Geography

Sundaland- doesn't include Andamans but only Nicobar

 Winter rice varieties (84% rice production)

o Aman (WB)
o Sali (Assam)
o Sarrad (OD)
o Agahani (BH)
o Sarava (AP)
o Mundakan (KL)

TRIBE REGION CHARACTER

Pygmies Congo Basin Nuts plantations

Orang Asli Malaysia Cane sugar

plantations

Indian Amazon Rubber plantation

Boros West Amazon agriculture

Masai East African pastoralists

Plateau

Hausa, Aibo Nigeria settled cultivators

Tuaregs Sahara nomadic herdsmen

Bedouin Arabs Arabia herdsmen

nomadic

Bidoon,, Faili Iraq

Kurds

Bindibu Australia primitive hunters

and collectors

Bushmen Kalahari primitive hunters

and collectors

Gobi Mongols Gobi nomadic herdsmen

Llaneros Venezuela

Yobin India Arunachal

Mongoloid
Tibeto-Burman

Yao, Hmong, Thailand

Karen
Tight Oil (LTO or shale oil)
 Light crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight
sandstone.
 Relative to conventional sources, shale oil typically produces more pollution to extract, though extent
depends on whether or not the operators avoid wasteful and unnecessary emissions.

Chilka Lake (Puri, Khurda, Ganjam districts in Odisha, mouth of R.Daya)

 AAI identifies 5 states- Odisha, GJ, Assam, MH, AP for starting amphibious aircraft operations near locations
of tourist, religious imp
o license norms by DGCA- need approval from m/o defense, home, Env., Shipping;
o safer commute than local boats, boost tourism, economic opportunities
 Largest coastal lagoon in India, second largest in world after New Caledonian Barrier Reef
 1st Ramsar site wetland, largest wintering ground for migratory waterfowl
  Nalaban Island within lagoon is bird sanctuary; home to 230 bird species (97 intercontinental)
 Only home to Irrawaddy Dolphins (EN); Puri, Khurda, Ganjam distt.
 Pacific Black Ducks at Mangalajodi BS
 flu threat to migratory birds- H5N1 virus, bar headed goose most vulnerable
 houses 20% of India's seagrass dist.- role in oxygen prod., purifier for acquatic ecology

Belize Reef
 Carribean Reef on the UNESCO's list of threatened World Heritage Sites to be removed
 2nd largest reef system, largest in N.Hemisphere
 Mangroves help protect the reef, serve as breeding grounds for fishes
 Blue Hole- subsurface voids that are found in islands/banks w/ limestone corals
o anoxic beyond certain depth due to poor water circulation- no life but bacteria
o Great Blue Hole, Belize is World Heritage; others- Dragon Hole (South China sea), Dean's Blue Hole
(Bahamas)
o blue color caused by high transparency of water, bright white carbonate sand

Coral Rehab Program

 implemented by Gulf of Mannar Marine NP since 2002 in areas of bleaching
 employs 'concrete frame slabs' method
 NCCR moots dropping 'melted plastic rocks' on seabed to grow reefs

Blood Moon, July Lunar Eclipse

 Longest eclipse of 21st century, for 1 hr 43 min
 Blood moon for red glow of moon during lunar eclipse due to larger wavelengths of reds and oranges which
pass thru atmosphere w/out much bends/refraction

 solar, lunar eclipses happen at ~same frequency but lunar more noticed, visible

Project Uncover
 To probe deep-seated/concealed mineral deposits in collab. w. National Geophysical Reseach Institute and
proposed National center for Mineral Targeting (NCMT), Geoscience Australia

Zero Budget Natural Farming

 natural farming technique where cost of growing, harvesting plants is zero; no fertilizers rather use of
earthworms, cow dung, urine, excreta reducing soil degradation
 Evaluations by ICAR in basmati rice-wheat system at Modipuram (UP), Ludhiana (PB), Kurukshetra (HR),
Pantnagar (UK)
  impetus by govt. thru Pradhan Mantri Vikas Yojana (States given flexibility to adopt any model of organic
farming acc. to farmer's choice, Vedic Farming, Cow Farming, Homa Farming
o RKVY (organic farming components considered by state level sanctioning committee)

Sagar Nidhi, India-US Mission

 to find answers about unpredictability of SW monsoon by collecting data from Bay of Bengal
 funded thru M/o Earth Sciences, US office on Naval research
 CUSAT Stratosphere Troposphere 205 Radar- desi built to scan stratosphere over Indian ocean for
movement of air, monsoon winds

Molassis Basin
 Mizoram made up of soft unconsolidated deposits

Karman Line
 int'l line b/w atmosphere and outer space, at altitude of 100 km above sea level

Magnetic Pole Motion

 World Magnetic Model- underlies all modern navigation, maintained by US's NOAA; updated every 5 y;
ESA's Swarm Mission for B-map
 pole shift due to variation in liquid (NiFe) churning in outer core as deep flows change
 in 2018, the pole crossed the International Date Line into the Eastern Hemisphere.
 Pole Flipping- catastrophic effects, havoc on electric grids, higher amt. of solar radiations
o deleterious effect on satellites and astronauts
o climate change
 northern magnetic pole is moving faster than the southern magnetic pole
 weaker magnetic field would lead to display of aurora lights at relatively lower latitudes
Petroleum, Chemicals & Petrochemical Investment Region (PCPIR)
 cluster based devt. model for setting up manufacturing facilities for both domestic consumption, exports
in petrol, chemicals and petrochemicals
o production units, logistics handling, env. protection, social infra, SEZ, FTZ, warehousing
 economy of scale in petro sector due to use of common infra, support services, R&D facilities

Rat-Hole Mining
 despite NGT ban, mining continues
o rat-hole is only viable option for such thin coal seam
o coal mining operates as shadow economy
o dependence of poor people for livelihood
o political influence- stakes in mining, transportation etc.
o inadequate policy- Megalaya Mines & Mineral Policy 2012 doesn't address
o use of violence by mining mafia
o lack of monitoring
o problems in legal framework- mining as state sub, mining safety is central
o misuse of 6th Sch. provisions- pvt. individuals undertaking commercial mining
 advantages
o less capital intensive
o less polluting
o easy self-employment
 -ve impacts
o env. degradation e.g. Lytein river
o worker exploitation- often children
o risk to miner's lives
o fuelling illegal acitivities- support insurgencies
 poorest of poor suffocate, die of TB, breathing complications
 mining is state sub. but mining safety is central
  poisoned 3 rivers- Myntdu, Lunar, Lukha; (very high acidic levels)
 coal mine safety-
o Mines Act 1952, Mine Rules-1955, Coal Mine Regulations 1957 under DGMS
o Coal Mines (Nationalization) Act 1973 but repealed

3 moons of Earth
 Kordylewski Dust Clouds (KDC)- made of tiny dust particles less than 1 mm, reflect light faintly
 located roughly at same distance as moon, found close to Lagrange Pt. L5

Seabed 2030 Project, UN

 produce definitive map (depth, shape of floor) by 2030, available to all
 significance-
o studying marine geology, geophysics
o understanding ocean circulation patterns, forecast of Tsunami waves
o study of tides, wave action, resource exploitation
o marine, maritime spatial planning, navigation safety
 challenges-
o depth of waters vs std. echo sensors
o high cost, limited no. of research vessels w/ moderns sonars

660 km boundary
 separates upper and lower mantle
 mountains, other topographies found
 data from EQ > 7 sends shockwaves in all directions that travel thru core to other side

Warming imperils clouds that deter ‘hothouse’ conditions

 marine clouds that reflect sunlight back could break up if CO2 in atmosphere triples
o can melt polar ice and lift sea levels
 Stratocumulus clouds cover about 20% of subtropical oceans, near western seaboards such as the coasts of
California, Mexico and Peru
o 8 degC rise when they disappear + further GW impacts
o Stratocumulus clouds can be present in all types of weather conditions, from dry settled weather to
more rainy conditions
 Hothouse conditions- when impact of cc, GHGs become uncontrollable

Hydroseismicity
 quakes produced due to increase pressure when water seeps down into faults
 common across Deccan plateau; recently at Palghar (Zone III), previously Latur EQ 1993
 NC for seismology (NCS) categorized tremors as 'eq swarm'
o not limited to peninsula but also Himalayas

Un-appraised Areas of Sedimentary Basins

 CCEA approved proj. to acquire 2D seismic data for basins w/ low availability of data
 India has 26 sedimentary basins spread over land, shallow & deep waters
  48% basin area has inadequate geo-scientific data
 proj. to be implemented by OIL in NER, ONGC in rest areas
 helpful to launch future exploration activities

Hebbagodi Lake, Bengaluru

 Limca Book of Records for having India’s largest floating island.
 12,000-sqft island has strips of vegetation that crisscross the waterbody.
 comprises rafts (PVC) that allow plants to grow hydroponically and act as cleaning agents
 Ameenpur lake- Hyderabad

Madden-Julian oscillation (MJO)

 intra-seasonal fluctuation of atmospheric P over equatorial Indian and western Pacific oceans
 reflects in alternating cyclonic and anticyclonic regions that enhance and suppress rainfall
 ability to influence monsoonal circulation, occurs every 40–50 or 30–60 days,
 detected in winds that occur in planetary boundary layer and upper reaches of troposphere

Milankovitch Cycles
 episodic nature of the Earth's glacial and interglacial periods within present Ice Age caused primarily by
cyclical changes in Earth's circumnavigation of Sun.
 Variations in 3 dominant cycles-
o Earth's eccentricity
o axial tilt
o precession

Bomb Cyclones
 mid-latitude cyclone that intensifies rapidly- when atm. P in middle of storm drops >24 millibars over 24
hour

Earth's shadow on Moon

 
 Total Lunar eclipse when there is full moon in Umbral region
 unlike solar, total lunar eclipse doesn't require any special equipment- safe w/ naked eye
 only Earth experiences lunar eclipse

Sun Spots
 temp. phenomena on Sun's photosphere that appear as spots darker than surrounding areas
o regions of reduced surface T caused by conc. of B flux that inhibits convection
o appear in pairs of opp. magnetic polarity
 imp. to know effects on space weather- effect of radiation, particle flux, B flux can impact comm. systems,
satellite controls, air traffics over polar routes etc.
 correlated w/ climate on Earth (during Maunder's Min. T fell over Europe, N.America)
 follow cyclic pattern of growing in no., disappearing in 11 years; current 24th cycle (1755), peak to be in
2024
o Solar Cycle 25 to start in late 2019, continue thru 2030
 Aditya-L1- ISRO's 1st exp. to measure coronal magnetic field from space platform
o 1st 100% Indian mission negotiating challenging orbit, for understanding of sun
 Maunder like minimum- next cycle (25th) will show prolonged reduced sunspot activity
o refer to period of 1645 to 1715 when no. of sunspots reduced by factor of 1000

Asbestos
 set of 6 naturally occuring silicate minerals which have in common eponymous asbestiform habit i.e. long
(roughly 1:20 aspect ratio), thin fibrous crystals, with each visible fiber composed of millions of microscopic
“fibrils” that can be released by abrasion and other processes.
 commonly known by their colors, as blue asbestos, brown asbestos, white asbestos, and green asbestos
 desirable physical properties- sound absorption, average tensile strength, affordability, and resistance to
fire, heat, and electricity
o fibres are soft and flexible yet resistant
 can be found w/ talc (Mg silicate)

Desert Bloom, Atacama

 common in Australia, Arizona in the U.S., and the Atacama Desert in northern Chile.
  climatic phenomenon that occurs when unusually high rainfall awakens seeds, bulbs and rhizomes that
have been dormant in deserts for years, sometimes even decades.

Bolivian Li Reserves
 agreement for devt. & industrial use of Li- used to power EVs, phones
 Bolivia has 60% global reserves but yet to start commercial production
o agreement for commercialization of Li Carbonate, K Chloride
 India heavily dependent on China, Taiwan, Japan for import of Li-ion batteries
o no known reserves in India, zero Li-ion battery manufacturing capabilities
o 2nd largest manufacturer of phones, 30% EVs by 2030


 Li Triangle- Chile+Argentina+Bolivia

Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)

 explore deep ocean, focus on under-water vehicles, robotics, ocean climate change advisory
services, under M/o Earth Sciences
 o India- 1st country to receive pioneer investor status in 1987
 2 key projects- off shore desalination plant on tidal erg, submersible vehicle (depth- 6km)
 India alloted 1.5 lakh sq. km in Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) by UN International Sea Bed Authority
for exploitation of polymetallic nodules (PMN) under UNCLOS
o PMN are potato-shaped, porous manganese nodules abundantly found carpeting sea-floors; 10%
extraction can serve India's needs for 100 years
o UN ISBA is autonomous intl org. based in Jamaica, estd. 1994 under UNCLOS
o PMN- Fe, Co, Ni, Cu (viable), Pb, Mo, Cd, Ti

 Hyposometry- shows prop.of land area that exists at various elevations by plotting relative area against
relative height
 Bathymetry- underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography
 10% reserve can serve erg needs for next 100 years

Kelp Forests
 large brown algae seaweeds (cool water), grow in underwater forests in shallow oceans
o live further from tropics than corals, mangroves, warm-water seagrass
o some found in tropical deeps, need nutrient-rich waters unlike corals
o need hard substrate, high nutrients (upwelling), clear shallow coastal waters, light
 most productive, dynamic ecosystems on Earth, high growth rate; Keystone species
 imp. src of food, 60% C in coastal invertebrates, creates detrital biomass near shores
 imp. src of potash, iodine, algin hydrate (tire manufacture, ice-cream industry)
 slows down flow of waters, prevents coastal erosion, influence coastal oceanographic patterns
  ocean warming will move conditions closer to T of max growth, increase productivity
o northern shift of kelp forests as ice retreats
o runoff from glaciers will lower salinity, increase turbidity to impact kelp
 Canadian Arctic is longest Arctic coastline

Gilbert Hill, Mumbai

 200 ft (61 m) monolith column of black basalt rock
 vertical face and was formed when molten lava was squeezed out of Earth’s clefts during the Mesozoic Era
about 66 million years ago.

The Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS)

 global, open-access data and information clearinghouse on marine biodiversity for science, conservation and
sustainable development

Guano
 Andean people have collected guano from small islands and points located off the desert coast of Peru for
use as a soil amendment
 Greensand is a green mineral compound with a texture similar to fine sand
o inorganic (no living org.) but used by organic gardeners

Errors in 60 days
 Indo-gangetic plain are the most youthful, monotonous region prone to tectonic forces.
 Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau are treated as part of the Western Coastal
Plains as they are levelled

Tidal Bore
 steep-nosed tide crest looks like a vertical wall of-water rushing upstream
 favorable conditions- strength of the incoming tidal wave, slim and depth of the channel and the river flow.
 common on Hoghly river; exception- Amazon
 occur in relatively few locations worldwide, usually in areas with a large tidal range,

Artifical Lakes in India

  Kodaikanal lake (TN)
 Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal)
 Bhoj wetland (largest, MP)
 Jaisamand Lake (RJ, freshwater, 2nd largest)
 Gobind Ballabh Pant Sagar (UP, largest)

Antarctic Oscillations
 low f mode of atmospheric variability in southern hemisphere- Southern Annular Mode
 belt of westerly low P surrounding Antarctica which moves N or S as its mode of variability
 +ve phase drives circumpolar current, -ve drives belt towards equator
 ocean upwelling of warm circumpolar deep water that can destabilize ice sheets

Landforms
Landform: It is a small to medium sized part of earth's surface.
Landscape: Several related landforms constitute landscape

Intrusive Volcanic Landforms:

Endogenic Processes:
Three independent controls of evolution of landforms:
1. Sea level stability
2. Tectonic stability
3. Climate

Five Geomorphic agents shaping and changing the Earth's surface:

I. Running Water: It can be of two types:
1. Overland flow: Flow on land surface as sheet. It causes sheet erosion.

2. Linear flow: Flow as streams and rivers in valleys.

Monadnocks: A lowland of faint relief with some remnants. This type of plain forming as result of stream erosion
is called a peneplain (an almost plain)

Three Stages of a River:

From NCERT:
 Youth Mature Old

Streams Streams are few with Streams are plenty with Smaller tributaries are few
and poor integration. good integration.
tributaries

Valleys Shallow V-shaped Deep V-shaped valleys N.A.

valleys

Waterfalls Waterfalls and rapids Waterfalls and rapids N.A.

may exist on disappear
encountering hard
rock bodies.

Inter stream Broad and flat Broad and flat but w/o Broad and flat
areas with marshes swamps marshes and swamps. with marshes swamps and
and lakes. Stream divides turn lakes.
sharp

Meanders If present, develop Wider floodplains and Streams meander

over broad upland streams may flow in freely over vast floodplains
surfaces. meanders. with natural levees, oxbow
lakes, deltas.

Erosional Landforms:
1. Valleys: V-shaped, Gorge and Canyon
 Gorge Canyon

Sides Deep valley with very steep Also deep but step-like side slopes.
to straight sides.

Width Equal width at top and bottom. Wider at its top than its bottom

Rocks Formed in hard rocks In horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks

2. Potholes and Plunge pools:

Potholes: 'Circular' Depression over rocky beds.

Plunge Pools: Large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls.

3. Incised or Entrenched Meanders: They are very deep and wide meanders formed by cutting hard
rocks. The meanders develop in the initial stages of development of streams with gentle slopes. The loops
formed get entrenched into rocks due to erosion or continued uplift of land over which they start. Over time,
they form deep gorges and canyons. They tell us about the original surface over which streams have
developed.

4. River Terraces: Surfaces marking old floodplain level. They are product of vertical erosion of floodplain.
Depositional Landforms:
1. Alluvial Fans: Broad cone shaped deposits. When streams flow from steeper slopes to gentle slopes, the
coarse load becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler gradients and is deposited in the
form of alluvial fans.
The streams flowing over alluvial fans shift their position across the fans forming many channels
called distributaries.
In humid areas: low cones with gentle slope (from head to toe)
In arid and semi-arid areas: High cones with steep slope

2. Deltas: They are formed in the last stages of rivers when they dump their deposits and spread into the sea.
In delta formation, the load of the river is deposited along the coast(not far into the sea) which spreads and
accumulates into a low cone.
Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits of deltas are very well sorted with clear stratification. The coarsest material
settles first and the finer ones like silt and clay are carried out into the sea.

3. Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars:

Floodplain: Major landform of river deposition.
A. Active Floodplain: River bed made of river deposits
B. Inactive Floodplains: Floodplain above the bank. They Contain two types of deposits:- Flood deposits: of spilled
water ( contains finer material-silt and clay) and Channel Deposits: Built up by abandoned or cut-off channels
(coarser material)
C. Delta Floodplains: Floodplains in delta

Natural Levees: Parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of river. They are low and linear, slope gently
away from the river. They are formed during flooding as coarse deposits get deposited in the immediate vicinity of
banks as ridges.
Point Bars: point bars aka meander bars. The are found in the convex side (simultaneously concave side
erodes) of meanders and contain mix size of sediments.
 4. Meanders:

Meander: It is not a landform but loop-like channel pattern developed over floodplains and deltaplains. It develop
due to:
(i) Gentle gradients
(ii) Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits
(iii) Coriolis force on water
There is active deposition along slip-off bank (convex side) and erosion along cut-off bank (concave side).
Meanders may get cut-off at inflexion points forming ox-bow lakes.
5. Braided Channels: Thread like streams. They are formed when load is more and discharge is less.
Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are essential for their formation.
II. Groundwater: It is the downward and horizontal movement of water that causes rocks to erode. Work of GW
can be seen only in certain rocks such as limestone or dolomite rich in calcium carbonate. Landforms are
developed through the chemical process of solution and precipitation.

Karst Topography: Produced by the action of groundwater on Limestone or dolomitic region through the process
of solution and deposition.

Erosional Landforms:
1. Swallow Holes: Shallow depressions on limestone surface through the process of solution.
2. Sink Holes: Circular opening in the top and funnel shaped towards the bottom. They are very common in
limestone/Karst topography. Often they are covered with soil and appear as shallow water pools (creating
quicksand like condition.)

3. Collapse Sink (aka doline.): Formed when the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a cave/void, which might
collapse leaving a large hole opening into the cave/void below.
4. Uvalas or Valley Sinks: Long trenches formed due to merging of sinkholes and collapse sink.
5. Lapies: Ridges formed due to differential solution activity. The lapies may turn into limestone pavement.

6. Caves: Gaps formed due to dissolution of limestone or dolomite. Caves normally have opening through which
streams are discharged. Water moves horizontally along the bedding planes.
Caves having opening at both ends are called tunnels.

Depositional Landforms:

1. Stalactites: Hang as icicles having tapered free ends

2. Stalagmites: Rises up from the floor of the caves. Formed due to dripping of water from stalactite.
3. Pillars: Columns formed when stalactite and stalagmite fuse together.

III. Glaciers:
Continental glacier, Piedmont glaciers (at the foot of mountains). Action through the process of plucking and
abrasion.
Erosional Landforms:

1. Cirques: They are deep, long and narrow basins surrounded by vertical walls. They are most common
landform in glaciated mountains. Often a lakes can be within the cirque called tarn lake or cirque lake.

2. Horns: Sharp pointed peaks formed through headward erosion of radiating cirques.
3. Aretes: Saw toothed ridges with zig-zag outline. They are also formed from cirques

Glaciated Valleys:
4. Hanging Valley: U Shaped glacial valley with broad floor.
5. Fjord: Glacial valley filled with sea water and making up shorelines

Depositional Landforms:
Glacial Till: Unsorted debris (mostly angular to sub-angular) dropped by melting glaciers.
Outwash Deposits: (Glacio-fluvial deposit) Small rock debris(rounded) carried by melt-water streams is washed
down and deposited as outwash deposits. Unlike till they are stratified.
1. Moraines: Ridges of deposits of glacial tills.

2. Esker: Sinuous ridge formed after ice melts

3. Outwash Plains: Plains containing glacio-fluvial deposit in the form merger of broad flat alluvial fans.

4. Drumlin: Smooth oval shaped ridge. They give and indication of direction of glacier movement.
Kame Terraces – Broken ridges or un-assorted depositions looking like hump in a till plain.

Kettle Holes – Formed when the deposited material in a till plain gets depressed locally and forms a basin.

IV. Waves and Currents:

A. High Rocky Coast/Submerged Coast/Retreating Coast:

Coastline appears highly indented with extension of water into the land. e.g. West coast of India

Erosional features dominate:

1. Cliffs: Steep
2. Wave Cut Platforms/Terraces: In front of cliff

Depositional Features:
1. Wave-built Terrace: In front of wave-cut terrace
2. Beaches: Temporary features composed of sediments coming mostly from streams and rivers of land.
3. Bars: Long ridges of sand parallel to the coast. They are submerged.
4. Barrier Bars: Bars above water
5. Spit: Barrier bars at the mouth of bay. (Barrier bars keyed up to end of the bay)
6. Bay: Water body enclosed on 3 sides by land, with a mouth opening into the sea. (Gulf is large bay and have
narrower mouth. All gulfs are bay but not vice versa. e.g. Hudson bay is a gulf while White bay being very small is
not gulf. Strait is a narrow waterway connecting two large water bodies while Isthmus is its land equivalent ,i.e.,
Narrow strip of land connecting two large landmasses.)
7. Lagoon: Closed Bay. When barrier bars and spits block a bay, lagoon is formed.
8. Coastal Plains: Lagoons filled up by sediments from land & beach give rise to a coastal plain.

B. Low Sedimentary Coast/ Emerging Coast/ Advancing Coast

Smooth coastline and land slopes gently into the sea. e.g. East Coast of India
Depositional Features Dominate:
1. Lagoons and Tidal Creeks. Lagoons turn into marshes & swamps. Swamps=> coastal plain.
2. Deltas

1. Erosional Landforms:

1. Cliffs
2. Terraces
3. Sea caves
4. Sea Arch: When cave breaks
5. Sea Stacks: Isolated rock and remnant of cliff
6. Stump: Eroded Stack

2. Depositional Landforms:
1. Off-shore bars
2. Barrier bars
3. Spits
4. Lagoon

5. Beaches:
6. Sand Dunes: Long ridges of sand parallel to the coast. They are not submerged. They are just behind the
beach and are very common in sedimentary beaches.

Note: Coastal Off-shore bars act as first line of defence against Tsunamis. Then come barriers, beaches and
mangroves to absorb the destructive force of Tsunami.

V. Winds:
In deserts: Wind moves fine materials and mass erosion is accomplished by sheet flood(due to torrential rain)
Wind causes deflation, abrasion and impact.
Erosional Landforms:

1. Pediment: Gentle sloping rocky floor at the foot of mountain

2. Inselberg: Remnant of mountain. Formed when the front of mountain retreats, pediment extend backward
(slope also retreats)
3. Pediplains: Low featureless plains.Last stage of erosion.

4. Playas: Shallow lakes. (At the centre of basin due to deposition of sediment from basin margins, a nearly level
plain forms at the centre which may get filled with water forming temporary lake called playa.)
5. Akali Flats: The playa plains covered up by salts (due to evaporation)
6. Deflation Hollows (like Blow Outs): Shallow depressions in rocks created by wind.
7. Caves: Some blow outs become deeper and wider to become caves.

8. Mushroom: Mushroom shape remnant of rock with slender stalk. Top surface is broad like table top (9.).
Often the remnants stand out like pedestals (10.)

Depositional Landforms:
Wind is a good sorting agent and the depositional features made by it ascertains the same. Grains are moved by
rolling or saltation

Sand Dunes:
1. Barchans: Crescent shaped dunes. Wings are directed in downwind direction i.e., opposite to the direction of
wind.
2. Seif: Similar to Barchan but it has only one wing.
3. Parabolic Dunes: Reversed barchans with wings directed along the direction of wind. Formed when sandy
surface is partially covered with vegetation
4. Longitudinal Dunes: Low and long ridges of sand aligned along the direction of wind. Formed when supply of
sand is poor.
5. Transverse Dunes: Low and very long ridges of sand aligned along perpendicular to the direction of
wind. Formed when supply of sand is plenty.

Corals
small Ca secreting marine polyp that occurs in colonies, mainly in warm shallow waters
symbiotic relation- corals+zooxanthellae

most productive ecosystems on earth- rainforests of the ocean!

< 0.1 area but provide food/shelter to 25% marine species

distribution
 >90% in Indo-Pacific
 confined within 30 deg of equator

ambient conditions
 stable climate
 perpetually warm waters
 shallow water- need good sunlight
 clear salt water- both freshwater & saline water harmful
 abundant plankton+adequate supply of oxygen
 less pollution- highly fragile

causes of coral bleaching

 natural
o sudden T changes due to El-Nino, seasonal variations
o localized heating, high UV penetration (low wind vel. clear skies)
o sub-aerial exposure due to tectonic uplift, upwelling etc.
o eutrophication causes lowering of coral resistance, increased susceptibility to diseases
o natural calamities like cyclones, storm surges, tsunami
 anthropogenic
o acidification due to increase C emissions
o sea level rise can drown fringing reefs
o encroachment of coastal plains
o introduction of mechanized fishing
 o growth of tourism industry
o coral mining, construction of barriers to check erosion
o native residents undertake subsistence agriculture but poor soils suscept to erosion
o increased shipping traffic, risk of oil spills
o inadequate waste disposal, micro-plastics, overuse of fertilizers
o siltation caused by motor boats
o phosphate mining, species introduction, bomb testing

measures taken
 3D printed artificial reefs in Maldives to revive corals
 TN govt. to restore Vaan Island in Mannar thru NAFCC
 inclusion in CRZ-I for strict regulation of human activities under CRZ Rules
 50 Reefs Initiative- Pvt. initiative to limit damage of cc to corals
 Int'l Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)- only global entity devoted to coral reef
 STAPCOR 2018 conf. at Bangaram Islands, Lac. Is.
 2018 declared as Int'l Year of Reef
 geo-engineering solutions- dredging of seafloor by Kiribati to fortify atolls
 outlining of permanent evacuation of atolls due to sea level changes
 developing alt sustainable livelihood measures
o launch sites for low orbit sats- equatorial locations
o Tuvalu receives millions of dollars for its .tv domain name

Transformation of Aspirational Districts

GIST: To quickly, effectively transform most underdeveloped districts by identifying areas of immediate
improvement, measuring progress and ranking districts.
 With states being main drivers, identification of districts based on parameters like deprivation (SECC), health
& education indicators, infrastructure.

Broad ideas of the program include:

 Convergence of central and state schemes
 Collaboration of central, state level 'Prabhari' (in-charge) officers & district collectors
 Competition among districts driven by Jan Andolan

About 34% of India's population now lives in urban areas, the U.N. World Urbanization Prospects 2018 report

Salient Features:
 NITI Aayog w/ AP govt. created dashboard for real time monitoring open to public
 States to provide personnel, facilitate resources; all 3 tiers of govt. need to contribute
 Opened door to civil society, leverage Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
 No financial packages, leveraging existing resources of govt. programs efficiently
 Competitive Federalism to local level, new idea, energy from govt.

Delta Ranking: To identify sectors and indicator specific challenges for Team India to take corrective measures by
looking into specific aspects of SDGs and performance of districts.
  based on: Health and nutrition, Education, Agriculture and water resources, Financial inclusion and skill
development, Basic infrastructure
 2017 rankings: Dahod district of Gujarat improved to rank first, West Sikkim district stood
second, Bijapur district in Chhattisgarh is ranked 6th position

 2018 rankings:

Concerns:
 While Center has higher power of taxation, bulk of expenditure on welfare is done by states

Problems faced by small towns- lack of basic services, dilapidated infrastructure, overcrowded spaces and
dwindling job opportunities.
 JNNURM, AMRUT schemes focus only on Class I towns (population > 1 lac)

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

new avatar of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)
 to ensure basic infra services related to water, waste mgmt., transportation, green spaces in cities w/ 1
lakh+ people, 10 hill cities, Heritage cities
 states get flexibility of designing schemes based on needs of identified cities; annual action plans for
broad concurrence, no individual appraisals
 center assistance upto 50% of proj. costs for cities <10 lakh population; 1/3rd for above
o 10% of budget allocation to states as incentive based on achievement of reforms
o states to transfer funds to ULBs within 7 days; penal action for funds diversion

Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission (SPMRM)

to deliver catalytic interventions to rural areas on threshold of growth (bridge rural-urban divide)
 funding support of 30% as Critical Gap Funding (CGF), 70% mobilized by states thru synergic govt. prog.,
pvt. investment, institutional funding
o CGF now shared as 60:40 for plain areas, 90:10 for Himalayan, NE states
 provisions-
o basic amenities- 24x7 water supply, solid-liquid waste mgmt. facilities
o inter-intra village roads- adequate lighting, public transport facilities using green tech
o economic amenities in areas of agri-services, tourism, skill devt. to promote MSME
 rural population ~68% growing at 12%, increase in absolute no. of villages
o large parts of rural areas not stand-alone settlements but part of clusters which indicate potential for
growth