps.
Step 1: Understand System Requirements (Plan)

Seeking understanding before action is the first step in creating an
effective corrective action system. While quality standards spell out the
various requirements, it may take some due diligence to understand exactly
what needs to be done.
Documentation needs and corrective action procedural requirements
must be accurately assessed in order to minimize implementation missteps.
Date Developed:
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Step 2: Plan the Process (Plan)
Planning is the design phase where decisions are made regarding the
framework and mechanics of a corrective action system, including how to
integrate the system into current operations.
Planning should also address personnel duties for the corrective
action process. More specifically, procedures and conduits must be planned
for completion of the following key tasks:
 Evaluating and assessing nonconformance triggers (customer
complaints, audit findings, process parameters, etc.)
 Identifying legitimate nonconformances and related issues
 Capturing and entering issues into the corrective action process
 Investigating and getting to the root cause of an issue
 Determining and implementing solutions
 Reviewing, checking, and verifying the effectiveness of a problem
resolution
 Using risk management protocols to ensure major nonconformances
are top priority
 Establishing personnel responsibilities at various stages of the
corrective action process
Step 3: Develop and Document (Do)

In this development stage, a cohesive corrective action system is
created according to a well-developed plan. Teams are formed and given the
authority and responsibility to fully develop the program.
Team duties include making sure the corrective action system is
structured properly and is functional and compatible with existing quality
management elements that provide nonconformance alerts.
Activities at this stage also include formal documentation of policies,
procedures, and responsibilities for system caretakers and users.
Step 4: Conduct Training (Do)

Implementing any new system can significantly upset the norm,
creating anxiety for those affected by the change. For something as big as a
corrective action system that reaches across business operations, changes
in management demand adequate training.
Training should involve interactive learning events that tie directly to
job duties and should include hands-on practice, with on-the-job learning
sessions, tabletop simulations, case studies, or a mix of all three.
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If the plan is to use an electronic system to capture
nonconformances, for example, then training must cover how the system
works, explain access details, and describe pertinent data fields. Plus,
personnel must be able to practice data entry using several different
corrective action scenarios.
Effective training lays out the process from start to finish so that
personnel gains the understanding, skills, and knowledge needed to carry
out corrective action tasks accurately and with confidence.
Step 5: Implement (Do)

After training, implementation of the corrective action system should
take place as soon as possible to lessen the gap between training and
actual use of new skills and knowledge.
In this step, corrective action procedures go live, and system
mechanisms are fully operational. Instructions and methods are in place
for designated personnel to thoroughly manage corrective actions.
Step 6: Test the System (Check)

After several corrective actions travel full circle, the next feat is to
check that the system performed as intended. The goal is to verify
functionality and use. The check can happen by auditing a sampling of
corrective actions from system input to investigation, resolution, and
closure.
Audit findings may contribute to future corrective actions and
changes. Where changes are made, it is important to notify and train
affected personnel.
Step 7: Adjust and Improve (Act)

In a perfect world, everything goes according to plan. In the real
world, glitches are likely. For this step, adjustments are made to improve
the corrective action process.
Actions are taken to fine-tune the system to the point that
nonconformances are reliably detected, evaluated, and resolved. The goal is
to make corrective action management a consistent and effective process
through continuous improvement.
A proper corrective action system detects and resolves
nonconformances. By including the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle in
implementation efforts, launching a successful corrective action system is
well within reach.
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
SELF-CHECK 2.3-4
TRUE OR FALSE
statement is wrong.
1. Corrective and preventive action consists of improvements to an
organization's processes taken to eliminate causes of non-
conformities or other undesirable situations.
2. The purpose of a quality management system is to help businesses
improve abilities to consistently meet customer or regulatory
requirements.
3. Documentation needs and corrective action procedural requirements
must be accurately assessed in order to minimize implementation
missteps.
4. Planning should not address personnel duties for the corrective
action process.
5. Team duties include making sure the corrective action system is
structured properly and is functional and compatible with existing
quality management elements that provide nonconformance alerts.
ENUMERATION;
1. Enumerate at least 5 of the 7 Key Steps to Plan and Implement an
Effective Corrective Action System
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
ANSWER KEY 2.3-4
TRUE OR FALSE
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. TRUE
4. FALSE
5. TRUE
ENUMERATION;
Any of the following is the answer for #1.
Step 1: Understand System Requirements (Plan)
Step 2: Plan the Process (Plan)
Step 3: Develop and Document (Do)
Step 4: Conduct Training (Do)
Step 5: Implement (Do)
Step 6: Test the System (Check)
Step 7: Adjust and Improve (Act)
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm
REFERENCES
 https://www.thebalancesmb.com/what-is-an-agricultural-product-
2538211#:~:text=Agricultural%20production%20is%20the%20use,sustaining%20or
%20enhancing%20human%20life.
 https://www.jliedu.com/blog/farm-management-productivity/
 https://www.southpointfinancial.com/the-importance-of-keeping-farm-records-in-agricultural-
production/
 https://www.croptracker.com/resources/farm-record-keeping.html
 https://www.legit.ng/1131221-types-farm-records-uses.html
 https://www.vedantu.com/commerce/agricultural-diversification
 https://agecon.unl.edu/cornhusker-economics/2018/farm-ranch-business-plan
 CBLM of Agricultural Crop Production NC II (Core 3- Plant Crops)
 Licensure Examination in Agriculture Review Crop Science
 https://byjus.com/biology/agriculture-agricultural-practices/
 CBLM of Agricultural Crop Production NC II (Core 4- Carry-out Harvest and Post-Harvest
Operation)
 https://nifa.usda.gov/topic/sustainable-agriculture
 https://www.fao.org/3/x6627e/x6627e01b.htm
 https://www.omicsonline.org/poultry-farming-peer-reviewed-open-access-
journals.php#:~:text=Poultry%20farming%20has%20become%20one,population%20all%20over
%20the%20world.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_farming
 https://blog.agrivi.com/post/vegetable-farming-from-its-beginnings#:~:text=Vegetable
%20farming%20is%20a%20type,(lettuce%2C%20cabbage%2C%20spinach)
 https://m.farms.com/farming/fish-farms.aspx
 https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-practices-management/risk-management/risk-in-
agriculture#:~:text=Five%20general%20types%20of%20risk,processes%20of%20crops%20and
%20livestock.
 https://nevegetable.org/big-five-risks-faced-farmers
 https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/choosing-suppliers-your-business
 https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/how-find-right-suppliers
 nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/criteria-selecting-supplier
 http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0fnl2%2E2--00-0----0-10-0---0---
0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-
&a=d&c=fnl2.2&cl=CL3.50&d=HASH01cec7731fd065d232caf593.21
 https://www.qad.com/blog/2020/01/effective-corrective-action-system
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrective_and_preventive_action#:~:text=From%20Wikipedia
%2C%20the%20free%20encyclopedia,conformities%20or%20other%20undesirable
%20situations.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_projections
Date Developed:
CBLM in
Caren Grace Justo-
Establish Farm

CORE 2-Establish Farm Production Plan

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Competency-Based Learning Materials

Establish Farm Production Plan

Welcome to this Competency Based Learning Material for the Module

You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to

Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

 Actual experience on the job;

CBLM in Date Developed:

No. Unit of Competency Module Title Code

MODULE TITLE : ESTABLISHING FARM PRODUCTION PLAN

NOMINAL DURATION : 32 hours

SUMMARY OF LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Learning Activities Special Instructions

1. Do not write anything on the

2. Answer the Self-check 2.1-1 Refer your answer to Answer Key

4. Answer the Self-check 2.1-2 Refer your answer to Answer Key

6. Answer the Self-check 2.1-3 Refer your answer to Answer Key

What Is Agricultural Production?

Agricultural production is the use of cultivated plants or animals to

1. Agricultural production is the use of cultivated plants or

Top performing companies understand an important role that

Here are the in business.

One of the most accurate methodologies that have helped many

By asking your clients for feedback you communicate that their

Today’s marketing is heavily based on experiences people have with

A satisfied customer will stay with you. An unhappy customer will

CBLM in Date Developed:

1. Customer feedback is information provided by clients about whether

Why Keep Records:

CBLM in Date Developed:

Better management of a farm

Enumerate at least 3 Importance of Record Keeping.

ANSWER KEY 2.1-3

 Vertical Diversification - It refers to the incorporation of

Major Features of Diversification

By every mean, Diversification in agricultural activities proves to be

Kinds of non-farm Employment in Rural Areas

The benefits of employing Diversification are mentioned below.

Learning Activities Special Instructions

Do not write anything on the

INFORMATION SHEET 2.2-1

Soil tillage or land preparation is one of the routine activities in most

 Ocular inspection or initial

 Determine what tools/equipments are needed. If you see

Plowing and hoeing

Plowing and hoeing is the initial and

So this is the proper way

Proper way of hoeing:

 HARROWING AND OTHER SECOND TILLAGE ACTIVITIES

 Spreading decayed organic matter or compost soil. This

- Refers to the number of plants per unit area

Crops need nutrients to grow and

Irrigation is the supply of water. Sources

CROP MANNER OF HARVESTING

Handpicking is needed for individual dwarf variety

Harvesting is done by hand with the help of a

SOME POINTS AND TIPS IN HARVESTING FRUITS

There are other points to consider in

1. Minimize mechanical injuries

CBLM in Date Developed:

*Attaching knives and shears to the pole and

*Use gloves if one has long fingernails and use is it

*Use padded-collecting baskets instead of rough ones.

*Tie durian fruits to a branch. Fruits are usually