TEMA 1 - La lengua como comunicación:

lenguaje oral y lenguaje escrito. Factores que

definen una situación comunicativa: emisor,
receptor, funcionalidad y contexto.

Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Key insights on language and communication.
2.1. Early models of linguistic communication.
2.2. Structural linguistics and Generative Grammar.
2.3. Language and speech.
2.4. Criticism of Structural Linguistics and Generative Grammar.
2.5. Contemporary developments.
2.6. Present-day: The message-model of linguistic communication.
3. Main characteristics of verbal language as a means of communication.
3.1. The double-sided nature of the linguistic sign.
3.2. Arbitrariness and conventionality.
3.3. Double articulation of language.
4. Spoken language.
4.1. The natural-sound source.
4.2. Interactions and transactions.
5. Written language.
5.1. Prestige of writing. Its influence upon the oral medium.
5.2. Correspondence between sound and graphic symbol.
6. Study of a communicative situation.
6.1. Oral versus written communication.
6.2. Elements in a communicative situation.
6.3. Functionality. Function and functions of language.
7. Conclusions.
8. Bibliography.
 
 
1. INTRODUCTION.
If a language is defined as a tool or artefact used for the purpose of
communication, it seems obvious that there are many types of languages in the
world. From animal ways of communication up to sophisticated techniques such as
Morse code, Braille, computer languages, etc.
Semiotics studies the behaviour of signs within a community. Thus, it deals with all
sorts and means of communication: railway and road traffic signs, sailing codes,
advertising codes, colour, acoustic codes, television and film codes, etc.
Languages can be classified according to the senses they involve. For example,
animal communication relies heavily on all senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste and
touch. The more sophisticated a language becomes, the more it specialises in its
appeal to the senses. For example, Braille involves basically the sense of touch,
Morse consists basically of sound, and so on.
Human communication, broadly considered, involves all senses. However, human
communication by means of verbal language relies on hearing and, as an artificial
but useful development, on sight.
In this sense, Linguistics must be understood as the study of human verbal
language. That is, it is only one part of the study of that higher category which is
Communication.
The production of specific sounds associated to concepts abstracted from reality,
and the fact that the combination of this small set of sounds can produce an infinite
number of messages, are the two essential principles that make human verbal
language probably the most perfect means of communication that we can conceive
of.
It is probably the most perfect; by no means the only one. Human communication,
as we have hinted above, involves a lot more: body language, drawing and
painting, all the semiotic codes mentioned above, touch, smell, taste, codes from
different sciences and disciplines… .
So, what is Communication? Simply, the connection and interaction of an entity or
individual with the outer world.
How does it happen? By producing, perceiving and interpreting one of more sets or
systems of signs shared by a community.
Human verbal communication takes place by using a common system of sounds
and written symbols. There are lots of different human verbal languages in the
world, different codes for different communities, but all of them share the core
characteristics of human language.
 
 

2. KEY INSIGHTS ON LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION.

2.1. Early models of linguistic communication.
Philosopher John Locke wrote in 1691 that “(…) besides articulate sounds, it was
further necessary that man should be able to use these sounds as signs of internal
conceptions; and to make them stand as marks for the ideas within his own mind,
whereby they might be made known to others and the thoughts of men’s minds be
conveyed from one to another. (…) The comfort and advantage of society not being
to be had without communication of thoughts, it was necessary that man should
find out some sensible signs, whereby those invisible ideas, which his thoughts are
made up of, might be made known to others.”
 
2.2. Structural Linguistics and Generative Grammar.
“The starting point of the circuit is in the brain of one individual, for instance A,
where facts of consciousness which we shall call concepts are associated with
representations of linguistic signs or sound patterns by means of which they may
be expressed. Let us suppose that a given concept triggers in the brain a
corresponding sound pattern. This is an entirely psychological phenomenon,
followed in turn by a physiological process: the brain transmits to the organs of
phonation an impulse corresponding to the pattern.
 

2.3. Language and speech.

Otherwise, this model of linguistic communication makes a distinction between
what people actually say, their overt verbal behaviour, ‘speech’, la parole in
Saussure’s terminology, and la langue, ‘language’, which is the system of arbitrary
conventions assumed to underlie and direct verbal behaviour.
 

2.4. Criticism of Structural Linguistics and Generative Grammar.

Now, if that is indeed the right way to look at language, then of course it follows that
the material circumstances in which linguistic activity takes place are of no
significance
 

2.5. Contemporary developments.

Discourse Analysis works with real samples: oral and written acts of
communication, texts of all kinds. The study of such materials provides statistics of
the use of terms, discourse markers, rhythm, frequency, etc. It elaborates
commentaries on how texts can be classified, on their intention, on how meaning is
constructed and negotiated, on how implication or understatement work… This
analysis focuses on discourse features such as coherence, cohesion and texture,
which are built on elements like substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, deixis, repetition
(anaphora and cataphora)…
 

2.6. Present-day: The message-model of linguistic

communication.
It is certainly not for want of current interest in communication. On the contrary, in
various fields during the past ten years, both verbal and non-verbal mechanisms of
communication have attracted a great deal of new research. However, the various
strands of that research have been pursued to a large extent sporadically and
independently.
 
 
3. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF VERBAL LANGUAGE AS A
MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.
3.1. The double-sided nature of the linguistic sign.
A linguistic sign, roughly speaking a ‘word’, consists of two sides or components of
its nature.
 

3.2. Arbitrariness and conventionality.

Linguistic signs are symbols, not icons or tokens. By saying that the linguistic sign
is arbitrary and conventional, we mean that their nature is symbolic, that is, the
relationship or correspondence between the signifier and the signified in any given
linguistic sign is not based on a natural or obvious connection.
 

3.3. Double articulation of language

This is a simple and, at the same time, a key feature. It is the mere fact that
language consists essentially of two basic units:
On the one hand, we have the phoneme (sound unit), that can be defined as the
smallest linguistic unit without meaning, but able to produce a difference in
meaning.
 
 

4.SPOKEN LANGUAGE
4.1. The natural-sound source
This view of the beginning of human speech is based on the concept of ‘natural
sounds’. The suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the
natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. The fact that all
modern languages have some words with pronunciations which seem to echo
naturally occurring sounds could be used to support this theory.
 

4.2. Interactions and transactions

In developing speech, humans have obviously incorporated versions of naturally
occurring sounds such as bow-wow. They have also incorporated cries of
emotional reaction, such as Wow, and Ugh, and accompany much of their speech
with body language.
 
 

5.WRITTEN LANGUAGE
5.1. Prestige of writing. Its influence upon the oral medium
We experience probably the larger part of the language we use through the visual
medium. Writing has certain prestige over the verbal source. Normally, it is
perceived as permanent, more reliable and more correct. However, historically, the
only reason for the existence of writing is the representation of oral language.
 

5.2. Correspondence between sound and graphic symbol

All languages show some degree of inconsistency between the spoken and the
written forms. For example, in Spanish we find problems or lack of correspondence
especially in the use of b-v, g-j, c-q-k, h.
However, in the case of English, inconsistency seems to be the rule rather than the
exception.
 
 

6. STUDY OF A COMMUNICATIVE SITUATION.

6.1. Oral versus written communication.
6.2. Elements in a communicative situation.
The addresser (transmitter, sender, speaker…) sends a message to the addressee
(receiver, hearer, listener…). In order to be operative, that is, meaningful, the
message requires, in the first place, the reference to a context (situation, object),
which must include surrounding reality and/or some necessary knowledge shared
by the participants. In the second place, the message requires a code common to
the participants. Finally, it requires a contact (channel), a physical channel and a
psychological connection between the addresser and the addressee through which
they can set up and keep communication.
 

6.3. Functionality. Function and functions of language.

Karl Bühler distinguishes three functions:
Relationship message-transmitter: function: expression
Relationship message-addressee: function: appeal
Relationship message-context: function: representation
 
 

7. CONCLUSIONS.
Language is a tool employed by human beings to communicate and interact with
each other. This is not the sole function of language, but it is surely its most
important one.  
Communication through the medium of spoken language is concerned with the
conveying of concepts by means of vocal noises. In written language, humans use
the visual medium to represent those oral sounds.
Although communication among human beings by means of language has been a
focal topic of study and inquiry since the very beginnings of formal education, a
global theory of communication has not been elaborated yet to the satisfaction of
experts and users alike.
The sheer volume, complexity and ever-changing nature of the subject may be the
reason why, today, in spite of all that has been written on the subject, there is still
an academic gap in the place where a science of human communication ought to
be.
As language teachers, this should be one of our central concerns, at least for its
relation to our daily practice, to the extent that the process of teaching and
acquiring or learning a language is only as good as the communicative goals it is
able to achieve and develop. 
 
 

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 Chomsky, N. Aspects of the theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT
Press, 1965.
 Halliday, M. A. K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar, London Edward
Arnold, 1985.
 Jakobson, R. “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics”, Thomas A.
Sebeok, Style in Language, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 1960.
 Lockwood, D. Introduction to Stratificational Linguistics. Michigan State
University, 1972.
 Love, N. The Foundations of Linguistic Theory. Selected Writings of Roy Harris.
Edited by Nigel Love. Routledge. London & New York, 1990.
 Saussure, Ferdinand de. (Translated and annotated by Roy Harris). Course in
General Linguistics (First published in 1916). Duckworth, London, 1983.
 Widdowson, H. G. Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 1978.
 Yule, G. The Study of Language. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1996.
TEMA 2. La comunicación en la clase de
lengua extranjera: comunicación verbal y no
verbal. Estrategias extralingüísticas:
reacciones no verbales a mensajes en
diferentes contextos.
Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Communicative acts.
3. The Communicative Approach.
4. Characteristics of communicative activities.
5. Types and examples of proper communicative activities.
5.1. Non-verbal communication. Extra-linguistic strategies.
5.1.1. Some theoretical foundations.
a) The input hypothesis.
b) Silent periods.
c) The built-in syllabus.
5.1.2. Non-verbal communication activities.
a) Listening and making no explicit response.
b) Gestures: yes, no, I (don’t) like, I (don’t) know, I (don’t mind), etc.
c) Showing flashcards, symbols, objects, pictures…
d) Following instructions.
e) Parallel visual representation.
5.2. Oral communication activities.
a) Reaching a consensus.
b) Relaying instructions.
c) Communication games.
d) Interpersonal exchange.
e) Story construction.
f) Simulation and role play.
5.3. Written communication activities.
a) Relaying instructions.
b) Exchanging letters.
c) Writing games.
d) Fluency writing.
e) Story construction.
f) Writing reports and advertisements.
6. Conclusions.
7. Bibliography.
 
 

1. INTRODUCTION
Communication between humans is an extremely complex and ever-changing
phenomenon, and there are certain characteristics that the great majority of
communicative events share which have particular relevance for the learning and
teaching of languages.
In the present topic, we will have a look at those characteristics and see how they
can be applied in the English classroom so as to enable our students to move
gradually toward the general goal of acquiring communicative competence in the
target language.
 
 

2. COMMUNICATIVE ACTS.
When two people are engaged in communication, we can be fairly sure that they
are doing so for a reason. We can probably make the following generalisations
about the addresser:
a) He/she wants to speak or write:  ‘Want’ is used here in a general way to suggest
that a speaker makes a definite decision to address someone. Speaking may be
forced on him in some way, but we can still say that he wants or intends to speak,
otherwise he would keep silent.
b) He has some communicative purpose: Speakers say things because they want
something to happen as a result of what they say. The speaker may want to charm
his listener, he/she may want to give some information or to express pleasure. He
may decide to be rude or to flatter, to agree or complain. In each of these cases he
is interested in achieving a communicative purpose.
c) He selects from his language store: the speaker has an infinite capacity to create
new sentences if he is a native speaker. In order to achieve his communicative
purpose he will select the language he thinks is appropriate for this purpose.
 
 

3. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH.

By 1970, the common feeling among language teaching experts was general
dissatisfaction. Even in those cases in which the student succeeded, the proportion
effort-result proved to be quite poor and frustrating. 
Present-day trends in language teaching are based on what we know as the
Communicative Approach, which apparently receives this name simply because its
first aim is real communication.
This Approach bases its teaching procedure on the 8 functions and the 5 notions of
Language, as described and analysed by Wilkins and his interdisciplinary team by
request of the Council of Europe in 1975: 
-Functions: modality, evaluation, suasion, argument, rational inquiry, personal
emotions, emotional relations, and interpersonal relations.
-Notions: duration, frequency, quantity, dimension and location.
 
 

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES.

a) In pure communicative activities, students should have a desire to communicate.
If they do not want to be involved in communication, then that communication will
probably not be effective.
b) Students should have some kind of communicative purpose, in other words, they
should be using language in some way to achieve an objective, and this objective
or purpose should be the reason for communication.
c) If students do have a purpose of this kind, then their attention will be focused on
the content of what is being said or written and not on the language forms that are
being used.
 
 

5. TYPES AND EXAMPLES OF PROPER COMMUNICATIVE

ACTIVITIES.
The use of communicative activities does not imply that other activities, such as
drills, should not be used. Drills, mainly pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary
activities, are very helpful at the manipulative stage, when introducing new linguistic
items, for example. 
They are very useful for familiarisation and accuracy in using new expressions and
structures. However, these exercises must be understood and used just as a
transitional phase toward communicative meaningful use.
Communicative activities are the most important in the language classroom, since
here students can do their best to use language as individuals and achieve a
degree of autonomy and competence.
 

5.1. Non-verbal communication. Extra-linguistic strategies.

1.
1.
 1. Some theoretical foundations.
2. Non-verbal communication activities.
 

5.2. Oral communication activities.

Apart from everyday use of classroom language, there are many types of oral
communicative activities quite suitable for the English class. A number of them
follow the models proposed below.
a) Reaching a consensus.
b) Relaying instructions.
c) Communication games.
d) Interpersonal exchange.
e) Story construction.
f) Simulation and role play.
 

5.3. Written communication activities.

a) Relaying instructions
One group of students has information for the performance of a task, and they have
to get another group to perform the same task by giving them written instructions. 
We will look at the following example:
“Giving directions”: In this activity students write directions which other students
have to follow.
b) Exchanging letters.
Students write letters, swap them, and then receive a reply. In the following
example, writing is based on simulation and role play:
“An invitation”: Students write letters of invitation and exchange them in pairs. The
letters are then answered depending on what the recipient’s plans are.
 
 

6. CONCLUSIONS.
We have dealt with the nature of communication and the principles of the
Communicative Approach to language teaching in order to come to some
conclusions about the type of activities students should be involved in
The examples of communicative activities given in this topic does not cover by any
means the huge variety of resources, materials and exercises that are available
and can be used in the teaching of English as a foreign language. They are simply
intended as a sort of brainstorm of ideas that can make us think of the infinite
possibilities for the development of communicative competence and strategies.
Finally, we should lay some emphasis on the use of different and innovative
resources, especially those based on ICT (Information and Communication
Technologies). One of the most remarkable of these resources is, for example, the
computer-assisted language laboratory, for its power and possibilities in developing
communicative interaction.
 
 
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
-Baddock, B. “Creative Language Use in Communication” Activities. English
Language Teaching Journal 35/3, 1981.
-Brumfit, C.J.  and Johnson, K. (eds.). The Communicative Approach to Language
Teaching. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1979.
-Corder, S. P. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1981.
-Grellet, F. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1981.
-Johnson, K. and Morrow, K. (eds.). Communication in the Classroom. Longman,
1981.
-Revell, J. Teaching Techniques for Communicative English. Macmillan, 1979.
-Richards, J. and Smidt, R. (eds.). Language and Communication. London,
Longman, 1983.
-Widdowson, H. “The Teaching of English as Communication”. English Language
Teaching Journal 27/7, 1972.
TEMA 3. Desarrollo de las destrezas
lingüísticas: comprensión y expresión oral,
comprensión y expresión escrita. La
competencia comunicación en inglés.
Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Listening.
2.1. Listening processes and techniques.
2.2. Training at different competence levels.
2.3. Classification of listening comprehension activities.
2.3.1.Listening and making no response.
2.3.2.   Listening and making non-verbal or short verbal responses.
2.3.3.   Listening and making longer responses.
2.3.4.   Listening as a basis for study and discussion.
3. Speaking.
3.1. Training phases and levels.
3.2. Manipulative activities.
3.2.1. Learning and acting dialogues.
3.2.2. Oral reproduction of songs, poems, proverbs…
3.2.3. Prose passages.
3.3.From practice to production: speaking activities.
3.3.1. Types of speaking activities.
4. Reading.
4.1. Starting to read.
4.2. How to approach a text.
4.3. How to develop the reading skill.
4.3.1.   Reading techniques.
4.3.2.   Types of reading comprehension activities.
4.3.3.   Text analysis, interpretation and assessment.
5. Writing.
5.1. The importance of writing.
5.2. Writing skills at different competence levels.
5.3. Techniques, activities and materials at different levels.
6. Resources and materials.
7. The components of Communicative Competence.
7.1. Grammatical competence.
7.2. Sociolinguistic competence.
7.3. Cultural competence.
7.4. Discourse competence.
7.5. Strategic competence.
8. Conclusion.
9. Bibliography.
 
 

1.  Introduction.
When we use a language for the purpose of communication, we need a reasonable
command of some communicative skills, and also some knowledge, experience
and capacity for the adequate use of these skills.
Regarding the skills or abilities, we can identify four major ones. Following the
natural order of language acquisition, they are: listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
First, listening and speaking belong to the aural medium; reading and writing to the
visual medium. Second, listening and reading are classified as receptive skills,
while speaking and writing are productive skills, since they involve production and
creativity on the side of the language user.
At the same time, our communicative competence will largely depend on certain
“background” capacity, which consists mainly of five basic components:
grammatical, sociolinguistic, cultural, discourse and strategic.
All the above factors are taken into account for devising systems of evaluation and
language learning frameworks, for example in projects such as the European
Language Portfolio.
 
 

2. Listening.
It is the aural receptive skill. This does not mean it is about passively hearing
speech sounds. Listening is essentially an active process. Comprehension of
spoken language is of primary importance if the communication aim is to be
achieved.
In the early stages of learning or acquisition we try to master the basic patterns of
phonology and grammar, and we find it difficult to identify sounds, then select
important items of information and retain them in our memory. Proficiency in the
listening skill is attained through extensive exposure in natural acquisition.
In a learning situation, we need systematic training in identification and selection so
as to achieve a good command of the listening skill.
 

2.1.   Listening processes and techniques.

The student learning a foreign language has to master a number of processes in
order to successfully face real life listening:
1. Identification: We first learn to perceive systematic occurrence in a continuous
stream of sound. We recognise rise and fall of the voice, varying pitch levels,
sound sequences, and make an elementary segmentation of what we hear.
1. Selection and understanding: We select the sound segments in order to identify
syntactic structures, according to our knowledge of the grammatical system of
the language, and attach meaning to them.
1. Assimilation and storage: We re-circulate the material we are hearing through
our cognitive system, relate earlier to later segments and make the final
selection of what we will retain as the message. 
 

2.2. Training at different competence levels.

1. Identification of the phonic and syntactic patterning. Listening for perception and
recognition, without proper comprehension.
-Elementary: responding with flash cards to phonetic discrimination exercises.
-Intermediate: discrimination of familiar sound distinctions which change the
meaning of sentences.
-Advanced: discrimination of regional accents.
1. Identification and selection without retention, with no questions to be answered:
-Elementary: obeying instructions.
-Intermediate: for example, watching a documentary film.
-Advanced: e.g. listening to debates.
 

2.3.  Classification of listening comprehension activities.

 
2.3.1.  Listening and making no response.
2.3.2.  Listening and making non-verbal or short verbal responses.
2.3.3.  Listening and making longer responses.
2.3.4.  Listening as a basis for study and discussion.
 
 

3.  Speaking.
The main objective is oral fluency. That is the ability to speak coherently with
reasonable accuracy, continuity and cohesion, so that the listener does not lose
interest and communication flow is maintained. Students will progress from the
stage of imitation, or responding to cues, to the point when they can use the
language freely to express their own ideas.
 

3.1. Training phases and levels.

At any level, there are two phases in adding new language to the student’s
competence:
-Practice in the manipulation of new elements: phonological patterns, syntactic
structures, vocabulary.
 

3.2. Manipulative activities.

3.2.1. Learning and acting dialogues.
3.2.2. Oral reproduction of songs, poems, proverbs…
3.2.3. Prose passages.
 

3.3.  From practice to production: speaking activities.

Students need to be given regular and frequent opportunities to use language on
their own, even if they make mistakes or communication is not altogether efficient.
They must try to express their own feelings and ideas, and become aware that they
have learned something useful and personal.
Drills give the learner an opportunity to reproduce what they have learned and
enable the teacher to check whether they are able to do it right. However, an
important feature of the production stage is that learners should work as much as
possible on their own, talking to one another directly and not through very
controlled and close guidance.
3.3.1.  Types of speaking activities.
 
 

4.  READING.
4.1. Starting to read.
At the most elementary level, reading starts with the alphabet, recognition of
sounds and letters, then syllables, then isolated words, then phrases, then
sentences and, finally, paragraphs and texts.
With little children, reading comprehension in English will focus on associating oral
utterances to their inconsistent graphic reflections. 
Flashcards, posters, computer games… with letters, words and pictures are some
useful resources in this process. Gradually, longer and longer productions are
introduced until we reach the text unit.
 

4.2.  How to approach a text.

Reading involves a variety of skills such as deducing meaning, understanding the
communicative value of sentences and utterances, identifying the main point in a
piece of discourse and so on. 
 

4.3.  How to develop the reading skill.

To begin with, language learners must be taught to relate the language they have
learnt to the language as it appears in actual discourse, and also to develop a
strategy which involves recognising the value of linguistic items in context. Next,
they must acquire those conventions of communication which associate linguistic
forms with communicative functions. To achieve this, we can use different reading
techniques.
4.3.1.  Reading techniques.
4.3.2.  Types of reading comprehension activities.
4.3.3.  Text analysis, interpretation and assessment.
 
 

5.  Writing.
Writing involves a complex conscious mental effort. It is probably the most difficult
to acquire of all communicative skills, since it is productive and normally requires a
high degree of elaboration and even requires a certain level of formal education.
Reading and writing are often practised together in activities aimed at developing
students’ command of the written language.
Some specific reasons why writing seems to be so complex could be the following:
-Psychologically, writing is an individual activity. There is no immediate interaction
or direct feedback from the addressee.
 

5.1. The importance of writing.

In many cases and for a number of languages in the world writing is not a natural
means of social interaction.
 

5.2. Writing skills at different competence levels.

-Early stages. Students have a very limited command of the language, probably
acquired orally. The activities are simple and our objectives should be reasonable.
Nevertheless, it is appropriate to introduce some basic devices for linking and
sequencing ideas. The tasks must be very precise and carefully defined. Pair and
group-work activities are very useful.
 -Intermediate stages. Writing is still largely guided. Activities should be as varied
as possible. Some rhetorical devices can be introduced, for example, those used to
express contrast, definition, giving examples, etc. Control is slowly reduced as
more and more communicative activities are proposed. Gradually, students turn
from writing dialogues and letters in groups, for instance, to individual writing of
more complex kinds of texts.
 

5.3. Techniques, activities and materials at different levels.

In most activities and materials we will find that two or more general skills are
involved. For example, reading and writing work together very frequently.
Sometimes, in order to introduce new items or conduct a follow-up exercise, all four
skills will overlap, as it is often the case in real communicative situations.
 
 

6. Resources and materials.

All four skills are basically taught through continuous practice. That is why
resources and materials are probably the most important aspect to consider.
Materials are normally chosen regarding factors such as: creativity, challenge,
variety and adaptability, authenticity, interest and motivation.
Regarding the resources, all possible ones are welcome, from the traditional paper
format to the most modern Information and Communication Techniques (ICT)
sources: books, photocopies, flashcards, posters, recordings (cassette, CD, DVD),
radio, TV, web pages, computer programmes, etc.
 
 

7. The components of communicative competence.

In 1916, Saussure established the concepts of language and speech. Thus,
‘langue’ (language, usage) is the social, common, abstract and lasting system that
we have to learn or acquire in order to be able to communicate through ‘parole’
(speech, use), which is the individual personal, concrete and momentary use we
make of the language.
In 1965, American linguist N. Chomsky maintained the basic concepts but termed
them ‘linguistic competence’ and ‘linguistic performance’.
In the 70s and 80s, some linguists, most from the London School of Linguistics,
developed those concepts, made them more precise and adequate, and studied
new relevant factors. Thus, Firth, Hymes, Habermas, Halliday, Widdowson, Wilkins,
etc. have added points of view from the disciplines of psycholinguistics,
sociolinguistics, socio-semantics and discourse analysis.
What they basically have in common is that we need a broader concept that makes
reference to a category that transcends mere linguistic resources. This new term is
‘Communicative Competence’, which regards Communication as a universal
phenomenon, much more important and complex that language itself. They also lay
emphasis on the importance of Performance as a subject of study in order to
understand how the dynamic process of communication actually works.
 

7.1. Grammatical competence.

It includes, basically, what Chomsky called ‘linguistic competence’. Grammatical
competence refers broadly to command and knowledge of the language at
phonological, morphological and syntactic levels.
 

7.2. Sociolinguistic competence.

It involves understanding the social context in which communication takes place,
including:
-Understanding and producing appropriate meaning, functions, attitudes and topics
in different social situations.
-Understanding and using adequate grammar and vocabulary, that is, register, in
different social contexts.
 

7.3. Cultural competence.

This refers to knowledge about social and cultural facts, conventions and general
background in order to take part in communicative situations.
 

7.4. Discourse competence.

It is concerned with the interpretation of message elements, their
interconnectedness, and how meaning is constructed through a whole sample of
discourse or text. Different genres and text types are included. In particular, this
competence will cover the two basic characteristics of discourse.
 

7.5. Strategic competence.

This refers to the different strategies employed by language users in order to set
up, finish, maintain, repair, redirect and improve communication. Strategic
competence is often related to communicative problems and difficulties of different
kinds:
-Grammatical. The strategies developed to solve grammar difficulties are quite
varied, for example: paraphrasing, translating structures from the mother language,
gesturing, drawing, asking for repetition or clearer speech, use of dictionaries of
grammar books (normally when reading or writing), etc.
-Sociolinguistic. These difficulties are solved by using, for example, a single
grammatical form for different purposes (statement, question, order, promise…)
according to the social context. Another strategy would be transferring one’s
knowledge of sociolinguistic adequacy of forms and functions in the native
language.
 
 

8. Conclusion.
As a conclusion, we should remember the importance of communicative
competence in English as the objective of our students. Thus, from the moment
written English is introduced for young children at school, we have to enable them
to follow a parallel development of all four skills: listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
Since activities are the central factor in language teaching and learning, the labour
of the teacher will rely heavily on a suitable choice of resources, materials,
adequate sequence of time and coherent use of spaces. 
Finally, as a principle, we should bear in mind what might be called ‘didactic
balance’, which involves proportional practice in the four skills according to five key
competence components: grammatical (in the broad sense: pronunciation, spelling,
vocabulary, morphology and syntax), sociolinguistic, cultural, discourse and
strategic.
 
 

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 Byrne, D. Teaching Oral English. Longman, 1986.
 Byrne, D. Teaching Writing Skills. Longman, 1979.
 Canale, M., Swain, M. “Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to
Second Language Teaching and Testing”, Applied Linguistics, 1980.
 Chomsky, N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT
Press, 1965.
 Fowler, W.S. Progressive Writing Skills. Nelson,1989.
 Grellet, F. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge University Press, 1983.
TEMA 6. Valoración del conocimiento de las
lenguas extranjeras como instrumento de
comunicación entre las personas y los
pueblos. Interés por la diversidad lingüística a
través del conocimiento de una nueva lengua
y su cultura.
Contents:
1. Introduction: language and languages.
1. Languages in the world.
2.1. Language families.
2.2. The most spoken languages.
1. The importance of a language as a means of communication.
3.1. Number of users.
3.2. Geographic distribution.
3.3. Social and cultural status.
1. English: An international language.
4.1. Varieties of English.
4.1.a. Main English varieties.
4.1.b. Some formal differences.
4.2. Learning and teaching an international language.
4.2.a. Objective: effective communication.
4.2.b. Specific teaching and students’ needs.
4.2.c. Motivation and materials.
4.3. The cultural importance of English.
1. Conclusions.
1. Bibliography.
 
 

1. Introduction: language and languages.

To begin with, we should make a clear distinction between ‘language’ as an
abstract notion, that is, the ability of human beings to communicate with each other
through a system of oral and written signs, and ‘language’ as each one of the
systems or codes used around the world, for instance, Spanish, English, Chinese,
etc… In the field of Linguistics, the term ‘language’ has also a more specific and
technical meaning. Ferdinand de Saussure (the “father” of modern Linguistics and
linguistic Structuralism) distinguished between what he called, in French, ‘langue’
and ‘parole’. Thus, ‘language’ or ‘usage’ is the code, known and shared by the
speakers of a particular language (Spanish, French…), which enables them to
communicate with each other. On the other hand, ‘speech’ or ‘use’ refers to any
single act of communication by means of that code. Thus, ‘language’ (‘usage’) is an
abstract social entity, while ‘speech’ (‘use’) is material and personal, it is the
materialisation of ‘language’.
 
 

2. Languages in the world.

Between three and four thousand languages are spoken in the world. It is quite
difficult to give an accurate number because some regions in the world have not
been studied in depth yet, and, particularly, because many linguistic varieties are
difficult to classify within the blurry borders of theoretical categories such as
‘language’, ‘dialect’, ‘accent’, ‘speech’.
 

2.1. Language families.

Languages can be grouped into families. A language family is formed by all those
languages which are historically related and have a common origin. For instance,
all European languages (except Finnish, Hungarian and Basque), together with
many Indian and Pakistani languages and also Persian, derive from Indo-European
(a disappeared language reconstructed by linguist Franz Bopp at the beginning of
the 19th century). Thus, these languages belong to the Indo-European family.
 

2.2 The most spoken languages.

Chinese has the largest number of native speakers: over 1,000 million.
English is the second, around 400 million native speakers, which is just one fifth of
the total number of users in the world (about 2,000 million).
Spanish: over 300 million native speakers in the world.
Other languages spoken by millions are: Russian, Hindi, Japanese, Bengali,
Arabic, Portuguese, German, French, Italian, etc.
 
 

3. The importance of a language as a means of

communication.
From a human point of view, no matter how many or few people use it, whether it is
an international language or a minor dialect, every language deserves and has the
right (recognised by world organisations such as the UN) to our deepest respect
and recognition.
People understand and explain reality through the language or languages they
have acquired, which they perceive as part of their own identity. In this sense, no
language is better or worse than any other. Moreover, it would be a serious
violation of the Human Rights to force upon any community the use of a language
which is not naturally spoken in that community.
 

3.1 Number of users.

According to this aspect, Chinese would be the most important language in the
world, as we have already seen in section 2.2.
However, most Europeans and Americans, for example, would first learn other
languages rather than Chinese. Why? Let’s consider the following aspects.
 

3.2 Geographic distribution.

Some languages, Chinese for example, are spoken in one single country  or state.
Thus, their relevance and influence, in global terms, is not widespread.
English and Spanish, on the other hand, are spoken in many distant regions around
the world. Furthermore, they are used (spoken, written, listened or read), especially
English, for many practical purposes as international languages by non-native
speakers.
 

3.3 Social and cultural status.

Language is a means of philosophical, scientific, technological and artistic-literary
expression. In this sense, the importance of a language is defined by the number of
works published, its use in the mass media (press, radio and television), films
(original and dubbed versions), contexts in which it is used as an international non-
biased code (international politics, scientific symposia…), etc… 
 
 

4. ENGLISH: AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE.

4.1 Varieties of English.
4.1.a. Main English varieties.
4.1.b. Some formal differences.
4.2 Learning and teaching an international language.
4.2.a.  Objective: effective communication.
4.2.b. Specific teaching and students’ needs.
4.2.c. Motivation and materials.
4.3 The cultural importance of English.
Traditionally, English literature has been extremely rich and influential,  with a large
number of authors and an infinite amount of published works. Some of the most
universal outstanding writers of all times have written in English: Shakespeare,
Dickens, Joyce, Byron… 
American literature, younger and born from English literature, has also produced
some of the most prominent figures in the history of literature, with an identity and a
flavour of their own, genuinely American: Hemingway, Faulkner, Allan Poe,
Whitman…. 
 
 

5. Conclusions: an “open” language. 

The reasons for English to have become so important can be found, to some
extent, in the very attitude of its speakers. English has never been a “closed”
language. In fact, it has borrowed from virtually all other languages. 
These words and forms have rapidly been adapted into the system and become the
basis for the formation of new words. Thus, there is always a new word for a new
reality, the system is always increasing, improving and recycling itself. English has
also lent words and structures to other languages, the so-called anglicismos in
Spanish.
Contrary to any notions of ‘purism’ or romantic considerations about language, let
us not forget that a language is, first of all, a material code, an artefact for human
beings to communicate and interact. Language behaves like a live being: if it did
not adapt to an ever-changing world, its main function, communication, would not
be properly fulfilled, then it would become gradually useless and eventually
disappear. As a conclusion, we could recall the idea that English is the first
language for its cultural importance and its number of users, places and contexts of
use. It is followed by Spanish, which is steadily spreading and also has one of the
richest cultural traditions in the world.
Finally, as we have suggested above, learning a language can be compared to
having the key to open the door to a new culture. The more languages we speak,
the more knowledge and understanding of our world we get. 
Languages are the first step towards a proper and reasonable interpretation of the
world, towards communication between people and countries, in order to co-
operate with each other in peace,  and discard certain primitive views that only lead
to destructive attitudes such as racism, xenophobia, etc.
 
 

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Lázaro, Fernando. Lengua española. Anaya, 1987, 1995.
 Quirk, Randolph, and H. G. Widdowson,eds. 1985. English in the world:
Teaching and learning the language and literature. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
 Saussure, Ferdinand de. (Translated and annotated by Roy Harris). Course in
General Linguistics. Duckworth, London 1983.
 Strevens, Peter. English as an international language. 1987.
 Strevens, Peter. Standards and the standard language. English Today, 1985.
 The Longman dictionary of English language and culture. Longman, 1998.
 Documentación para el área de lenguas extranjeras en Enseñanza Primaria
(cajas rojas). Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Madrid, 1992.
TEMA 10. Los códigos ortográficos de la
lengua inglesa. Relación sonido-grafía.
Propuestas para la didáctica del código
escrito. Aplicaciones de la ortografía en las
producciones escritas.
Contents:
1. Introduction: the inconsistency of English spelling.
2. A historical approach to English orthography.
2.1 A brief history of the English alphabet.
3. The spelling of English sounds.
3.1 Vocalic sounds and spellings.
3.1.a. Vowels.
3.1.b. Diphthongs.
3.1.c. Vowel sequences.
3.2 Consonants and semivowels: sounds and spellings.
3.2.a. Consonants.
3.2.b. Semivowels.
4. Punctuation and other graphic resources.
4.1 Pause marks.
4.2 Intonation and quotation marks.
4.3 Hyphens and word division.
4.4 Stress and apostrophe.
4.5 Capital letters, special letter types, symbols and peculiar spellings.
5. Teaching and learning English orthography.
5.1 Some applicable rules.
5.2 Activities and materials.
6. Conclusion: the importance of orthography in written texts.
7. Bibliography.
 
 

1. Introduction: the inconsistency of english spelling.

In general, pronunciation tends to be one of the main sources of trouble, especially
in initial stages, for Spanish speakers to understand English. This difficulty is
worsened by the lack of consistency between written and spoken English, to the
extent that the written language is not an aid, but rather a further difficulty in
learning English, particularly at the beginning.
Apart from all the peculiar features of writing in any language, written English
presents a particular difficulty for Spanish speakers: English shows a much greater
degree of inconsistency between phonology and spelling. In general, we could say
it is impossible to know for sure how a word is pronounced from the way it is
spelled, or its proper spelling from pronunciation. The immediate pedagogic
consequence of this factor is that English spelling will require more training than
Spanish.
Moreover, writing, perhaps the most difficult to acquire of all four skills, depends on
spelling as speaking depends on phonology. Although spelling is, in general, more
limited, there is awhole system of graphic and punctuation resources, such as
paragraph division, capital, italic and bold letters, exclamation and question
marks,pause markers (comma, colon, semicolon, full stop), underlining, and other
less conventional elements. Normally, however, emotions, for instance, have to be
described in writing, as they cannot be conveyed through intonation, tempo, speed,
etc. .
 
 

2. A historical approach to english orthography.

When we acquire our first language, we start by listening and speaking, that is, we
begin to make use of ‘speech’. Later in life we are taught the conventional visual
representation of speech: spelling, which will be used in the complex skill of
‘writing’. Thus, we could say the written form is originally an attempt at reflecting the
spoken language.
However, in those languages that have long possessed a written form, speaking
and writing are felt to be so parallel that the written form may be responsible for
changes in pronunciation or may at least tend to impose restraints on its evolution.
In the case of English, this sense of parallelism, seems to be reinforced by the
obvious lack of consistent relationship between sound and spelling.
A written form of English, based on the Latin alphabet, has existed for over 1,000
years. The pronunciation of English has been constantly changing, particularly the
vowel sounds, which have undergone a process known as the ‘Great Vowel Shift’.
However, there have been few changes in spelling, especially in the last 500 years.
As a consequence, present-day written English is, in general, an inadequate and
misleading representation of the language currently spoken.
 

2.1 A brief history of the English alphabet.

When the Angles and Saxons arrived in Britain, some of them were already literate
in Germanic runic writing, but it was a highly specialised craft, the skill of rune-
masters. In fact, writing did not become more general until the conversion of the
English to Christianity. Although the missionaries who spread the gospel among the
pagan Anglo-Saxons were from Rome and must have used an Italian writing form,
the Old English manuscripts are in a script called the Insular hand, which is an Irish
modification of the Roman alphabet. The Irish, who had been converted to
Christianity before the English, taught them how to write in their style. A
development of the Insular hand is still used in writing Irish Gaelic.
2.2 The spelling of english sounds.
Fortunately, we could say that spelling is quite uniform nowadays in all territories
where English is spoken. There are just a few cases in which two alternatives are
possible: blonde/blond; judgement/judgment; enquiry/inquiry;
grandad/granddad; etc. . There are also some minor regional differences, as
thereare differences in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary. However, they are
all quite unimportant.
For example:
 British –our endings are usually spelled –or in American English: colour/color,
honour/honor, odour/odor, etc. .
 Theletter –l is always doubled with verb endings in British English, while only
under certain circumstances in American English: travelled/traveled;
cancelling/canceling… .
 British endings in –reare often –erin American English: metre/meter;
centre/center; theatre/theater… .
 BE catalogue, prologue, programme; AE catalog, prolog, program.
 BE encyclopaedia, anaemia, anaesthesia; AE encyclopedia, anemia,
anesthesia.
 BE defence, offence; AE defense, offense.
 
1.
1. Vocalic sounds and spellings.
3.1.a. Vowels.
3.1.b. Diphthongs.
3.1.c. Vowel sequences (diphthong + neutral vowel [ə])
 
1.
1. Consonants and semivowels: sounds and spellings
3.2.a. Consonants
3.2.b. Semivowels.
 

4. Punctuation and other graphic resources.

 

4.1 Pause marks.

Their use in English is almost identical to Spanish.
Comma (,) is used as in Spanish, that is, to separate items in a list, to separate
minor sentences when not linked by the conjunction and, etc. . In letters, it is used
after the greeting in English, while in Spanish we use the colon (:).
We write semicolon (;) to separate general items or ideas when the comma is used
between more particular elements within those general items. It is typically used in
English to contrast different or opposed terms and ideas.
 
4.2 Intonation and quotation marks.
Question ( ? ) and exclamation ( ! ) marks are used only at the end of the sentence
in English.
The long dash (–) is not used in English to introduce or close a dialogue or direct
speech. In English we always use inverted commas, symbolised “……………….” to
introduce and close a dialogue, direct speech and literal quotations.
 

4.3 Hyphens and word division.

Many compounds in English can be written as two words, with a hyphen, or as one
word. Avoiding hyphens seems to be the present general tendency when using
well-established words. Thus, a hyphen is normally used when we form a new word
applying the usual system for word formation in English. Even in this case, many
speakers prefer to use two separate words instead of hyphenation.
The rules for dividing a word at the end of a line are much less clear in English than
in Spanish. In fact, the most usual option is not to divide words at all. For example,
modern computer text processors never cut words between lines, unless they
already contain a hyphen for word formation. In any case there are certain general
rules or restrictions.
 

4.4 Stress and apostrophe.

There is no written stress in English. However, written stresses are oftenkept in
recent foreign loan words that have a written stress in their original language.
Apostrophe (‘) is used in English to indicate that an element is missing (I’m, you’re).
4.5. Capital letters, special letter types, symbols and peculiar
spellings.
In general, capital letters have more uses in English than they have in Spanish. We
write an initial capital letter, both in English and in Spanish, in the following cases:
 In the first word of a sentence, that is, at the beginning of a text or after a full
stop.
 In all proper names.
 In the names, bynames and pronouns referred to God, Christ, the Virgin Mary,
etc. .
 For ranks and authorities in the state, army, church, professions, etc. .
 

5. Teaching and learning english orthography.

5.1 Some applicable rules.
Correct spelling in English cannot be achieved or made easier, as in Spanish,
through the application of a series of spelling rules. We could say it basically
depends on ‘visual memory’ and capacity to associate forms and meanings.
Even in advanced stages of learning, sudden doubts arise on how to spell some
rare words, on the use of a single or a double consonant, hyphenation or separate
words, etc. . We may find some relief in knowing that even educated native
speakers often have trouble with spelling.
 
5.2 Activities and materials.
As we have said in the previous paragraphs, continuous training is essential, and
the only coherent alternative, particularly for children in Primary school, to learn and
apply English orthography.
Extensive reading (for pleasure, if possible) seems to be a very effective exercise
for improving visual memory, apart from being a most valuable source of language
practice, experience and general knowledge. It is, therefore, very important that we
motivate our students to read. We can recommend different readings, according to
their age, preferences and command of the language. To make it motivating,
reading should be presented mainly as a leisure activity, so the vocabulary must
not be difficult and the topics must be interesting. In Primary school, for instance,
learners may read stories, comics, children’s magazines… . They must be given
different alternatives, so they can choose and consider reading as a rather free
task, and not as an imposed burdensome one.
 
 

6. Conclusion: the importance of orthography in written

texts.
As we said in unit 8, writing is probably the most difficult skill to acquire, and it often
involves a reasonable degree of formal education. Furthermore, the ability to write
properly has traditionally been deemed a sign of social prestige.
Apart from the need to communicate effectively through written language, proper
spelling of words has another specific relevance: it is an immediate material symbol
of education and cultural status. This fact is true for all languages, and particularly
for English, whose spelling system, as we have seen, is quite inconsistent with
sound and, therefore, difficult to acquire.
The present language teaching methods, based on the communicative approach,
do not show a special concern with orthography by itself. Implicitly, however,
communication depends on many factors. Obviously, orthography is one of them,
relevant to communication through written language. It is important, therefore, to
pay attention to spelling, adequate use of punctuation, etc., as crucial aspects of
the writing skill. Let us remember that our objective in Primary school is that our
students acquire an integral and balanced degree of ‘communicative competence’,
which involves the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.
 
 

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
-Alcaraz, E. y Moody, B. . Fonética inglesa para españoles. 1984.
-Corder, Pit. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1981.
-Fowler, W. S. . Progressive Writing Skills. Nelson, 1989.
-Gimson, A. C. . An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London, Edward
Arnold, Publishers, 1980.
TEMA 11. Campos léxicos y semánticos en
lengua inglesa. Léxico necesario para la
socialización, la información y la expresión de
actitudes. Tipología de actividades ligadas a la
enseñanza y el aprendizaje del léxico en la
clase de lengua extranjera.
Contents
1. Introduction.
2. Lexical and semantic fields in the English language.
1.
1. Lexical and semantic fields.
2. Three concepts of meaning.
3. Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge
 
3. Vocabulary for the socialization, information and expression of attitudes.
1.
1. Vocabulary needed for socialization.
2. Vocabulary needed to give and get information.
3. Vocabulary needed to express attitudes.
 
4. Teaching and learning vocabulary.
1.
1. The principles of teaching vocabulary.
2. Introducing vocabulary.
3. Practising and checking vocabulary.
4. Consolidating vocabulary.
5. Teaching Vocabulary through Technology
5. Conclusion.
6. Bibliography.
 
 

1. Introduction
Not being able to find the words you need to express yourself is the most frustrating
experience in speaking another language.
Of course vocabulary is not the whole story; grammar is also important (how the
plural is formed, how the past tense is signified, and so on). Nevertheless, it is
possible to have a good knowledge of how the system of a language works and yet
not be able to communicate in it; whereas if we have the vocabulary we need it is
usually possible to communicate. Wilkins (1972) wrote that “. . . while without
grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”
(pp. 111–112)
But what is vocabulary?
Some will say the words of a language. But vocabulary also includes lexical
chunks, phrases of two or more words, such as Good morning and Nice to meet
you, which research suggests children and adults learn as single lexical units.
Phrases like these have a clear, formulaic usage and make up a significant portion
of spoken or written English language usage. So vocabulary can be defined as the
words of a language, including single items and phrases or chunks of several
words which covey a particular meaning.
Thus it appears to be of interest to know how the vocabulary of English is
structured and how those structures are affected by semantic changes.
In this unit, first we will study the scientific bases of the lexical and semantic fields,
then, we will see the vocabulary to express different communicative functions and
finally we will look at the techniques used in learning and teaching vocabulary.
 
 

2. LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC FIELDS IN THE ENGLISH

LANGUAGE.
Semantic is the study of meaning in language. The term did not come to be widely
used until the 20th century, but the subject it represents is very old, reaching back to
the writings of Plato and Aristotle. A semantic theory, as part of a general linguistic
theory, must fulfil at least three conditions:
1. It must give the meaning of words and sentences.
2. It must characterize and explain the systematic relation between words and
sentences (synonymy, polysemy…)
3. It must be able to predict the ambiguities in words or sentences (e.g. ‘Flying
planes can be dangerous’ Either the act of flying planes is dangerous, or planes
that are flying are dangerous.)
 

2.1. LexicalandSemantic fields.

There have been many philosophical and linguistic attempts to classify the
concepts or words in a language. The most influential and popular work has been
the ‘Thesaurus of Pete Mark Roget (1779-1869)’. He divided the vocabulary into six
main areas: abstract relations, space, matter, intellect, volition and affections. Each
area was given a detailed and exhaustive sub-classification, producing 1,000
semantic categories in all.
 

2.2. Three concepts of meaning

The study of the properties of definitions is an important part of semantics.
 Word—–things.
 Word—–concepts.
 Stimuli—–words—–responses. Leonard Bloomfield (1887-1949)
 
2.3. Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge
1. The formof a word involves its pronunciation (spoken form), spelling (written
form), and its morphology (‘prefix, root, and suffix’).
2. Meaning: knowing the concept and what items it refers to, and the associations
that come to mind when people think about a specific word or expression.
3. Use involvesthe knowledge of:
a. The grammatical functions of the word or phrase
b. Collocations that normally go with it
c. The frequency of the word in the language
d. The register
 
 

3. Vocabulary for socialization, information and expression

of attitude.
In order to achieve the communicative competence, our pupils need to be able to
learn vocabulary to be sociable, get and give information and be able to express
their attitude.
 

3.1 Vocabulary needed to socialize.

Vocabulary we need in order to be sociable such as:
 Greetings:  Hello/ Hi, Good morning.  How are you? Happy birthday! 
 Introductions: I am…, How do you do? Nice to meet you, I´d like to…
 Thanking and responses: Thanks, , Not at all, It´s all right, You´re welcome, 
 Good wishes: I hope you enjoy the show. Have a good time.  Good luck!
 Speaking on the phone: Can I speak to…? Who is it? This is…”
 

3.2. Vocabulary needed to give and get information.

Apart from questions and statements that we normally use to convey or ask for
information, we use specific vocabulary when considering people´s reaction to
information such as opinion, agreement, clarification…etc.
 Asking for and giving an opinion
 Talking without giving  your opinion 
 Expressing agreement and disagreement
 Asking and giving clarification
 

3.3. Vocabulary needed to express attitudes

This is the vocabulary that we use to express emotions and attitudes.
 Intention: ‘I intend/mean/ aim to …, I´m going to/ shall/ will see ….as soon as I 
 Insistence: ‘I insist on… I am determined to…, I will/ shall….’
 Wish: ‘I wish you… If only… Would you like/prefer/rather…? Shall/ should I do 
 Liking and disliking: ‘I like.., I love…, I enjoy…, I´m fond of…, I´m keen on…, I
don´t like…, I dislike…, I hate…, I can´t stand/bear…, I´m fed up with…, 
 Indifference: ‘I don´t mind…., I don´t care!’
 Preference: ‘I prefer (reading to watching TV, to read rather than watch TV,
reading rather than watching TV), I´d prefer to …rather than…. ‘
 Hope: ‘I hope …will…on time, I hope to see you soon, I am/was hoping that…
Hopefully….’.
 

4. Teaching and learning vocabulary.

4.1. The principles of teaching and learning vocabulary.
The teacher has the job of managing the learning that the learner can do. These
are some of the aspects a teacher should consider when teaching vocabulary:
a) Aims
b) Quantity
c) Need
d) Frequent exposure and repetition
e) Meaningful presentation
f) Situation presentation
g) Presentation in context
h) Learning vocabulary in the mother tongue and in the target language
i) Infer (‘guessing’)
j) Grouping words together
 

4.2. Presenting vocabulary.

When introducing vocabulary, it should ideally be presented in a context which is
familiar to the child. Visual support is very important to help convey the meaning
and to help pupils memorize new words. Research has shown that words are often
remembered in groups which have something in common. This technique will help
pupils associate new words with the words they already know and can aid retention
and recall. 
Here are some other techniques that can be used to introduce new vocabulary.
1. Realia
1. Pictures
1. Mime, action and gesture
1. Ussing opposites
1. Guessing from context
 

4.3. Practising and checking vocabulary.

Once a new word has been introduced, you will want to provide your pupils with
opportunities to practise it and check that they understand it. There are a variety of
activities you can do:
1. What´s missing? : put words or pictures of words on the board. Ask pupils to
close their eyes. Remove an item from the board. Pupils open their eyes and tell
you what is missing. 
2. Kim´s game: this works in the same way as above, but traditionally   objects are
used and displayed on a tray or a table.
3. Matching words to pictures: pupils match words to the corresponding picture.
 
4.4. Consolidating vocabulary.
1. Picture dictionaries / vocabulary books
2. Word families / sets
3. Vocabulary cards
4. Collages
5. Researching
 

4. 5. Teaching Vocabulary through Technology

Let students use multimedia to show vocabulary knowledge. Let students
show off their vocabulary knowledge creating a podcast or a short video explaining
the meaning of new words. Students could create powerpoint slides with a picture
that they caption to show the meaning of a word.
 
 

5. CONCLUSION.
In this unit we have given a general view of the main aspects which form the lexical
and semantic fields. We can state that English vocabulary is complex, with three
main aspects related to form, meaning and use. 
When teaching vocabulary, we have to pay attention to not only the meaning of
words, but to their relationship with other words and the appropriate use of them in
each situation.
To learn vocabulary better, students need to understand the word meaning in
context and how words are used. As we have stated, this can be achieved, through
correct vocabulary instruction which should involve vocabulary selection, word
knowledge and techniques. 
We have to consider the age, the knowledge and needs of our students to teach
them the appropriate lexical items. 
Using the appropriate techniques will give our students the opportunity to become
independent and will allow them to activate their previous knowledge in working
with words by themselves. In addition, they will feel more confident when trying to
express themselves in English, because they have already grasped a lot
of  vocabulary  and  at the same time, we will contribute to develop the autonomous
learning competence.
Finally, as Ur (2012) aptly stated, unlike grammar, ‘lexical items . . .are an open
set, constantly being added to (and lost, as archaic words gradually go out of use)’
(p. 3) Perhaps this situation is most evident with computer-related vocabulary, such
as the Internet, e-mail, and Web browser. This means that teachers and students
alike need to be in the habit of learning vocabulary constantly.  
 

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 BOE, 1 de marzo de 2014, Real Decreto 126/2014, de 28 de febrero, por el que
se establece el currículo básico de la Educación Primaria.
 Dalton, B. & Grisham, D. “eVoc Strategies: 10 Ways to Use Technology to Build
Vocabulary.” The Reading Teacher, 64.5 (2011), pp. 306-317.
 Judie Haynes, “Vocabulary Instruction for English Language
Learners”,  www.everything ESL.net 1998-2008.
TEMA 12. Elementos esenciales de
morfosintaxis de la lengua inglesa.
Estructuras comunicativas elementales. Uso
progresivo de las categorías gramaticales en
las producciones orales y escritas para
mejorar la comunicación.
Esquema:
1.- Introduction
2.- Main elements of morphosyntax.
2.1 The morpheme.
2.2 The word.
2.3 The sentence.
3.- Main communicativestructures.
3.1 Sentences and their grammatical form.
3.2 Sentences and their functions in communication.
3.3 Sentences and pragmatics.
4.- Progressive use of grammar categories in the oral and written
communicativeproduction.
4.1. Communicative competence.
4.2. The role of grammar in language teaching.
4.3. Grammar and methodology.
4.3.1 Deductive and inductive approaches.
4.3.2Declarative / Procedural knowledge.
4.4.Grammar activities.
5.- Conclusion.
6.- Bibliography.
 
 

1.- introduction.
It is difficult to capture the central role played by grammar in the structure of
language. Two steps can usually be distinguished in the study of grammar. The first
step is to identify units in the stream of speech (or writing)-units such as ‘word’ and
‘sentence’. The second step is to analyse the patterns into which these units fall,
and the relationships of meaning that these patterns convey.
Chomsky 81928), writes that grammar is a ‘device of some sort for producing the
sentences of the language under analysis’. Chomsky, subsumes all aspects of
sentence patterning, including phonology and semantic, and introduces the term
“syntax”.
In this unit, first we are going to see the basic units that constitute the language and
their relation in the acquisition of communicative structures. Finally we will discuss
how to teach and learn grammar and its importance in the acquisition of the
communicative competence.
 
 

2.- main elements of morphosyntax.

The range of constructions that is studied by grammar is very large, and
grammarians have often divided it into sub-fields. The oldest and most widely-used
division is that between morphology and syntax.
 Morphology: studies the structure of words (morphemes)
 Syntax: is the way in which words are arranged to show relationships of
meaning within or between sentences. The most basic units of syntax are the
word and the sentence.
 

2.1 The morpheme.

Is the minimal unit of grammatical description in the sense that it cannot be
segmented any further at the grammatical level of analysis. E.g. “unfriendly” is
composed of three morphemes: ’un-friend-ly’.
We can distinguish two kind of morphemes:
1.
1. ‘free morpheme’: the one that can be used independently (e.g.”- friend”).
2. ‘bound morpheme’: it has to go attached to a free morpheme (e.g.” un– and-
ly’). Bound morphemes are called “affixes
 

2.2 The word.

Words are usually the easiest units to identify, in the written language that sit
uneasily at the boundary between morphology and syntax. The concept
of ‘word’ ranges from a single sound as English ‘a’ to a complex form, equivalent to
whole sentences (‘playamunurringkutjamunurtu’ (‘he/she did not become bad’) in
the Western Desert of Australia). In speech it is difficult to ‘hear’ the spaces
between words.
We classify words into word classes that share a number of properties. We
distinguish between:
Open classes: they allow the addition of new members. There are four major word
classes: nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs.
1.
1. Nouns
1.
1. Adjectives
1.
1. Adverbs
1.
1. Verbs
 

2.3 The phrase

The parts into which a sentence can be segmented are the constituents of the
sentence. Although constituents can be regarded as elements that play a role in
larger structures we can also look upon them as linguistic units in their own right. If
we look at these elements as independent linguistic objects that have their own
characteristics (such as their own internal structure), we call them phrases.
Phrases do not resemble sentences (John, took or a walk are not sentences),
although it is their natural function to serve as constituents of sentences. Phrases
may consist of single words (John, took) or of more words (young John)
 

2.4 The sentence.

The sentence is regarded as the largest unit of grammatical description since it
does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself. To treat the sentence
as the highest unit implies that we do not take into account larger stretches of
language such as paragraphs and texts.
 
 

3.- Main communicative structures.

We cannot communicate if we do not know how to form and understand sentences.
We also need to know the meaning of a sentence in a particular context. We will
study sentences and their grammatical form, sentences and their function in
communication and sentences and pragmatics.
 

3.1 Sentences and their grammatical form.

This classification comprises four types: declaratives sentences, interrogative
sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences.
 Declarative sentences: always have a subject, which precedes the verb.
 Interrogative sentences: contain a subject and open with an auxiliary verb or a
WH-word.
 Imperative sentences: contain a verb in the imperative mood. If a subject is
present it is usually “you”, but as a rule the subject is lacking.
 Exclamatory sentences: the subject precedes the verb. They are introduced
byhow or what.
 

3.2 Sentences and their function in communication.

Declarative sentences are chiefly used to make statements, interrogative
sentences to ask questions, imperative sentences to give commands and
exclamatory sentences to make exclamations.
 

3.3 Sentences and pragmatics.

Language is for communication. In a dialogue we can distinguish various types of
communicative acts, or illocutionary acts, by which people communicate with each
other (making statements, asking questions, giving directives with the aim of getting
the hearer to carry out some action, making an offer or promise, thanking or
expressing exclamation).
 

4.- Progressive use of grammar categories in the oral and

written communicative production.
It is difficult to give any complete definition of grammar as people have different
views of where the parameters lie. Here are some definitions:
 In ‘An English Grammar for the Use of Schools’ (1856) grammar is described
as: ‘that science which teaches the proper use of letters, syllables, words, and
sentences; or which treats the principles and rules of spoken and written
language’.
 Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The
more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and
effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster
precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in
English. (David Crystal, “In Word and Deed,” TES Teacher, April 30, 2004)
 

4.1 Communicative competence.

Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a learner’s L2
ability. It not only refers to a learner’s ability to apply and use grammatical rules, but
also to form correct utterances, and know how to use these utterances
appropriately. The term unlies the view of language learning implicit in the
communicative approach to language teaching.
 Chomsky (1965)
 Michaele Canale and Merrill Swain (1980) and later Van Ek (1986)
 

4.2 The role of grammar in language teaching.

During the height of the whole language movement, when teaching grammar in
isolation became taboo, many teachers were left frustrated and baffled by the lack
of grammar instruction in the classroom. These teachers embraced the notion
of prescriptive(also called traditional or school) grammar. Grammar was taught as
a discrete set of rigid rules to be memorized, practiced, and followed.
English teachers of later generations, on the other hand, joined the profession
embracing ideas of descriptive(also called transformational) grammar. These
teachers believed that grammar instruction should be matched to the purpose of
the user. Teachers found descriptive grammar theories to be more flexible,
reflecting actual usage and self-expression over “correct” structures.
 

4.3. Grammar and methodology.

4.3.1 Deductive and inductive approaches.
4.3.2 Declarative / Procedural knowledge.
 
4.4 Grammar activities.
In any language classroom, there must be a balance between the focus on specific
areas of grammar and the development of communicative competence.
Teachers can use the Larsen-Freeman pie chart as a guide for developing
grammar activities. For curricula that follow a sequence of topics, instructors need
to develop activities that relate the topical discourse (use) to meaning and form.

5.- CONCLUSION
In this unit we have seen the basic elements of morpho-syntax and the main
communicative structures. We have also got a general knowledge of the basic
elements that constitute a sentence, and how these sentences combine to convey
meaning.
We have seen that in order to reach the “communicative competence” apart from
the language itself, we have to contemplate other elements  such as the attitude of
the speaker and listener and the context. 
Taking Canale and Swain’s (1980) model of communicative competence, which
views grammatical competence as one component of communicative competence,
we can say that grammar instruction is part of language teaching. In this new role,
grammar interacts with meaning, social function, or discourse-or a combination of
these-rather than standing alone as an autonomous system to be learned for its
own sake. 
When deciding on grammar tasks, it is necessary to think of activities that involve
the learners, activities that promote communication and at the same time direct
them to a greater awareness of how language is used.
Appropriate language use requires a  knowledge of both the form and the functions
of a language. Children should therefore be provided with opportunities from an
early stage to use grammatical structures for real communicative purposes. This
will make language learning much more meaningful and motivating.
Fotos, S (2005) says: “[I]t is time to take the position that a combination of
grammar instruction and the use of communicative activities provide an optimum
situation for effective L2 learning” That simple statement addresses what is actually
happening in our field: large numbers of practitioners and academics can currently
be seen to be in accord that a focus on grammar plays a positive role in second
language instruction and that grammar teaching and communicative teaching  are
mutually supportive, not mutually exclusive. So we can do both!
 

6.- BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, CUP. Cambridge, 1987.
 Glencoe/McGraw-Hill,  1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York,
10020.Copyright © 2000-2005 .
 (Ronald Carter and Michael McCarthy, Cambridge Grammar of English: A
Comprehensive Guide. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)
 Fotos, S. (2005). Traditional and grammar translation methods for second
language teaching. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second
language teaching and learning (pp. 653-670). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates. 
TEMA 13. Historia de la evolución de la
didáctica de las lenguas extranjeras: de los
métodos de gramática-traducción a los
enfoques actuales.
Contents
1. Introduction.
2. History of the evolution of language teaching.
3. From the grammar-translation method to current approaches.
1.
1. Grammar-translation
2. The Direct method
3. The oral approach
4. Audiolingual method
5. Humanistic approaches
1.
1.
1. Suggestopedia
2. The silent way
3. Communicative language learning
4. Natural approach
5. Language from within
6. Delayed oral practice
7. Total physical response
 
6. Communicative Language Teaching Approach
7. The eclectic approach.
8. Succesful language learning.
9. Content and language integrated learning (CLIL)
4. Teaching English with the New Technologies.
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
 
 

1. Introduction
In the long search for the best way of teaching a foreign language, hundreds of
different approaches, or methods, have been devised. 
Several classifications of teaching methods have been made, in an attempt to
impose some degree of order on what is a highly diverse and idiosincratic field.
Some analysts make use of the fundamental distinction between language
structure (form) and language use (function). Under the first heading, they include
those methods that focus on the teaching of formal rules and categories, and that
emphasize the importance of accurate written translation and the understanding of
literature. Under the second heading, they include methods that lay stress on the
teaching of active participation in natural and realistic spoken language settings,
and where the emphasis is on communicative success rather than on formal
accuracy. Many approaches are biased in one or the other direction, though it is
also common to find approaches that claim to integrate the strengths of both
positions.
Since the 1940s, the definitive solution to successful ESL instruction has been
discovered many times. There is always another tried-and-true methodology from
yet another expert theorist who may or may not have had first-hand experience
learning a second language.
In this unit we will see the history and evolution of different methods in language
teaching and its main characteristics. We will focus in a deeper detail on the
Communicative approach, the method that is being more used in teaching   foreign
languages at the moment and we will see the importance of teaching English with
the new technologies.
 
 

2. History of the evolution of language teaching

All the different methods used to teach languages have a solid linguistic support
behind. Throughout the history language has been an object of fascination and a
subject of serious enquiry for over 2,000 years.
During the Greek times, the focus was entirely on the written language. 
The Romans followed Greek precedents. However, they introduced the
codification of Latin grammar under the headings of etymology, morphology and
syntax. This model of grammatical description became the basis of language
teaching in the middle ages and the Renaissance. In due course, this model
became the ‘traditional’ approach to grammar.
Very little is known about the development of linguistic ideas in Europe during
the ‘Dark Ages’ (The Middle Ages)
 
 

3. From the grammar-translation to the  communicative

approach.
3.1. The grammar-translation method.
The grammar-translation method was the dominant foreign language teaching
method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s.
Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target
language.
 

3.2. The Direct method.

The Direct method, also called natural method, was established in Germany around
1900, and is best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and Sauveur in
America and by Gouin in Europe. It became very popular during the first quarter of
20th century. 
 

3.3. The Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching (Britain)

The Oral approach may seem to be very similar to the Direct method in that the
emphasis was on the spoken language, but it was based on a much more
systematic view of language. In the approach, there have been attempts to analyse
English and classify its major grammatical structures into sentence patterns. For
example: 
   He          did  it         because  I wanted     him    to.
   She         sold it         because  he told        her     to.
 
3.4. The Audio-lingual method (United States)
The Audio-Lingual method was developed in the United States during World War II.
At that time there was a need for people to learn foreign languages rapidly for
military purposes. It flourished between about 1950 and 1965.
 

3.5. Humanistic approaches.

Since the 1960, several fresh approaches to FLL have been devised, aiming to
provide a radical alternative to traditional methods. Cognitive psychologists and
transformational-generative linguists argued that people cannot learn a language
by repeating what they hear spoken around them.
 
3.5.1. Suggestopedia (Georgi Lozanov)
3.5.2. The silent way (Caleb Gattegno).
3.5.3. Community language learning (Charles A. Curran). 
3.5.4. Natural approach (Tracy D. Terrell 1983).
3.5.5. Language from within (Beverly Galyean).
3.5.6. Delayed oral practice (Valerian A. Postovsky)
3.5.7. Total physical response (James J. Asher)
 

3.6. The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or

Communicative Approach.
According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) starts with a theory of language as
communication. The classroom goal of instruction is focused on
developing learners’ communicative competence. Thus, learners
are encouraged to communicate with target language through
interaction from the beginning of instruction.
 

3.7. The eclectic approach.

In the words of Rivers (1981), the eclectic approach must be included on language
teaching theory due to its prominence on our present educational system. For her,
some teachers experiment with novel techniques for more successful teaching,
retaining what they know from experience to be effective. 
 

3. 8. Succesful Language Learning.

There is as yet no single theory that can account for the diversity of FLL (Foreign
Language Learning) behaviour, and explain why some learners succed in their
task, whereas others fail. 
 

3.9 Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) 

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) involves teaching a curricular
subject through the medium of a language other than that normally used. The
subject can be entirely unrelated to language learning, such as History or Science
lessons being taught in English in a school in Spain, France…
 
 

4. Teaching english with the new technologies

As English teachers, we’re almost always on the lookout for new and interesting
ways to stimulate our language learners. With the developing technologies in the
first decade of the 21st century, internet has opened limitless possibilities for us to
use it in education. New and different activities out of the norm,  allow improved
learning on the part of students and also lower learner “affective filters”(Krashen-
Terrel, 1983).With the internet, we  have gained an entry to  limitless storage of
videos, music, slides related to English teaching (blogging, wikis, podcasting, digital
storytelling etc.)
 
 

5. Conclusion
On revising the literature on language teaching theories, it is possible to get a
sense of the wide range of proposals from the 1700’s to the present, with their
weaknesses and strengths, from grammar-based methods to more natural
approaches, including the Communicative approach. There is still present a
constant preoccupation for teachers and linguists to find more efficient and effective
ways of teaching languages. 
What’s now, what’s next? The future is always uncertain when anticipating
methodological directions in second language teaching, although applied linguistic
journals assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends within a
communicative approach.  They are linked to present concerns on education, and
they reflect current trends of language curriculum development at the level of
cognitive strategies, literature, grammar, phonetics or technological innovative
methods. The Internet Age anticipates the development of teaching and learning in
instructional settings by means of an on-line collaboration system, perhaps via on-
line computer networks or other technological resources. We have already seen
how the use of ICT facilitates the teaching and learning of the second language.
The contemporary attitude is flexible and utilitarian: it is recognized that there are
several ways of reaching the goal of FL competence, and that teachers need to be
aware of a range of methods, in order to find the one most appropriate to the
learner´s needs and circumstances, and to the objectives of the course. It is
frequently necessary to introduce an eclectic approach, in which aspects of
different methods are selected to meet the demands of particular teaching
situations.
 As teachers, our primary responsability to our learners is to give them a new tool
with which to communicate and to experience hitherto unknown areas of life. As
Waldemar Marton (1987:15) says ‘we should also remember that in real life, where
the time, energy, and finacial resources of our learners are limited, language
teaching has to meet the criterion of efficiency’.
Finally, fostering intercultural communicative competence is one of the challenges
facing education in the globalised world of the 21st century. The integrative nature
of CLIL classes provides an opportunity for taking not only a dual-focussed but
a triple-focussed approach: simultaneously combining foreign language learning,
content subject learning and intercultural learning as described in the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages.
 
 

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 BOE, 1 de marzo de 2014,Real Decreto 126/2014, de 28 de febrero, por el que
se establece el currículo básico de la Educación Primaria.
 Gabriel Díaz Maggioli, M.A. 14th March 2009.
 Comparison two method direct method and
communicative approach hadirukiyah2.blogspot.com/…/comparison-two-meth 
2009.
 Chapelle, C. and Jamieson, J. (2008) Tips for teaching with CALL: Practical
Approaches to Computer-Assisted Language Learning. White Plains, NY:
Pearson Longman.
 Dudeney, G. and Hockly, N. (2007) How to teach English with
Technology. Harlow: Pearson Longman
 Simkins, M., Cole, K., Tavalin, F. and Means, B. (2002) Increasing Student
Learning with Multimedia Projects. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
TEMA 14. Métodos y técnicas enfocadas a la
adquisición de competencias comunicativas.
Fundamentos metodológicos específicos de la
enseñanza del inglés.
Contents
1. Introduction.
2. Specific Methodological foundations for teaching English
2.1.Approach
2.2.Design
2.3.Procedure
3. Methods and techniques focused on the acquisition of communicative
competences.
3.1.Communicative competence.
3.2.Communicative language teaching.
1.
1.
1. Types oflearning and teaching activities.
2. Teacher-student role.
3. The role of instructional materials.
4. Procedure.
3.3. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
4. Conclusion.
5. Bibliography.
 
 

1. Introduction 
Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected
recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners needs, such as a move
toward oral proficiency rather than reading comprehension as the goal of language
study; they have also reflected changes in theories of the nature of language and of
language learning. All these approaches differ one from other according to their
underlying theories of language and language learning; the learning objectives, the
syllabus model used, the roles of the teacher, learners, and materials within the
method or approach; and the classroom procedures and techniques that the
method uses.
Within this unit we will see the theory behind any method in language teaching, and
then we will focus on the Communicative Language Teaching. We will also talk
about CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), a new approach where
the learner learns new contents using the foreign language.
 
 

2. Specific methodological foundations for teaching

english
When linguists and language specialists thought to improve the quality of language
teaching in the late nineteenth century, they often did so by referring to general
principles and theories concerning how languages are learned, how knowledge of
language is represented and organized in memory, or how language itself is
structured.
In describing methods, the difference between a philosophy of language teaching
at the level of theory and principles, and a set of derived procedures for teaching a
language, is central. In an attempt to clarify this difference, a scheme was proposed
by the American applied linguist Edward Anthony in 1963. He identified three
levels of conceptualization and organization, which he termed approach, method,
and technique
 

2.1. Approach          
Approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning
that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. At the
level of approach there are two components; 
1. the theory of language 
2. the theory of language learning. 
 
a) Theory of language: Richards and Rodgers (1986) describe three theoretical
views of the theory of language:  the structural, functional and interactional. 
b.) Theory of language learning: A learning theory responds to two aspects: the
psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning and the
conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated.
 

2.2. Design
In order for an approach to lead to a method, it is necessary to develop a
design. Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider the objectives,
the content of the syllabus, the types of learning and teaching activities, the role of
the learners, the role of the teachers, and the role of the materials. 
 

2.3. Procedure
Procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and
feedback phases of teaching. E.g. in the Silent Way:
 The teacher points at meaningless symbols on a wall chart.
 After the students can pronounce the sounds, the teacher leads the students to
pronounce long numbers.
 The teacher uses colored rods and gestures.
In conclusion, any teaching method can be described in terms of the issues
identified here at the levels of approach, design, and procedure.
 
 

3. Methods and techniques focused in the acquisition of

communicative competences.      
The method, or approach, that is considered most useful and suitable for  
the  attainment of Communicative Competence, is CLT (Communicative 
Language Teaching) which I will describe. But first, we will define the 
Communicative competence.
 

3.1. Communicative competence.

Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a learner’s L2
ability. It not only refers to a learner’s ability to apply and use grammatical rules, but
also to form correct utterances, and know how to use these utterances
appropriately. The term unlies the view of language learning implicit in the
communicatiave pproach to language teaching.The term was first coined by Dell
Hymes (1967, 1972).
 

3.2. Communicative Language Teaching.

The origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) are to be found in the
changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s. 
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a
method, which starts from a theory of language as communication. Thus although a
reasonable degree of theoretical consistency can be discerned at the levels of
language and learning theory, at the levels of design and procedure there is much
greater room for individual interpretation and variation than most methods permit.
The CLT aims to (a) make communicative competence the goal of language
teaching and (b) develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills
that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. 
 
3.2.1. Types of learning and teaching activities.
3.2.2. Teacher –student role
3.2.3 .The role of instructional materials.
3.2.4. Procedure
 

3.3. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) involves teaching a curricular
subject through the medium of a language other than that normally used. The
subject can be entirely unrelated to language learning, such as history lessons
being taught in English in a school in Spain. CLIL is taking place and has been
found to be effective in all sectors of education from primary through to adult and
higher education. Its success has been growing over the past 10 years and
continues to do so.
Teachers working with CLIL are specialists in their own discipline rather than
traditional language teachers. They are usually fluent speakers of the target
language, bilingual or native speakers. The key issue is that the learner is gaining
new knowledge about the ‘non-language’ subject while encountering, using and
learning the foreign language. Ideally, the dual-focussed nature of CLIL-
programmes fosters per se the usage of the foreign language as a tool to
communicate and work on content matter; as such, students utilise the foreign
language in a functional as well as authentic way and deal with the tasks and
problems the subject raises.
 
 

4. Conclusion
In this unit we have seen the basis of any approach to the English 
language teaching and the most important aspects of the Communicative
Language Teaching, the most useful method for the attatinment of the
Commuicative Competence.
 All the methods differ in the way they address fundamental mehodological issues
such as the syllabus, the objectives, and the type of teaching and learning
activities. 
Nowdays, the Communicative approach is the one more used in our schools to
teach English as a foreign language. Even though it is probably the approach that
offers the best possibilities to achieve the communicative competence, we should
not forget that when applying a method we should take into consideration the real
situation and needs of our students. Any changes we make we should always
consider variety and change of techniques when necessary. 
However, there is not a perfect method. We as teachers should have a knowledge
and a criteria by which to critically read, question and observe methods. All
methods have the need for evaluation and research. It is important to become
informed about the nature, strengths, and weaknesses of them so we can better
arrive at our own judgments and decisions.
 
 

5. Bibliography
 BOE, 1 de marzo de 2014, Real Decreto 126/2014, de 28 de febrero, por el que
se establece el currículo básico de la Educación Primaria.
 European Commission Languages Language-teaching, 2012.
 CLIL and Intercultural Communicative Competence : Foundations and
Approaches towards a Fusion ,Julian Sudhoff (2010), University of Duisburg-
Essen (Germany)
 Language Teaching: Some Notes on Method  By Peter McKenzie-Brown, 2006
 The University of British Columbia (2000). Retrieved December 10, 2000, from
the World Wide Web: http://itesm.cstudies.ubc.ca/561g/canada/main.html 
TEMA 16. La literatura infantil en lengua
inglesa. Técnicas de aplicación didáctica para
acceder a la comprensión oral, iniciar y
potenciar hábitos lectores y sensibilizar en la
función poética del lenguaje.
Contents
1.- Introduction
2.- English literature for children.
2.1. Main reasons to use literature in the English class.
2.2. .- Different reading materials
2.2.1.- Reading cards
2.2.2- Home-made books
2.2.3.- Books for native speakers of the language
2.2.4.- Easy readers for foreign language learners
2.2.5.- Picture dictionaries
2.2.6 -Books with tapes
2.2.7.- Magazines
2.2.8 – Comics
2.2.9- Children’s literature in English
a.- Fairy tales and animals tales
b.- Fantastic literature, travels and adventure    
                              literature.
3.- Didactic techniques to access oral comprehension, to initiate and enhance
reading habits and to develop sensitivity towards the poetic function of language. 
3.1. Access to oral comprehension
 3.1.1.Listen and repeat activities
3.1.1.a.- Rhymes
3.1.1.b.- Playing with language
3.1.2.- Listening to stories
3.1.2.a.- Whole class listening
3.1.2.b.- Independent listening
3.1.3.- Telling stories, chants or poems
3.1.3.a- Traditional fairy tales
3.1.3.b.- Your own stories
3.1.3.c.- Children’s stories
3.2.- Initiate and enhance reading habits.
3.2.1.- Reading to children
3.2.1.a.- Reading stories
* – Introducing new books
* – After reading activities
3.2.1.b.- Reading a class story
3.2.1.c- Reading familiar nursery rhymes or songs
3.2.2.- Reading techniques
3.2.2.a.- Reading aloud
3.2.2.b- Silent reading
3.3.- Develop sensitivity towards the poetic function of language.
3.3.1.- The poetic function of language
3.3.2.- How to develop sensitivity towards poetry
4.- Conclusion
5.- Bibliography

1.- INTRODUCTION
Literature uses language, but a very especial language. While usual language is a
normal way of social communication and it can be used for many different
functions, literature has other objectives. The author does not write in order to
establish a personal communication with a particular reader, the reader is a silent
interlocutor who just analyse the text. Finally, the language is not as natural and
spontaneous as in an every day conversation. Literary language is directed towards
sensibility, and it is clear, extremely expressive and accurate. Poetic language is
even much richer than other kinds of literary languages. In the other hand colloquial
language is vague, spontaneous and reflects the speaker’s personal conditions.
Our main interest in literature is not only the quality of the language used but also
the analysis of the world that the literary piece involves. A literary text always
represents a rich experience that allows the reader to observe the world from a new
point of view. It can also provide a new knowledge about human beings. The
description of the characters and their environment helps the reader to understand
not only the others but himself or herself.
Literature is also going to help children to develop reading habits. The Ministry of
Education and its Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education
(LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013  and the Royal
Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary 2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education, both reinforce the importance of reading. The Royal Decree article 7
defines the objectives for Primary Education. Objective E says “…develop reading
habits”. Reading is an essential tool to develop basic competences. Therefore,
schools and teachers should establish a daily reading time in their mother tongue in
every Primary level. Reading in English should also have a great importance in our
lesson planning. Through the introduction of literary texts, adapted to the level, we
will face our students with language models  that  represent excellence in the use
of the language. 
In this theme I will define main reasons to use literature in the English class and
different texts to be used. Then I will define different techniques to make the most
of literature in our classes. 

2.- English literature for children

2.1. Main reasons to use literature in class
Why should we use literature –stories, rhymes or drama- in the English class?
There are many different reasons:
 Stories normally include elements that children are already familiar with in their
mother tongue, so they know what to expect.
 The use of illustrations, gestures, mime, etc. helps with understanding of both
global and specific information.
 Repetition means children have plenty of opportunities to understand the key
information. Also children’s desire to listen to the same stories again and again
allows for language reinforcement.
 

2.2.- Different reading materials

Once our pupils are on the road to reading, it is important that there is as wide
choice of reading materials available for them to use.
 
2.2.1.- Reading cards
2.2.2.- Home-made books
2.2.3.- Books for native speakers of the language
2.2.4.- Easy readers for foreign language learners.
2.2.5.- Picture dictionaries
2.2.6.- Books with audio CD
2.2.7.- Magazines
2.2.8.- Comics
2.2.9.- Children’s literature in English
  

3.- Didactic techniques to access oral comprehension,

initiate and enhance reading habits and develop sensitivity
towards the poetic function of language. 
3.1. Access to oral comprehension
3.1.1. Listen and repeat activities
3.1.1.a.- Rhymes
3.1.1.b.- Playing with language
3.1.2.- Listening to stories
3.1.2.a.- Whole class listening
3.1.2.b.- Independent listening
3.1.3.- Telling stories, chants or poems
3.1.3.a- Traditional fairy tales
3.1.3.b.- Your own stories
3.1.3.c.- Children’s stories
 

3.2.- Initiate and enhance reading habits.

3.2.1.- Reading to children
3.2.1.a.- Reading stories
3.2.1.b.- Reading a class story
3.2.1.c- Reading familiar nursery rhymes or songs
3.2.2.- Reading techniques
3.2.2.a.- Reading aloud
3.2.2.b- Silent reading
 

3.3.- Develop sensitivity towards the poetic function of language.

3.3.1.- The poetic function of language
3.3.2.- How to develop sensitivity towards poetry
 

4.- Conclusion
Stories and other literary pieces provide opportunities for exposure to
language in enjoyable motivating contexts in which children’s previous learning is
both enriched an extended. The stories normally used in the English class are
based on themes which are common in children’s literature and which have
a universal appeal to children. They are written using narrative structures familiar in
children’s stories designed to maximise participation through guessing or repetition
and to develop key skills like predicting and hypothesising. 
In addition to developing children’s imagination, stories and poems are frequently a
way of making links between English and other areas of learning or a springboard
into children being able to explore and express their own views, attitudes and
feelings. 
Finally, by using literature in the English class we will also help our students to
develop reading habits, one of the main objectives to work on according to LOMCE.

5.- Bibliography
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Royal Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary
2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary Education,
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA. Guía de recursos didácticos.
Lenguas extranjeras.1994
 EKMAN,L. PETERSON,L. AND SODERLUND,K. Up to you Plus book
1.Aschehough. 1982, Norway.
 WENDY,A. SCOTT AND LISBETH H. YTREBERG. Teaching English to
children. Longman. 1990.
 BESTARD MONROIG Y PÉREZ MARTÍN. La didáctica de la lengua inglesa.
Edi-6. Madrid 1982.
 LOBO, Mª JOSÉ Y SUBIRÁ, PEPITA. Super Bus 1. Teacher’s resource pack.
Heinemann. 1999.
 READ, C & SOBERON, A. Wonderland. Heinemann. 1997
TEMA 17. La canción como vehículo poético y
como creación literaria en la clase de inglés.
Tipología de canciones. Técnicas del uso de la
canción para el aprendizaje fonético, lexical y
cultural.
Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Songs as a poetic vehicle and a literary creation in the English class.
2.1.- Motivation.
2.2.- Linguistic advantages.
2.3.- Discovering another culture.
3. Different kind of songs.
3.1. Chants.
3.2. Traditional songs.
3.3. Pop songs.
3.4. Specially written songs for English learners.
3.5. Action songs
4.Techniques to use songs for the learning of phonetics, vocabulary and culture.
4.1- How to choose the right song.
4.2- Exploiting songs.
4.2.1. Activities to introduce songs and get the most of them.
a- How to introduce a song
b- When to use songs
c- Procedure to use action songs
d- Procedure to use chants
e- Follow-up activities
4.2.2 Avoiding some possible problems.
5. Conclusion.
6. Bibliography.
 
 
1.-Introduction
The Ministry of Education and its Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013and the Royal
Decree 126/2014,28thFebruary 2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education, both provide guidelines to developed basic objectives, contents and
methodological approaches for the teaching of English. Songs will help us teachers
to reach these objectives and teach English successfully.
According to the Law, children should develop a communicative competence in at
least a foreign language at the end of their compulsory schooling. Therefore the
principal aim of learning English is to communicate orally and in writing. This
includes different aspects such as recognition and reproduction of the English
sounds and intonation, understanding of the vocabulary related to the children’s
world, use of grammatical structures, etc. With songs we will work all these
aspects.
Learning a foreign language also implies an important aim which is
discovering another culture and developing a curiosity, understanding and respect
about it. Using songs will help us to accomplish these objectives and help children
to develop some of the seven competences described in LOMCE, such as
the linguistic competence, the social and citizen competence and the cultural
awareness and expression. We will also help to develop the digital
competence when using songs downloaded from internet, or shown in a video clip
or used with a karaoke, etc.
The Royal Decree also states that children will learn English in a natural way and
so we need to use an active and playful methodology that keep children’s interest
and make them participate in their learning process. Teachers should therefore use
the appropriate materials and activities related to children’s interest and own world.
Music and rhythm make things much easier to imitate and remember
language than words which are just spoken. This is the reason why children learn
much of their basic mother tongue in songs, rhymes or chants which contains
relatively uncontrolled language. When you teach children a song, it remains in
their memory. Therefore, foreign language learners should experience English in
much the same way.
LOMCEand the Royal Decree also adds that teachers have to take into account the
different paces in children’s development (mixed ability) not only in the Primary
Stage, but also in the Infant Stage where English should be introduced. Songs will
definitively help us teachers to cover different learning paces and interests and they
are essential in the Infant classes where singing is highly motivating for young kids.
In this unit I am going to explain why songs should be used in the English class,
then I will define different kinds of songs and finally I will present some important
techniques to take into account when using songs.
 
 

2. Songs as a poetic vehicle and a literary creation in the

english class.
Songs are poems with music. Songs have got rhythm, rime, and provide beauty
and fun. Songs can introduce children in different worlds and emotions. That is why
songs are a poetic vehicle.
 
2.1.- Motivation.
Children love singing. Songs provide enjoyable opportunities to acquire features of
English pronunciation with no great difficulty. When words are linked to rhythm and
music they have more emotive and personal significance and that is why they
are remembered better. Children will be happy repeating the same structures and
words, over and over again without getting bored.
 

2.2.- Linguistic advantages.

Songs reinforce language. They can be used to introduce and practice individual
sounds, stress and rhythmic patterns, intonation, vocabulary, grammatical
structures, conversational exchanges and cultural aspects.
 

2.3.- Discovering another culture.

Songs introduce the culture of a country and help the students understand aspects
of a different culture.
In most cases, the songs used to teach English are specially written to tie in closely
with the topic of the unit and sung to tunes which are well-known or traditional in
British children’s culture. The combining of well-known or traditional tunes with new
or adapted words is a technique used very frequently in primary schools. This not
only fosters cultural familiarity with well-known children’s music, but in cases where
children already know the tunes, facilitates learning the songs.
 
 

3.- Different kind of songs.

3.1.- Chants.
A chant is like a song without music or a poem with a very marked rhythm. It is very
easy to turn ordinary language into chants. If you listen to children playing, very
often you will probably hear something like this: `na na na na , I’m better than you-
ou-ou´, chanted in a sing-song voice. Children find it quite natural to turn almost
anything into a chant. You can fit the words to any topic you are doing or you can
encourage the children to make up a little tune to a chant if they want to, and to
make  up new chants of their own.
 

3.2.- Traditional songs.

Sometimes they contain an obscure or old fashioned language which can be an
extra difficulty, but they do have the advantage of being part of English speaking
culture.
Listening and doing actions is the best way to exploit traditional songs where the
words are often difficult to understand. The actions keep the children interested and
give them a reason for listening.
 

3.3.- Pop songs.

Many English pop songs are well known, even to the youngest learners, especially
the theme songs to films or television series. Older children find working with
current pop songs highly motivating. Although the language can be difficult,
children  love using them in class. They enjoy working with popular songs so much
that they are willing to face up too difficult language, and will often sing along when
the song is played. 
 

3.4.- Specially written songs for English learners.

Another alternative is to use well-known tunes and put your own words to
them. Here is an example using the traditional French tune  `Frère Jacques´`.
In the garden, in the garden
I can see, I can see          
Butterflies and flowers, 
Butterflies and flowers,
Birds and trees,
Birds and trees.
 

3.5.- Action songs

The children do the actions as they listen to and sing songs. With action songs
children show understanding by responding non-verbally. When songs are
accompanied by drama, movement or actions they really help reinforce meaning,
aid memory and are fun for children to do. These songs can be sang or just mimed,
keeping the words and music in their minds. For example it is very easy to sing and
mime the famous song `Head and shoulders’ by touching the different parts of the
body that are mentioned. Then a good exercise is to touch the different parts but
keep in your mind the word and the rhythm of the song.
Head and shoulders               And eyes and ears 
Knees and toes, knees and toes      And mouth and nose
Head and shoulders                           Head and shoulders 
Knees and toes, knees and toes      Knees and toes, knees and toes
 
 

4.- Techniques to use songs for the learning of phonetics,

vocabulary and culture.
4.1- How to choose the right song.
You need to select the songs you use very carefully.  When choosing a pop song,
for example, you should pay special attention to these questions: Is the language
too difficult? Can you hear the words?  Is the singer’s voice clear enough? Is the
subject-matter suitable?
Songs are easily learnt if they immediately catch the learner’s interest. Any new
song should, therefore, be simple enough in vocabulary and structure for the
learners to understand. It must be appropriate to their age level and it must
be relevant to their experiences and interest.
 

4.2.- Exploiting songs.

4.2.1.- Activities to introduce songs and get the most of them.
 

4.3.- Avoiding some possible problems.

It is better not try to do too much in one session. The first couple of times, you can
play the song and sing it once or twice and encourage the children to join in. There
will always be some children who do not sing and it is not advisable to insist on it. If
the song is catchy and simple enough, they will normally want to sing it.
 
 

6.- CONCLUSION.
As a conclusion I would like to say that songs are an excellent tool to be used in the
English class because of their motivational and linguistic advantages. Children will
enjoy singing and dancing and they will develop a sense of group by singing
together. They will develop creativity when using different techniques. They will
discover different worlds and emotions through songs. And in this way, they will
face poetry and literature. On the other hand, they will improve their communicative
competence through songs because they will repeat sounds, vocabulary and
structures by singing the same song.
Finally, by using songs in the English class, we will use that active, playful and
meaningful methodology that the Ministry of Education asks teachers to develop
and therefore help our students to achieve the communicative competence as well
as the social and citizen competence, the cultural awareness and expression and
the digital competence.
 
 

7. – BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Royal Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary
2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary Education,
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Guía documental: lenguas
extranjeras. Primaria. Madrid, 1993.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Orientaciones didácticas. Primaria.
Madrid, 1992.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Guía de recursos didácticos.
Lenguas extranjeras. Primaria. Madrid, 1994.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Orientaciones didácticas. Primaria.
Madrid, 1993.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Área de lenguas extranjeras.
Primaria. Madrid,1992.
 NUNAN,D. Language teaching methodology. Chapter VI. Mastering the sounds
of the language. Prentice hall. London,1991.
 MURPHY,T. Music and song. Oxford University Press.  Oxford,1992.
 GRAHAM,C.  Jazz Chants for children. Oxford University Press. The USA, 1979.
Tema 18. Funciones del juego y de la
creatividad en el aprendizaje de las lenguas
extranjeras. Definición y tipología de juegos
para el aprendizaje y perfeccionamiento
lingüístico. El juego como técnica ludo-
creativa de acceso a  la competencia
comunicativa en lengua extranjera.
Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Functions of games and creativity in the learning of foreign languages.
3. Definition and classification of games for linguistic learning and improvement.
4. Game as a playful and creative technique to access the linguistic competence.
5. Conclusion
 
 

1.- INTRODUCTION.
The final aim of English learning is to communicate in the foreign
language. Students should learn the four skills, understanding, reading, speaking
and writing, and they should also develop the different competences like
the linguistic competence or the cultural awareness and expression competence. 
The Ministry of Education and its Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013  and the Royal
Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary 2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education , both provide guidelines to developed basic objectives, contents and
methodological approaches for the teaching of English. The Royal Decree states
the main methodological approaches to be used in the English class: teachers
should use and active method, meaningful for the students using a child centred
approach, this is, taking into account children specific needs, likes, abilities and
personal conditions. On the other hand the increasing number of bilingual schools
implies the use of a wide variety of activities that will keep children interested during
every of the many hours of lessons taught in English. Games will contribute to this
variety.
In this unit, I am going to explain how games help students to communicate in
English and allow teachers to use and efficient tool that adjusts to those
methodological principles. First I will define functions of games and creativity in the
learning of foreign languages. Then I will suggest a definition and classification of
games for linguistic learning and improvement. Finally I will explain the use of
games as a playful and creative technique to access linguistic competence.
 
 

2. Functions of games and creativity in the learning of

foreign languages 
Games are defined as a form or spell of a play or sport, especially a competitive
one played according to rules and decided by skill, strength or luck. Creativity is the
action of invent, imaging or create. Creativity is one of the very important skills to
be developed in children so they can grow up happily and face different situations
in life successfully. Creativity is also deeply related to games since it is always
needed to play. In this section, I am going to explain different functions of games
and creativity, or, in other words, why we should use games and creativity in the
English class.
 
 

3. Definition and classification of games for the linguistic

learning and improving.
Games could be classified according to different criteria. But in general most of
them are designed to improve fluency or accuracy. Some activities promote
communicative language practice while others are much more mechanical in nature
and are based on memorisation of individual words.
Games based on fluency practice aim to set up contexts within the classroom that
encourage the children to use English for communication and create a need for
language exchange in order to complete the activity. The children are therefore
concentrating on completing the task rather than on the language itself. The
language expected of the children is, however, limited and is always clearly defined
by the context of the game. An example of fluency games are Guessing Games –
explained below.
 

3.1.-Forming groups games

These games can be used at the beginning of the school year or a term to set
groups for the rest of the year or term.
– Using ribbons
– Numbering
 

3.2.- Scoring games (motivating ways of scoring games and

quizzes)
– Football: You will need to make a large picture of a football on a card. Draw a
football pitch (or a basketball court, or whatever sport interests your class) on board
like this:
 

3.3.- Games inside the classroom

3.3.1.- Spelling games
3.3.2.- Oral  word games
3.3.3.- Happy families
3.3.4.- Board games
3.3.5.- Moving in class
 

3.4.- Games outside the classroom

– Handkerchief game
 
 

4. Game as a playful and creative technique to access

linguistic competence.
It is clear from the previous sections that many games can be used in class to
reach many different aims. However, games have to be carefully chosen,
introduced and played in the class to achieve our final aim, to develop the
communicative competence in English. In this section I will explain how to make the
most of games to teach English successfully.
 

4.1.- How to choose the right game

Games like any other activity or tool can be over exploited when used too much so
that the motivating element disappears rapidly. If, however, the teacher chooses
the game carefully, keeping in mind the interests and needs of the learners, games
can provide a valuable learning experience in which the children practise and
revise language in a meaningful way.
When choosing a game it is important to pay attention to these items:
 Aim of the game
 

4.2.- How to introduce games in class

Simple games use simple vocabulary, no complicated resources and are normally
played individually. Three steps should be enough to introduce this kind of games
in class:
 Explain the rules
 Demonstrate how to play – the teacher or some volunteers can be in charge of
the demonstration.
 Play
Complicated games use more complicated language, more sophisticated
resources and are normally played in groups. Therefore they need a longer
introduction:
 Reinforce key language
 Link game with previous activities i.e. stories, songs…
 Introduce the game
 

4.3.- Classroom organisation

Many games involve pair work and group work. Pair work and group work have the
advantage that learners are working simultaneously and, therefore, not only
is language practice time greatly increased, but children are less likely to become
bored or lose interest because they are actively involved.
Co-operation is also encouraged through pair work and group work, as learners will
learn to help each other. Some of the games require team work in which the
children pool together the information they have collected or learnt, so that stronger
learners will help weaker learners and the shy children also have the opportunity to
speak if they want to.
 

4.4.- Scoring
4.4.1.- Should children compete?
4.4.2.-Creative cheating
4.4.3.-Scoring systems
4.4.4.- Bribery
 

4.5.- Some problems and possible solutions

4.5.1.- Space and furniture
Some games, like card games, require a large working surface which is not always
available. This is easily remedied by storing large sheets of card board sideways up
in the corner of the classroom. These can then be brought out when needed and
laid on the top of small desks thus making much larger table tops. The children
then move their chairs to sit around the tables, or if this is not possible, the children
can stand around them to play.
 
4.5.2.-  Excitement and lack of attention
4.5.3.- Language control
4.5.4.- Different levels 
4.5.5.- Too much noise 
4.5.6.-Complicate rules
4.5.7.- Long preparation
4.5.8.- Playing properly and honestly 
 
 

5. CONCLUSION
As a conclusion I would like to say that games help children to acquire language in
the natural way that native speakers do. The language is used as a means to an
end rather than an end itself, and the children are motivated to learn because they
are enjoying themselves. Games also teach social skills such as co-operation,
obeying rules, competing without being aggressive or being a good `loser´.
Therefore, through games we will help our students to develop not only
the communicative competence but also the social and citizen competence, the
cultural awareness and expression competence and the digital competence when
using games downloaded from internet, computer games, etc.
There is a wide variety of games to be played in class and they will be an excellent
tool when used step by step, at the right time and with the right technique. When
the class is under the teacher’s control, games will enhance English learning and
personal development.
 
 
6.- BIBLIOGRAPHY
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Royal Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary
2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary Education,
 REILLY,V.& WARS,S. Very young learners. Oxford University Press.
Bristol,1999.
 PHILLIPS,S. Young learners. Oxford University Press. 1997.
 PAUL,D. Songs and Games for children. Heinemann. 1996.
 TOTH,M. Children’s  games. Heinemann. 1995.
 RIVERS, S. Tiny Talk. Oxford University Press. 1997
 TOMAS,L. & GIL,V. Super me 1. Teacher’s  resource book. Oxford University
Press. 1997.
 ASHWORTH,J.&CLARK,J. Playground games. Collins.1992
 ARGONDIZZO,C. Children in action: a resource book for language teachers of
young learners. Prentice Hall.1992
Webs
 http://gamestolearnenglish.com/
 http://learnenglishkids.britishcouncil.org/es/kids-games
 http://www.funenglishgames.com/
Tema 19. Técnicas de animación y expresión
como recurso para el aprendizaje de las
lenguas extranjeras. La dramatización de
situaciones de la vida cotidiana y la
representación de cuentos, personajes,
chistes, etc. El trabajo en grupo para las
actividades creativas. Papel del profesor.
Contents:
1.- Introduction
2.- Animation and expression techniques as a resource to be used in the foreign
language learning.
3.- Every day life dramatization and representation of tales, characters, jokes, etc.
3.1.- Non-verbal drama techniques
3.1.1.- Mime
3.1.2.- Total Physical Response
3.1.3.- Action stories
3.2.- Verbal drama techniques
3.2.1- Reasons to use drama and role-play
3.2.2- Puppets
3.2.3- Role-play and acting out stories
3.2.3.a.- Creating a context
3.2.3.b.- Topics for role-playing and performing
3.2.3.c.- Role-play and drama performing process
4.- Group work in creative activities.
4.1.- Group work
4.2.- Creative activities
5.- Teacher’s role
6.- Conclusion
7.- Bibliography
 
 
1.- INTRODUCTION 
In a manner of speaking, one could say that teachers are like actors, and vice
versa. Further, a corollary of the times in which we live is that students today are
generally regarded as creative performers in their own educational production.
Accordingly, it is understood that, as individuals, they also have something to
contribute, and will probably do so if they are given the operative tools with which to
express themselves more fully as well as the opportunity to perform. 
The Ministry of Education and its Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013  and the Royal
Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary 2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education, state that at the end of the compulsory stage, children should be able to
communicate in a foreign language.By using drama and creative activities we will
help children to develop not only the linguistic competence but also some of the
other competences defined in the Royal Decree, such as the social and citizen
competence or  the cultural awareness and expression competence. 
Therefore, pretend play and drama are important in a young child’s development,
and recent research has shown that the intervention of an adult in this play
can extend the interaction and enrich the language used. It follows that teachers
could make use of this natural phenomenon to encourage the use of a second
language. For example, you could tell a story and then encourage children to act
out and extend the story and then develop their fantasy play and vocabulary. 
This unit shows different drama techniques, from the simplest –which only need
non-verbal language- to the most complex-which use verbal language- . I will also
explain the importance of group work and creative activities and the teacher’s role.
 
 

2.- Animation and expression techniques as a resource to

be used in the foreign language learning.
As a method used in the general education process, drama-the art of acting- has
long been highly regarded in the United States, Britain, Canada and Australia. The
reasons to account for this derive from various theoretical developments: In the
1920s and 1930s, Creative Dramatics was introduced to support the idea of child-
centred Progressive Education; in the 1940s and 1950s, drama constituted a
resource for building spontaneity and creative self-expression; and in the 1960s
and 1970s, the pedagogic benefits of drama were assessed in terms of personal
growth and social skills development. In recent years, the overriding
methodological frame in education has come to focus on the interactive merit of
drama, especially as a process of negotiating meaning. 
 
 

3.- Every day life dramatization and representation of tales,

characters, jokes, etc.
In this section I am going to introduce some of the most common drama techniques
to be used in the English class.
 
3.1.- Non-verbal drama techniques 
These  activities give children an opportunity to show their understanding by
responding through physical movement and mime. Therefore children are not
producing any language here. These activities are frequently used during initial
stages of learning as they help to reinforce meaning and make language
memorable in a non-threatening and enjoyable way. In the first stage of playing a
TPR or an action story, it is often a good idea if the teacher participates with the
children, as this supports their understanding and also helps to ensure that they do
not feel self-conscious. These activities are fun, practice quick response to
commands in the foreign language and increase children concentration.
 
3.1.1.- MIME
3.1.2.- Total physical Response
3.1.3.- Action Stories
 

3.2.- VERBAL DRAMA TECHNIQUES

In this section drama is used with its whole potential, as a practise of the words of a
dialogue with a partner or group. Children are therefore producing language. Acting
out stories or short dialogues offers children the possibility of beginning to produce
language, which they have previously listened to and understood, by joining in with
their character’s part or with telling the story. Children participate at the level they
feel able to and there should not be any pressure in them to perform. 
 
3.2.1.- Reasons to use drama and role- play
3.2.2.- Puppets
3.2.3.- Role-play and acting out stories
3.2.3.a- Creating a context
3.2.3.b.-Topics for role- playing and performing
3.2.3.c.- Role-play and drama performing process
 
 

4.- Group work in creative activities.

4.1. Group work
Language is a creative and communicative process and activities should be
therefore designed to promote interaction and comprehension through participation.
Pair work or group work provides children with this opportunity to interact in
English. 
 

4.2.- Creative activities

During creative activities, children follow this process:
 First, they get stimuli and orientation about the task to be done.
 Next they think on their own or with their group about how to develop that task.
They have to get ideas, share, negotiate and make decisions.
 Then, they develop the activity always checking, trying, improving or changing
decisions made.
 Finally, they will normally show their final product and get some feed back.
 
 

5.- Teacher’s role

There are some important tips about the role of teachers when developing creative
activities like drama, art and craft.
When we are teaching, especially pre-literate children, we need to use our story-
telling skills and use visual aids, dramatic tone of voice, mimicry, gesture, and
mime to bring the story alive. You do not have to be good at acting to keep a group
of children enthralled. Even though modern children are brought up in a television
culture, they also enjoy the human contact of a real live person telling them a story. 
 
 

6.- Conclusion
Drama encourages all aspects of communication including tone, mood and body
language. Language is therefore experienced in a particular context. Drama allows
pupils to be creative and it stimulates children’s imagination. They take control and
generate language themselves. Drama helps pupils to memorise language and
develop their listening skills. 
Drama can be used in a range of ways including playing games, acting out rhymes
and chants and interpreting songs. It is also very often used in conjunction with or
as a follow-up to stories. Through miming or acting out a story, children can show
their understanding of what happens and through their interpretation of different
characters and events make the story their own.
Pupils also learn to participate. They may take on a new identity and indeed it
becomes easier for more self-conscious pupils to participate and use language.
Acting out stories in this way encourages children to co-operate and work together
in groups.
All along this unit, the value of drama activities, the importance of group work for
the development of children and the role the teacher should play in the class to
make the best of these activities and situations have been highlighted as important
issues in the teaching of English.
 
 

7.- BIBLIOGRAPHY
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Royal Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary
2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary Education,
 –  WRIGHT, A. Storytelling with Children
 REILLY,V. & WARD,S. Very young learners. Oxford University  Press.
Bristol,1999.
Tema 20. El área de lenguas extranjeras en el
currículo. Criterios que deben reflejarse en el
Proyecto Educativo de centro y en la
concreción del currículo.
Contents:
1. Introduction
1.1. Parts of the curriculum
1.2. Concretion of the curriculum
1. Foreign languages in the Primary Education curriculum
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Objectives, methodology and evaluation issues affecting Foreign    
Languages in the curriculum
2.3. Contributions to the curricular competences and objectives of 
Primary Education
2.4. Basic curriculum for First Foreign Language
   Block 1. Comprehension of oral texts
-Contents
-Evaluation criteria
-Assessable learning standards
  Block 2. Production of oral texts: expression and interaction
-Contents
-Evaluation criteria
– Assessable learning standards
  Block 3. Comprehension of written texts
-Contents
-Evaluation criteria
– Assessable learning standards
   Block 4. Production of written texts: expression and interaction
-Contents
-Evaluation criteria
– Assessable learning standards
   *Syntactic-discursive contents: English 
(These contents apply to each one of the four blocks above)
1. The acquisition of Communicative Competence
1. Conclusions: -Instrumental nature
-CLIL
-Cross-curricular elements 
1. Bibliography
 
 

1. INTRODUCTION
Royal Decree 126/2014, 28th February, establishes, for the whole national territory,
the basic curriculum of Primary Education.
Here, the curriculum is defined as: regulation of the elements that determine the
teaching and learning processes for each of the teachings and educational stages.
 

1.1. Parts of the curriculum

Objectives:
References describing the achievements that the student must reach at the end of
the educational process, as a result of the teaching-learning experiences
intentionally planned with that purpose.
Competences: 
These are the capacities to apply in an integrated manner the contents belonging to
each teaching and educational stage, so as to be able to adequately do activities
and efficiently solve complex problems. Seven competences are established by
Royal Decree 126/2014:
-Linguistic communication
-Mathematical competence and basic competences in Science and Technology
-Digital competence
-Learning to learn
-Social and civic competence
-Sense of initiative and enterprising spirit
-Cultural awareness and expression
In order to achieve an efficient acquisition of these competences and their effective
integration in the curriculum, integrated activities will be designed. Thus, such
activities will enable students to advance in the acquisition of different competences
simultaneously.
 
Special attention will be paid to the development of: Linguistic communication,
Mathematical competence and basic competences in Science and Technology.
Contents:
They include all knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes which contribute to the
achievement of the objectives of each teaching and educational stage and to the
acquisition of competences. The contents are arranged in subjects, which are
classified into subject-matters, scopes, areas or fields and modules, according to
the teachings, the educational stages or the programmes in which the students
take part.
Assessable learning standards: 
Specifications of the evaluation criteria which make it possible to define the results
of learning, and which explain in detail what the student must know, comprehend
and be able to do in each subject; they must be observable, measurable and
assessable, and they must permit grading of the performance or achievement
reached by the student. Their design must contribute and help with the design of
standardised and comparable tests.
Evaluation criteria: 
They are the specific reference to evaluate what the students have learnt. They
describe what has to be assessed and what students must achieve, both in terms
of knowledge and competences; they correspond to the achievements intended for
each subject.
Didactic methodology: 
Strategies, procedures and actions planned and organised by the teachers, in a
conscious and reflexive manner, with the purpose that students can learn and
achieve the given objectives.
 

1.2. Concretion of the curriculum

The following instructions are given by Royal Decree 126/2014:
In Primary Education, subjects will be grouped in three blocks: core subjects,
specific subjects and regional free-configuration subjects.
The Government will determine:
-The common contents, the assessable learning standards and the minimum
number of class periods for the core subjects.
-The assessable learning standards related to the contents of the specific subjects.
-The evaluation criteria related to the achievement of the objectives of the
teachings and educational stages and of the acquisition of the competences, as
well as the general characteristics of the tests to be applied in the final evaluation of
Primary Education.
Educational Administrations, within the limits and regulations set by the
Government through the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, will be able to:
-Complement the contents of the core subjects.
-Establish the contents of the specific subjects and the regional free-configuration
subjects.
-Make methodological recommendations to the schools in their territory.
-Set the maximum number of class-periods assigned to the core subjects.
-Set the number of class-periods assigned to the specific subjects and the regional
free-configuration subjects.
-Complement the evaluation criteria for the core subjects and the specific subjects,
and establish the evaluation criteria for the regional free-configuration subjects.
-Establish the assessable learning standards for the regional free-configuration
subjects.
Schools, within the limits and regulations set by the pertinent Educational
Administrations, and according to the planning of the educational offer established
by each Educational Administration, will be able to:
-Complement the contents of the core subjects, the specific subjects and the
regional free-configuration subjects, and specify their educational offer.
-Design and introduce the school’s own pedagogic and didactic methods.
-Determine the number of class-periods assigned to the different subjects.
In any case, Educational Administrations will promote the autonomy of the schools,
evaluate their results and apply the suitable acting plans. The schools will develop
and complement, when applicable, the curriculum of the different stages and cycles
within the scope of their autonomy.
Thus, the documents elaborated by the schools take the final step in the concretion
of the curriculum. They are the following:
-The Educational Project, which reflects the application of the curriculum in the
particular circumstances and surrounding environment of the school.
-The Annual Planning, which contains the final curricular concretion for each
subject and academic year, with the necessary didactic units, timing, flexibility
measures, methodological issues, evaluation, etc. 

.
.

2. Foreign languages in the primary education curriculum

2.1 Introduction
In the basic curriculum, foreign languages appear in two different categories: First
Foreign Language, which is one of the core subjects, and Second Foreign
Language, which is one the specific subjects.
In general, the competence level acquired by students in the second foreign
language is expected to be lower than in the first foreign language. The concept of
‘partial competence’ is described by the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages. This concept does not imply the acceptance, by
principle, of restricted command. It rather implies that, even if limited, the command
of a language contributes to enlarge the multilingual competence of students.
The presence of foreign languages in the Primary Education curriculum is justified
from different perspectives. To begin with, globalisation presents us with new
challenges, as it implies the end of traditional borders in economic, political, cultural
and social terms. Thus, education from early childhood must have the goal of
providing citizens with useful instruments, so they can develop competences that
enable themselves to adapt to a new society which is becoming more and more
global and interdependent.
.

2.3. Objectives, methodology and evaluation issues

affecting Foreign Languages in the curriculum
One of the objectives
Educational Administrations
The Spanish or co-official language
Methodological alternatives
 

2.3. Contributions to the curricular competences and objectives

of Primary Education
The study of a foreign language contributes directly to the development of
the linguistic communication competence, in the same sense as the first
language does.
Learning a foreign language becomes enormously productive if reflection on this
learning is included, in order that each learner identifies the way he/she learns
better. This definitely contributes to the competence in learning to learn.
This reflection favours as well the sense of personal initiative and enterprising
spirit, as it prepares students to progress by themselves in the knowledge and use
of the foreign language.
 

2.4. Basic curriculum for First Foreign Language

In general, the competence level acquired by students in the second foreign
language is expected to be lower than in the first foreign language, so the basic
curriculum for Second Foreign Language is a lighter version of the basic curriculum
for First Foreign Language. In fact, it only specifies the ‘evaluation criteria’ and the
‘assessable learning standards’, so we must presume that the contents are the
same as the ones specified for First Foreign Language.
In this section, we will focus on the basic curriculum for First Foreign Language,
which is the most extensive, comprehensive and detailed version.
 
Block 1. Comprehension of oral texts
Block 2. Production of oral texts: expression and interaction
Block 3. Comprehension of written texts
Block 4. Production of written texts: expression and interaction
 
 

3. The acquisition of communicative competence

In general terms, the aim of this curricular subject is not “teaching a foreign
language”, but rather “teaching students to communicate through a foreign
language”, that is, the acquisition of ‘Communicative Competence’, which involves
several factors:
-Grammatical competence: ability to use linguistic units and rules.
-Discourse competence: using different and organised discourse types, according
to the situation and to the participants.
-Sociolinguistic competence: adapting language to the required use in a given
linguistic community.
-Strategic competence: defining, correcting, producing accurate meaning and
references, that is, adjusting language in a communicative situation.
 
 

4. Conclusions
As we have seen, foreign languages play a crucial role within the Primary
Education curriculum. English, in particular, is the most widespread foreign
language learned in our country, and also the most important language in the world
for social, economic and cultural reasons. Thus, it is necessary for children to learn
this language from their early childhood, so as to achieve a good command of it in
their youth and adulthood. In fact, the general tendency for the future in our
country, especially for young people, is to become more or less bilingual in Spanish
and English.
All the previous aspects have to be taken into account when designing the
School Educational Project, as well as in our Annual Planning and Didactic
Units, so that students get a clear picture of their needs for the future. In this
sense, it is also important to remember that, for most students, English will not be
an end in itself, but rather a means of communication. For this reason, despite our
tendency to impose correction or ‘acceptability’, which is, nonetheless, very
important, we should remember that our top priority is ‘Communicative
Competence’, that is, the capacity to communicate effectively in English.
Another important aspect, due to the instrumental nature of any language, is the
possibility of interrelation with other curricular fields, whose contents can be
introduced in the English class. This is the principle of bilingual
programmes: CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). 
Finally, English, as an international language, is a perfect vehicle for students to
work on civic values and cross-curricular elements, in general (article10 of the
Royal Decree):
-Reading comprehension, oral and written expression, audiovisual communication,
Information and Communication Technologies, enterprising, civic and constitutional
education.
-Quality, equality and integration of disabled people
-Equality between men and women, prevention of domestic violence.
-Peaceful resolution of conflicts, freedom, justice, equality, political pluralism,
peace, democracy, respect for human rights, rejection of terrorist violence,
pluralism, respect for the rule of law, respect and consideration for the victims of
terrorist violence, prevention of terrorism and any type of violence, racism or
xenophobia, study of the Jewish Holocaust as a historical fact, prevention of sexism
and stereotypes that imply discrimination.
-Sustainable development, the natural environment, the risks of exploitation and
sexual abuse, risk situations derived from the use of Information and
Communication Technologies, protection in emergencies and catastrophes.
-Development of the enterprising spirit, creativity, autonomy, initiative, team work,
self confidence and critical sense.
-Physical exercise, sport, healthy eating.
-Road safety, prevention of traffic accidents and their sequels, rights and duties for
pedestrians, passengers, drivers and cyclists. Respect for traffic rules, coexistence,
tolerance, self-control, dialogue, empathy.
 
 

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
-JEFATURA DEL ESTADO. Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación.
BOE n. 106 de 4 de mayo de 2006.
-JEFATURA DEL ESTADO. Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la
mejora de la calidad educativa. BOE n. 295 de 10 de diciembre de 2013.
-Real Decreto 126/2014, de 28 de febrero, por el que se establece el currículo
básico de la Educación Primaria. BOE n. 52 de 1 de marzo de 2014.
-Wilkins, D. A. Notional Syllabuses. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1976
Tema 21. La programación del área de lenguas
extranjeras: Unidades de programación.
Criterios para la secuencia y temporalización
de contenidos y objetivos. Selección de la
metodología a emplear en las actividades de
aprendizaje y evaluación.
Contents
1. Introduction
3. Foreign language area planning: planning units.
1.
1. Spanish Educational System 
2. Planning principles.
1.
1. Before the plan.
1.
1. Pre-plan.
1.
1. The plan.
 
3. Criteria for the sequence and timing of contents and objectives.
1.
1. The students.
1.
1. The procedure.
1.
1. The four skills, knowledge of the language and socio-cultural aspects.
1.
1. The nature of communication.
 
4. Methodology used in learning and assessment activities.
1.
1. Communicative competence.
1.
1. Learning activities.
2. Assessment activities
1.
1. Correction.
 
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
 
 

1. Introduction
The best techniques and activities will not have much point if they are not, in some
way integrated into a programme of studies. According to Harmer, the best
teachers are those who think carefully about what they are going to do in their
classes and who plan how they are going to organise the teaching and learning. 
Decisions about the basic aspects of the curriculum are stablished in the LOMCE
8/2013, December 9th, Organic law for the improvement of the quality of education.
(Ley Orgánica, para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa).  
Royal Decree 126/2014, 28th February, establishes the basic curriculum for Primary
Education. Each Autonomous Community regulates its own curriculum, following
the guidelines established in this Royal Decree. Finally, each school will develop
and concrete the curricular application at each level, according to the needs and
characteristics of its students. 
According to the LOMCE, the curriculum is integrated by the objectives of each
educational stage; the competences, or skills needed to activate and  put into
practise the relevant contents of the stage in an integrated way, so as to achieve
the realisation of the activities and the effective resolution of complex problems;
the contents, or a set of knowledge, abilities, skills, and attitudes which contribute
to the achievement of the objectives for each educational stage and the acquisition
of the relevant competences; the teaching methodology, ranging from the
description of the teaching practices to the organisation of teacher’s work;
measurable learning outcomes; and the evaluation criteria to assess the level of
acquisition of the competences and the achievement of the objectives of each
educational stage. 
The contents are organised into subjects, which are classified into areas, fields and
modules, depending on the educational stage, or the programmes students take
part in. 
         
In this topic, we will not consider an overall plan of study (for a term or a year). We
will confine ourselves to the issues and principles a teacher must consider when
planning a lesson: planning units, criteria for the sequence and timing of contents
and objectives and the methodology used in learning and assessment activities.
 
 

2. Foreign language area planning: planning units.

First of all, we are going to give an overview of the main elements that form part of
the syllabus in our Educational System. Then,   we will see the main elements to
consider when designing a lesson plan: we must write and clarify our aims, what
we want to teach and how and when we are going to evaluate them. We are going
to see the planning principles, the elements to consider before a plan, a   pre-
plan and finally the plan of a unit.
 

2. 1 .  The Spanish  Educational System.

 Royal Decree 126/2014, 28th February, includes in the curriculum the following
elements: objectives, contents, competences, measurable  Learning standards and
evaluation criteria: 
a) Curriculum
b) Objectives
c) Competences
 

2.2. Planning principles.

 The two main principles behind a good lesson planning are variety and flexibility.
1. Variety.  A lesson needs variety in terms of: types of activities (songs, games),
types of interaction (teacher and whole class, pairs…), language skills (listening,
speaking, reading and writing ), tempo (vary the pace of a lesson) and materials,
so that learning is always interesting and never monotonous for the student.
2. Flexibility is the ability to use any number of different techniques and not to be
a slave to one methodology. A flexible teacher will also be able to change the
plan if what she or he has planned may not be appropriate for a class on a
particular day.
 

2.3. Before the plan

Before the teacher can start to consider planning his classes he needs to
know: the profession, the institution and the students.
1. The profession
2. The institution
3. The students
 

2.4. Pre-plan 
The pre-plan is for the teacher to get a general idea of what he is going to do in the
next class or classes. 
He will consider four major areas: activities, language skills, language type and
subject and content.
1. The activities: what the students are going to do (games, a story, listening…
etc).Think of the activities in terms of the students, and class period itself.
2. Language skills: the teacher will have to decide whether he wishes to
concentrate on one skill or a combination of skills on the basis of his student´s
needs.
 

2.5. The plan

There is no ‘correct’ way to write a lesson plan, but it should give a clear picture of
what a teacher intends to do.
1.  Harmer presents a unit plan with five major components: description of the
class, recent work, objectives, contents and additional possibilities.
2. Brewster includes the following elements in a lesson plan: aims and procedures:
 Aims: what we want our students to achieve.
 Procedures: how to achieve the aims and the stages in which they are going to
be done
 
 
3. CRITERIA FOR THE SEQUENCE AND TIMING OF
CONTENTS AND OBJECTIVES.
The criteria that we will establish to sequence the contents and objectives will be
related to the final aim in the study of foreign languages: ‘to reach the
communicative competence’. This will make us to emphasize the importance of
the four linguistic skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) according to the
capacities and needs of our students. We will contemplate the following elements: 
 

3.1 Elements in relation to the students

1. How mature our students are: we should take into consideration their
psychological development to learn a language properly (their interests, level of
comprehension, their attitude …).
2. Previous knowledge: are the students familiar with the topic? Is it too abstract?
 

3.2 Elements in relation to the procedure

1. The kind of text to be used: how dense is it? What vocabulary, linguistic and
discursive elements does it have?
2. The channel: are we going to use a written text, a tape? Or is the channel going
to be the teacher?
 

3.3 Elements in relation to the four skills (listening, speaking,

reading and writing), knowledge of the language and
sociocultural aspects:
Throughout Primary Education teachers should give importance to the four
linguistic skills, knowledge of the language and sociocultural aspects. However,
taking into account our pupils´level of psychological and linguistic development and
the process of learning, we will concentrate more in one or two  other skills and in
different aspects of the language an its culture.  
 

3.4 The nature of communication

There are certain characteristics that the communicative events share according
to Harmer:
1. Somebody wants to speak.
2. He has some communicative purpose: speakers say something because they
want something to happen as a result of what they say.
3. He selects from his language store: in order to achieve his communicative
purpose he will select the language he thinks is appropriate for this purpose.
4. He wants to listen to something.
5. He is interested in the communicative purpose of what is being said: in general
people want to find out what the speaker is trying to say.                       
 
 
4. Methodology used in learning and assessment activities.
Since the main goal of our practice is to reach the ‘Communicative
competence’, all the activities will be orientated to such purpose. The
communicative approach is an umbrella term to describe methodology which
teaches students how to communicate efficiently.
 

4.1. Communicative competence

 Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a learner’s L2
ability. It not only refers to a learner’s ability to apply and use grammatical rules, but
also to form correct utterances, and know how to use these utterances
appropriately.The term was first coined by Dell Hymes (1967, 1972).  
 

4.2. Learning activities.

When planning activities, we should take into consideration certain principles to
reach the communicative competence. Let´s see what different linguists say about
it, and then learn about the use of ICT for learning activities.
 

4.3 Assessment activities
Teachers must assess student work in a variety of ways to gauge if learning has
occurred. Besides standardized multiple-choice tests and true- measure the quality
of their instruction.  These are some of the aspects to bear in mind when preparing
assessment activities:
 Allow students to self-score and peer-score the work before finally submitting it
to the instructor. This places additional responsibility on the student for his  own
learning and guides him toward mastery. 
 Make an effort to present the best options for task types that allow ELLs to show
what they know and can do within the practical limits of the assessment
program. 
4.3. Correction 
At some stage the student’s language production should be judged on its
communicative efficacy in relation to a specific task. But this principie does not
negate the utility of teacher correction for grammatical accuracy at some
other stage . . . It may often happen that the student succeeds in getting his
message across (in a grammatically imperfect way) to a peer who may share his
grammatical imperfections. For this reason teacher correction is also important. In
the ultimate analysis he is also ‘correcting for content’ because grammar expresses
content» 
 
 

5. Conclusion     
Spanish legislation has placed special emphasis on the ability to communicate in
one or more foreign languages, which is one of the goals to which our present
educational system is addressed. For that, the  basic curriculum for Primary
Education (RD 126/2014) is structured around language activities as described in
the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: understanding
and production (expression and interaction) of oral and written texts. The relevant
contents, evaluation criteria and learning standards are organised into four main
blocks, which correspond to the aforementioned language activities. 
In order to achieve this goal, our lessons have to  become  effective, and for
this  we need to think of the elements that will affect our planning. Teachers need to
think of the objectives, contents, evaluation criteria, learning standards and
activities that would be suitable for our learners pointing out the need for variety,
flexibility and balance. We also should bear in mind the type of students we have
and be able to adapt to their needs.
We looked at the criteria for the sequence and timing of contents and objectives
and finally at the type of learners to set the activities. 
We should take into account that In Primary Education students leave from a very
basic competence level, and therefore, both in the communicative interaction and in
the understanding and production of texts, it will be essential to refer always to
familiar contexts for students of that age, thereby profiting from their previous
knowledge and from their skills and experience.
To end up, we will say that individual classroom exercises and techniques need to
be derived in the first instance from a consideration of the purposes to which the
language will potentially be put, and the functions it will fulfil, more than from a
particular method.
 
 

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BOE, 1 de marzo de 2014, Real Decreto 126/2014, de 28 de febrero, por el que
se establece el currículo básico de la Educación Primaria.
 BOE, 10 de diciembre de 2013, Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la
mejora de la calidad educativa.
 Guidelines for the Assessment of English Language Learners, Copyright © 2009
Educational Testing Service. 
 Assessment Tools for Teaching & Learning |
eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/list_7294855_assessment-tools-teaching-
learning.html#ixzz24h3ePCD5
 Teacher & Educational Development, University of New Mexico School of
Medicine, 2005
 Harmer, J. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman. London
1983.
 Brewster, G. Ellis, and Girard, D. The Primary English Teacher´s Guide.
Penguin. London. 1992.
 Johnson, K. Communicative Syllabus Design and Methodology. OUP. Oxford,
1982. 
 David Nunan, Language Teaching Methodology. Prentice Hall International.
London. 1991.
Tema 22. Variables a tener en cuenta en la
organización de la clase de lengua inglesa:
agrupación del alumnado, distribución del
espacio y tiempo, selección de metodologías,
papel del profesor, etc.
CONTENTS
1.- Introduction
2.- Working in group
2.1.- Pair work
2.2.- Group work
2.2.a.- Introducing group work
2.2.b.- Who works with whom?
3.- Organising space and time
3.1.- The physical surroundings
3.2.- Classroom displays
3.3.- Organising time
4.- Choosing the right methodology
4.1.- Dealing with errors
4.2.- Classroom language
4.3.- Checking comprehension
4.4.- Routines
4.4.a.- Global routines
4.4.b.- Warm up
4.4.c.- Closing routines
4.5.- Paving the way to speaking freely
4.6.- Learning to learn
4.7.- Mixed ability
4.8.- Evaluation
5.- The teacher’s role
5.1.- Abilities
5.2.- Attitudes
5.3.- Helping the children to feel secure
5.4.- The role of parents and teacher-parents communication
6.- Conclusion
7.- Bibliography
 
 

1.- Introduction
The Ministry of Education and its Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013  and the Royal
Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary 2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary
Education, both provide guidelines to developed basic objectives, contents and
methodological approaches for the teaching of English. According to the Law,
children should develop a communicative competence in at least a foreign
language at the end of their compulsory schooling. Therefore the principal aim of
learning English is to communicate orally and in writing. 
Classroom management has to do with organising different aspects of the learning
environment and the relationship with students in order to enhance the teaching-
learning process. According to the law, the schools organization and functioning,
the teaching activities, the different ways of interaction between members in the
educational community, etc can also facilitate the achievement of competences.
That is, every aspect of the child´s life in the school can help him to learn better. In
this way, classroom management helps teachers to organize their teaching practice
to make the most of it. And it helps students to achieve the basic competences. 
The main aim of classroom management with children is to create a happy, relaxed
and working atmosphere in which the norms and rules of classroom behaviour
are respected and in which children feel secure and supported by the teacher at
the same time as they are helped to become increasingly independent in the way
they approach their own learning.
In order to get this learning atmosphere, teachers need to think carefully
and organise the space and time in the class, the distribution of furniture, different
materials and teaching moments, how children are going to work together
in groups or individually, the right methodology for every moment or his/her own
role during the class. In this theme I will develop the main points to take into
consideration when thinking about classroom management.
 
 

2.- Working in group

When teaching a foreign language, working in groups becomes an essential way of
working in order to interact and communicate with others, which is the main
objective to achieve. Therefore working in groups will help our students to develop
the  linguistic competence. But it will also help them to develop the social and
citizen competence because they will have to listen to others, understand,
participate, and find solutions and strategies to get to agreements and common
goals.  Finally working in groups will also help our students to develop
their Autonomy and Personal initiative since they will have to think by themselves,
get personal ideas and take the initiative to cooperate and to sort out different
problems and situations within the group. 
 

2.1.- Pair work
Pair work is a very useful and efficient way of working in language teaching. It is
simple to organise and easy to explain, and group work should not be attempted
before the children are used to work in twos first. According to Gerngross,G. and
Puchta, H.  the following should be taken into account to ensure good results in pair
work activities:
 Information exchange must be a real need. Children must get information from
their partners in order to complete the activity.
 Motivation will increase if there is a final objective: to complete a timetable, a
survey or an interview.
 Linguistic ability will define the way children match together; for certain activities
they should have similar ability, but for others, advanced children could mix with
slower ones.
 

2.2.- Group work

Anything that has been said about pair work applies to group work. Group work
offers children the possibility of making the most of their linguistic abilities. It is a
very especial way of working in which children need to develop some attitudes and
techniques. We cannot put children into groups, give them an exercise and assume
that it will work. Children must know before hand group working rules such as
listening to each other, taking and respecting turns, writing down the results,
cooperate, etc.
 
2.2.a.- Introducing group work
2.2.b.- Who works with whom?
 
 

3.- ORGANISING THE SPACE AND TIME

 

3.1.- The physical surroundings

Young children respond well to surroundings which are pleasant and familiar. This
is a classroom which needs to be a little more “special” than others. There should
be more space to move around and all the furniture and materials should be child-
friendly- they should be safe, easily accessible, easily visible, colourful, etc.
 A “video viewing” space can be provided, so that children can sit on the floor
when they watch a video. Either a light removable carpet or individual cushions
or mats could be provided.
 Children should be able to reach both the notice board and the blackboard in
order to stick their work up or re-arrange flash cards for example.
 

3.2.-Classroom displays 
As well as organising the arrangement of desks and chairs, it is important to
organise notice-board and wall space in the classroom. Find a place where
the materials produced by the children can easily be displayed on the wall.
Decorate the place nicely using coloured cardboard, cut outs with English motifs
and props that the children bring to class. Change the decoration from time to time
and update displays of children’s projects regularly. 
 

3.3.- Organising time

Teaching time should be organised in several steps:
 Year plan: At the beginning of the school year, teachers must organise aims,
topics and contents throughout the whole school year, terms and weeks. This
planning should be a draft of the whole school year and will allow teachers to
make sure they cover all the contents. To design this plan, holidays, festivals,
excursions and different timetables along the year (June, September) should be
taken into account. This year plan is a general one and it could be modified
depending on particular circumstances that may occur along the year as well as
children’s needs.
 
 

4.- Choosing the right methodology

In this section I am going to show how to work in different moments of the teaching
learning process. English teaching general methodology is explained  in Tema 21
and here I will  just provide some methodological tips for dealing with errors,
checking comprehension, mixed ability and other issues.
 

4.1.-  Dealing with errors

The ultimate long-term aim when teaching a language is that the learner can
communicate using the language correctly. Teachers should always bear in mind
that it would be too ambitious to expect correct production from all children. Errors
should be recognized as part of the learning process.
When correcting errors teacher should always take into account the following ideas:
 Never interfere when a child is saying something. Do not interrupt. Let him/her
finish. When he/she has finished you can use correct English to gently
paraphrase what he/she was trying to say.
 Encourage children to risk saying things in English even if their production is far
from accurate. Don’t forget to praise their attempts.
 

4.2.- Classroom language

If cooperation and communication are to be part of the process of learning a
language as well as part of the process of growing up, then the sooner the pupils
learn simple, meaningful expressions in English, the easier it will be. A very
important way of helping pupils progress from dependence on the book and on the
teacher to independence is to give them the necessary tools. One of the tools is the
classroom language.
 

4.3.- Checking comprehension
When we learn a foreign language, we are constantly putting ourselves at risk of
not understanding everything we hear or read. We understand what is known to us
and we try to guess what we do not understand from the context. The teacher tries
to help the children understand as much as possible by conveying the information
through different sensory channels: auditory, visual, and motor. Watching the
children when they are performing tasks gives the teacher clues as to how
much  they have understood.
 

4.4.- Routines
English teaching involves constantly changing classroom scenarios. The children
watch and listen to a story, and show that they have understood it by putting
together a puzzle, for example. They learn a song, they practise and revise a
rhyme they already know well, they work in pairs and ask their partner for words,
and so on.
Alongside the changing scenarios, other processes are constantly taking place at a
socio-emotional level.  One child is being disruptive, another wants the teacher’s
attention, a third explains an activity to their partner, another is looking for their
pencil or borrowing a rubber, etc.
 
4.4.a.- Global routines
4.4.b.- Warm-ups
4.4.c.- Closing routines
 

4.5.- Paving the way to speaking freely

The emphasis in teaching children lies in language intake, in reception. Only a
certain amount of what the children understand and absorb will later be used in
language production.
Young learners learn to speak by practising mini-dialogues, presenting sketches,
reciting rhymes or chants, playing guessing games and by communicating in the
classroom.
 

4.6.- Learning to learn

Learning to learn is an essential ability to develop autonomous learning and it can
already be developed with young learners. The goal is for children to gradually
become slightly conscious of how they understand what they are presented with,
what helps them remember words, phrases, texts, and whether or not the pace of
the lesson is adequate for them. In order to reach this goal, it is important to talk
with children about goals and how they are learning.
 

4.7.- Mixed ability

Clearly, not all the students learn at the same pace and the teacher needs to
offer revision or extension activities to his/her pupils according to individual
progress. These activities should be used only when needed to help children to
achieve the minimum objectives fixed and to cater for mixed ability.
 

4.8.- Evaluation
The assessments of the children’s progress should not be limited to evaluating
the pupils’ language performance. As teachers, we also need to monitor constantly
whether our learners are showing an interest in English, and how their cognitive,
social and motor skills are developing. The Assessment Criteria and the
Assessment Standards defined in the Royal Decree 126/2014,  28th February
2014 are the base of any English assessment.
 
 

5.- The role of  the teacher

We come to our job with our personalities already formed, but there are abilities
and attitudes which can be learnt and worked on. As a teacher of young children it
helps a lot if you have a sense of humour, you are open-minded, adaptable,
patient, etc. , but even if you are if you are the silent, reserved type, you can work
on your attitudes and abilities.
 

5.1.- Abilities
We may not all be brilliant music teachers, but most of us can learn to sing or even
play a musical instrument. All music teachers would agree in any case that
everyone can sing, although perhaps not always in tune. We can all learn to mime,
to act and to draw very simple drawings. We can all learn to organise
our worksheets so that they are planned and pleasing to look at. 
 

5.2.- Attitudes
Respect your pupils and be realistic about what they can manage at an individual
level, then your expectations will be realistic too.
As a teacher you have to appear to like your pupils equally. Although at times this
will certainly include the ability to act, the children should not be aware of it.
Children learning a foreign language or any other subject need to know that the
teacher likes them. Young children have a very keen sense of fairness.
 

5.3.- Helping the children to feel secure

Once children feel secure and content in the classroom, they can be encouraged to
become independent and adventurous in the learning of the language. Security is
not an attitude or an ability, but it is essential if we want our pupils to get the
maximum out of their language lesson.
 

5.4.- The role of parents and teacher-parent communication

Parents deserve to know and we need to explain to them the educational rational
behind the methodology we use.
At the beginning of the school year and before your classes start, invite parents to
attend an orientation meeting where teachers can discuss the following points with
them:
 Children should have positive learning experiences; they gain self-esteem and
motivation and lose their shyness about expressing themselves in English.
 Parents should not expect their children to be able to speak English from the
start. Children should learn above all to understand language, and later to
respond orally in simple language.
 
 

6.- CONCLUSION
In this unit I have explained the main aspects of classroom management as an
essential aspect of our teaching practice. A correct use of space, time, group work
activities, interaction with students and methodological hints, will definitely enhance
our work as teachers and will help our students to achieve the linguistic
competence, the social and citizen competence and their autonomy and personal
initiative.  
 

7.- Bibliography
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Royal Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary
2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary Education,
 RD 7 December 2006 establishing the minimum requirements in Primary
Education
 GERNGROSS,G. AND PUCHTA, H. Playway to English. Teacher’s guide.
Cambridge University Press.1998
 NUNAN,D. Language teaching methodology. Prentice hall. London,1991.
Tema 23.
La elaboración de materiales curriculares par
a la clase de
inglés. Criterios para la selección
y uso de los libros de
texto. Documentos auténticos y  documentos 
adaptados: limitaciones
de su uso. La colaboración de los alumnos e
n el diseño de materiales.
Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Producing curricular materials for English lessons
2.1. Reasons to produce our own materials
2.2. Main features of produced curricular materials
2.3. Types of produced materials
3. Criteria to chose and use a course book
3.1. Reasons to use a course book
3.2. Choosing a coursebook
3.3. Using a coursebook
4. Authentic, simulated authentic and non-authentic materials: use constraints
4.1. Authenticity
4.2. Non-authentic materials: simulated authentic and artificial
5. Involving the pupils in material design
6. Conclusions
7. Bibliography
 
 

1.  INTRODUCTION
Very young children learn their mother tongue by receiving a constant input. They
live surrounded by that language and they learn it following a creative and
progressive process and using natural strategies. When
the second language learner is still a child, he or she will learn it according to the
same patterns and processes. But our students don’t live surrounded by the
second language and they still need to receive as much input as possible. We need
to create  a  communicative atmosphere in  which children face and learn English in
a natural and meaningful way. That is why we need to select, produce and
use authentic and non authentic materials.
 Teaching a second language is an extremely complex process in which many
different factors take part. On the one hand, the students needs in relation to their
interests, differences and abilities will be one of the main criteria to select materials.
Contents should be organized around the students’ experiences. Therefore
materials should be adapted to their interests and experiences too.
 On the other hand, the specific methodology of English teaching will also
determine the selection of different materials. We need to offer a variety of
materials that make children’s learning significant, meaningful and stimulating,
based on students active participation, frequent recycling, great use of visual
aids, realia, songs, games, etc. The chosen materials should
foster independent learning and help develop the competences described in
LOMCE, Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education (LOMCE) dating
9th December,2013.Special attention should be focused on the use of ICT as an
excellent tool to create our own materials and to motivate students. Using ICT to
create our own materials will help our students to develop
the  digital competence described in Royal Decree Royal
Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary 2014, that establishes the curriculum for
Primary Education
In this theme I am going to analyze why should English teachers use and produce
different materials and what kind of materials could we use. Then I will focus my
attention on course books as the most common material used in class.  Finally I will
present differences between authentic and non-authentic materials and how
children can co-operate in curricular materials production.
 
 

2.  Producing curricular materials for english lessons

English teachers need to create a communicative atmosphere in which students
face the new language in a natural and meaningful way.
Teachers  also  need  to  help  their  students  to  develop  a  cultural
awareness about English speaking countries. In order to cover both
objectives, adequate materials should be selected and used in class.
 

2.1. Reasons to produce our own materials
There are two main reasons to create our own materials. The first one
is individual differences. In a class, children differ one from another. It is difficult to
find a material that suits every single individual. We need to
take into account these differences when selecting the materials to
be used in class.
Harmer classifies differences according to the following categories:
y Age
y Number of boys and girls
y Familiar background
y Parents’ occupation
y Motivation, attitude and interests
y Knowledge of the world
y Knowledge of English
y Mixed ability
y Pupils with specific needs
y Cognitive styles
y Pupils with discipline problems
 

2.2. Main features of produced curricular materials
As I have already mentioned in the previous section, producing curricular materials
for English lessons is often a necessary activity. It could be an easy or more
complex task but in any case it is time consuming. In order to make the most of
the materials we produce, the following considerations should be taken into
account:
ƒ The teacher will design, plan, organize and direct the production  of materials.
Children could co-operate in many cases feeling they are taking part in their
learning process and developing the  Learning  to learn competence. (See section
5 in this theme)
ƒ The materials should be suitable for:
o Children needs, abilities and interests: they should be attractive and significant for
children.
o The  teaching  program:  materials  should  fit  in  the  teaching
program   and   they   should   be   aimed   to   specific   linguistic objectives.
 

2.3. Types of produced materials
We can produce any kind of material, especially nowadays with the great help of
ICT.
ƒ   Puppets: we can make easy puppets as class mascot or for plays, short
stories… (See theme 19) They are excellent materials for very young learners.
ƒ   Play scripts: we can invent or adapt short stories into play scripts to perform
them on a stage or to represent short role  plays.(See
theme 19)
ƒ   Games: We can adapt well known games using English language – Trivial,
Bingo…(See theme 18)
 
 

3.  CRITERIA TO CHOSE AND USE A COURSE BOOK
Course books are the most common material used in English classes. They are
excellent tools to use in class, but there are some important considerations to take
into account when selecting a book and using it. It
is  not  the  only  material  to  use  and  sometimes,  depending  on  the teacher’s
criteria, they could even be avoided. The following section aims to analyze main
reasons to use a course book and criteria to chose and use it.
 

3.1 . Reasons to use a course book
According to Halliwell, the main reasons to use a course book refer to both the
teacher and the students.
Course books are a great help for teachers because:
ƒ They provide:
o a clear programme in an appropriate sequence
o a wide range of materials
 
3.2. Choosing a course book
Selecting a course book is quite a difficult task and we cannot know if it is suitable
enough until we have been working through it for some time and, even so, it will
depend on our pupils and their needs. The main criteria for choosing a book is
therefore our students: their age, interests, abilities, previous knowledge, etc.
According to Nunan, the following criteria should be taken into account when
selecting a course book:
ƒ The course book makes clear the link between the classroom and the wider word.
ƒ It fosters independent learning.
ƒ It  focuses  children  on  their  learning  process  and  therefore  helps developing
the learning to learn competence.
 

3.3. Using a course book
Once we have chosen a course book we must decide how to use it in the
classroom. The course book must be a menu from which the teacher chooses,
rather than a recipe that the teacher follows. The chosen text must be adapted to
the particular requirements of the class.
 
 

4. Authentic, simulated authentic and non-authentic

materials: use constraints
Our main objective as Primary school teachers is to help our students to be ready
for the outside world. This is why we should bring life into the class. As English
teachers, we have to bring the English language and the English speaking
countries close to children. That is why authentic materials are important in the
English class. They are also essential because they help children to face language
in its real context and therefore develop a meaningful learning.
 

4.1. Authenticity
Authentic materials are materials not written specifically for the teaching
of  English  as  a  foreign  language.  Nunan  describes  authenticity  as follows:
“Authentic materials are usually defined as those which have been produced for
purposes other than to teach language. They can be culled from many different
sources: Video clips, recordings of authentic interactions, extracts from television,
radio and newspapers, signs, maps and charts, photographs and pictures,
timetables and schedules”. Today we should also add Internet and ICT as a source
of authentic materials.
 

4.2. Non-authentic materials: simulated authentic and artificial
Harmer defines non-authentic materials as those “that have been designed
especially for language learners”.
Non-authentic materials can be divided in two groups:
ƒ Simulated authentic: they are design for language learners and they appear to be
authentic.
ƒ Artificial materials: they are design for language learners and they illustrate
particular language points.
Non-authentic materials are important for beginners who are not able to handle
genuine authentic materials because their difficulty but still need to practice in texts
or resources that look authentic.
 
 

5. Involving the pupils in material design
Material production has to be designed, planned, organised and directed by the
teacher. The teacher is the one knowing best methodological approaches and
children’s needs. But children can co-operate in this production in two different
ways:
ƒ First of all by showing their interests, needs and difficulties so that the teacher
can think about new resources that will help  them  to learn in an efficient way.
ƒ Secondly by actually producing different resources following  the teacher’s
indications.
Children participating in the production of materials used for their own learning
bring great advantages in the teaching learning process:
ƒ They feel responsible for their own learning (autonomous learning
principle)
ƒ They feel teacher value their help and work and trust them.  This will increase
their self-esteem and motivation.
ƒ They will develop a sense of group and fellowship because  the
group  is  involved  in  a  final  project  (  meaningful  learning  and development of
the social and citizen competence)
ƒ They  will  develop their  creativity and  social  skills  such  as  co– operation,
participation, respecting others, etc ( global learning and development of the social
and citizen competence.)
 
 

6. Conclusions
The final objective when teaching English is to communicate. This is a complex
process in which teachers have to take into account children differences, interests
and abilities and the most suitable methodological approaches. In order to reach
this final aim, teachers will use a great
variety of materials to create a communicative atmosphere and to bring
into  class  the  English  speaking countries  culture  so  the  learning of English is
meaningful.
The most common material used in class is the course book. There are different
criteria to take into account when selecting books. But in any case course books
should be used in a flexible way to suit individual needs and paces. There is a wide
variety of materials that can also be used in the English class, authentic and non-
authentic materials. Teachers should take  advantage
of  new  technologies  to   create materials. Finally, children co-operation in
producing materials will bring great advantages in the teaching-learning process
especially regarding motivation and language production.
 
 

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Law for the Improvement of the Quality of
Education (LOMCE) dating 9th December,2013.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. Royal Decree 126/2014,  28thFebruary
2014, that establishes the curriculum for Primary Education,
•  Brewster, J., Ellis, G. And Girard, D. The Primary English Teacher’s
Guide. Penguin. London, 1992
•  Brumfit, C.J., and Johnson, K (eds) The Communicative Approach to
Language Learning. OUP. Oxford, 1979
•  Halliwell, S. Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. Longman.
London, 1992. (There exists Spanish translation: La Enseñanza del
Inglés en la Educación Primaria. Longman. London, 1993)
•  Harmer, J. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman.
 
Tema 24. Aspectos tecnológicos y
pedagógicos de la utilización de los materiales
audiovisuales (el periódico, la TV, el
magnetófono, el vídeo, etc). El ordenador
como recurso auxiliar para el aprendizaje y
perfeccionamiento de las lenguas extranjeras.
Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Audio visual resources: technological and educational features
2.1. Audio resources.
2.1.1. CD/tape player
2.1.2. Radio
2.1.3. Language laboratory
2.2. Visual resources
2.2.1. Boards 
2.2.2. Flash cards
2.2.3. Realia
2.2.4. Wallcharts
2.2.5. Projectors
2.2.6. Textbooks and newspapers
2.3. Audio visual resources
2.3.1. Television
2.3.2. Video and DVD
3. The use of computers in the English class.
3.1. Using ICT efficiently
3.2. Methodological considerations
3.3. Different ways of using ICT in class.
4. Conclusion
5. Bibliography.
 
 

1. Introduction.
We are teaching in the XXI century and our students need to be ready to face a
modern society that is changing at a very fast pace. One of the reasons for these
quick changes is the use of new technologies. These technologies occupy an
important space in our everyday lives: use of mobile phones, television, computers,
internet, etc. Most of our students are already familiar with these technologies and
they feel great interest towards them. But they also need to be trained in order to
be skilful in the use of computers and different programmes. 
On the other hand, new technologies provide a great source of information and an
excellent tool to create our own resources. They also give us the opportunity
to communicate with people in different places and countries. These are also
powerful reasons for the use of new technologies in our class, moreover, in the
English class. And this is why our current law LOMCE, following European
regulations, makes a great emphasis on the use of ICT (Information and
Communication Technologies)
This emphasis is reflected in the information management and digital Competence.
This Competence consists of developing the skills to search, find, process and
communicate information and to transform it into knowledge. It includes different
skills such as how to access information or how to process it and transmit it in
different formats. It implies the use of information and communication technologies
as an essential tool to obtain information, learn and communicate. 
 

2. Audio visual resources: technological and educational

features
Audio resources are any kind of aural input that our students can listen to. They
can vary from just noises, to songs, poems, dialogues, drills, etc. They can be
found in radio programmes, CDs, TV…. In the English class they are essential
resources for our students to face the foreign language, with different voices and
accents.
Visual resources are any visual aid used in the English class to convey meaning.
Together with English words, visual aids help children to understand. They are also
used to elicit language, words, sentences, conversations, etc. Visual aids can be
Flash Cards, realia, photographs, wallcharts, etc.
 

2.1. Audio resources.

2.1.1. CD player
2.1.2. Radio
2.1.3. Language laboratory
 

2.2. Visual resources

The wonderful thing about visual resources is that even imperfect pictures, once
assigned a meaning, have great power to elicit that same meaning again and
again.
Many media and many styles of visual presentation are useful to the language
learner. There is no general rule to indicate which visual style is appropriate at any
time. The choice is affected by: 
a) the age, interests, and experience of the student;
b) the physical circumstances of the classroom or laboratory; and
c) the cost and convenience of the materials available.
2.2.1. Boards 
2.2.1.1 The blackboard
2.2.1.2. The magneto board and the flannel graph.
2.2.2. Flash cards
2.2.3. Realia
2.2.4. Wall charts
2.2.5. Projectors
2.2.6. Textbooks and newspapers
2.3. Audio visual resources 
2.3.1. Television
2.3.2. Video and DVD
 

3. THE USE OF COMPUTERS IN THE ENGLISH CLASS.

The European Commission for Education has adopted the “e Learning” initiative to
adapt the EU’s education and training systems to the knowledge and use of the
digital culture. This initiative has four components: 
– to equip schools with multimedia computers
– to train European teachers in digital technologies
– to develop European educational services and software
– to speed up the networking of schools and teachers. 
 

3.1 Using ICT efficiently

The use of ICT by itself does not necessarily mean a more efficient learning. As
any other educational resource, it will depend on how we use that tool. According to
scientific research and based on the current social needs, the use of ICT must
cover five minimum requirements to help learning in an efficient way:
1. Universal access: all students must have access to ICT no matter their personal
circumstances, social background, disabilities, country of origin, etc.
2. Strategic and creative use of resources: the use of ICT does not only refer to a
basic knowledge. It also means using these resources in a strategic and creative
way so students can get a benefit out of them for every context in their lives.
 

3.2 Methodological considerations

The use of ICT implies a specific methodology. This methodology is suitable for the
main learning process’ principles: 
1. Students take an active role in their learning process using meaningful and
functional contents. Computers, just like video or audio tapes, provide the
student the opportunity to work on their own and to progress at their own pace.
 They can provide immediate feedback on the progress of the student, allowing
only correct answers and giving help when necessary.
2. Teachers’ role is not so much to transmit knowledge but to guide their students
learning process.
3. A cooperative work is often needed to fulfil a task and to creatively construct
knowledge. Communicative skills and organizational skills will be developed
when working in groups.
4. A network can be constructed within the class, the school, the educational
community or even other schools to share knowledge, information and
experiences. 
 

3.3. Different ways of using ICT in class

I will explain now the most common ways of using ICT in class and their
advantages. 
1. Teacher lectures supported with ICT: Teachers can support their lectures with
presentations using a computer and a projector. These presentations may be
prepared by the teacher him/herself or by publishing companies. Many
programmes are useful for teachers to create their own materials: word processors,
excel, power point, audio programmes. Digital cameras and digital videos also offer
the opportunity to snap different moments of school life and then use them to elicit
linguistic production (displays with pictures and commentaries, newspapers,
magazines….). This is highly motivating since children can watch themselves as
the main characters of displays and projects.
 

4. CONCLUSION
Aural and visual aids have been traditionally used in the English class to offer
varied linguistic inputs, to convey meaning and to create communicative situations.
Resources as simple as the blackboard or flash cards, realia or CDs can be a great
help to increase our students communicative competence. More sophisticated
resources add the value of motivation. Television, video, projectors… will offer the
possibility of maintaining our students interest and teach English in a motivating
way.
For the last few years and especially following LOE/LOMCE commands – to
develop the digital competence – new technologies should also been included in
the English class, not only because of their great potential to teach and learn
English but also because they are definitely a tool our students use and will use
along their lives. They are also a great way to communicate with other people
abroad and develop tolerant attitudes. For these reasons the European
Commission and the Ministry of Education put a great emphasis on the use of ICT
in schools and local governments invest in schools to provide and impulse the use
of computers in schools.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 Beauchamp, G. (2012). ICT in the Primary School: From Pedagogy to
Practice. Routledge.
 Dakin, J. (1985). The Language Laboratory and Language Learning. Longman.
 Harmer, J. (1987). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman.
 Harrison, B. (1990). English as a Second and Foreign Language. Longman.
 Haycraft, J. (1978). An Introduction to English Language Teaching. Longman
Handbooks for Language Teachers. Longman. Harlow.
 Wright, A. (1997). Visual Materials for the Language Teacher. Longman.

Tema 25. El proceso de enseñanza y

aprendizaje en la lengua extranjera centrado
en el alumno: fundamentos y aplicaciones. La
identificación de las motivaciones y actitudes
ante la lengua inglesa. Aplicaciones prácticas.
Contents:
1.- Introduction
2.- Child centred approach in  the teaching learning English process
2.1.- Individual differences in the learning process
2.1.a.- Differences in personal development
2.1.b.- Cognitive styles
2.1.c.- Personal conditions
2.2.- Individual differences when learning a second language
2.2.a.- Language acquisition
2.2.b.- Second language acquisition
2.3.- Influence of these differences in the teaching process
2.3.a.- Teacher’s attitude
2.3.b.- Teaching program
3.- Motivation and attitude towards learning a foreign language
3.1.- Importance of motivation and attitude in second language learning.
3.2.- Practical considerations to keep motivation
3.2.a.- Individual differences
3.2.b.- Global approach
3.2.c.- Teaching program
3.2.d.- Teacher’s role
3.2.e.- Classroom management
3.2.f.- Teacher-parents communication
4.- Conclusion
5.- Bibliography
 
 

1.- Introduction
Individual differences when learning is a condition of human beings. Children,
teenagers and adults are different in preferences towards several contents, in
levels of effort and attention towards different tasks, in speed when transferring
knowledge from one area to another or in the amount of repetitions needed in order
to consolidate new concepts or skills.
Traditionally, school has tackled some of these differences, mainly those related
to learning processes. But less attention has been focused on motivation and
interest, and the links established between these three factors in the teaching
learning process. Not only differences in abilities when learning are important, but
also motivation and interest towards learning is essential in order to get an efficient
learning. Motivation and interest is related to many aspects, but one of them has to
do with the activities offered in class. These activities must fit our children’s
interests and abilities to keep them motivated and to help them to feel secure and
achieve success. 
The Child Centred approach is one of the key ideas in the Spanish Educational
Law L.O.M.C.E. A Child Centred approach will always try to give an answer to
individual characteristics and to respect every child’s development and his/her
pace. This approach will base the teaching learning process in children’s abilities,
needs and interests, taking into account not only the group but also every child
within the group. 
 
 

2.- Child centred approach in  the teaching learning English

process
Children have characteristics that make them similar to other children: regularity on
basic abilities development, same laws ruling their learning process, same habits
and social traditions…These common characteristics offer a general frame in which
the teacher can plan a program for the whole group (what, how and when to teach
and assess).
But children also have individual characteristics that make them different from the
rest of children in the group. These differences play a very important role in the
learning process since this process occurs in every child in a different way
according to the interaction between the child, his/her environment and other adults
and children. Therefore children with a similar age, level of development or social
background have also individual differences that make them different.
 

2.1.- Individual differences in the learning process

2.1.a.- Differences in personal development
2.1.b.- Cognitive styles
2.2.c.- Personal conditions
 

2.2.- Individual differences when learning a second language

 All the differences mentioned before also apply to language learning. But there are
specific individual differences that influence language learning and second
language learning.
2.2.a.- Language acquisition
2.2.b.- Second language acquisition
 

2.3.- Influence of these differences in the teaching process

Having mentioned most of the differences that take part in every child during the
learning process and more specifically during the process of learning a second
language, I am going to present some of the logical implications for teachers and
their work.
2.3.a.- Teacher’s attitude
2.3.b.- Teaching program
 
 

3.- Motivation and attitude towards learning a foreign

language
Once the individual differences have been analysed in the teaching learning
process I am now going to present some studies about motivation and interest
focused on the social context. Both, individual differences and social context play
an important role in motivation and interest, and these in a successful learning
 

3.1.- Importance of motivation and attitude in second language

learning.
During the 60’s, in Canada, Lambert followed an interesting experience in a school
and his investigation drew important conclusions as results about how motivation
and interest take part in the process of learning a second language.
The school was placed in Quebec, an area in Canada where French is spoken as
the main language, whereas in the rest of the country, English was the only official
language at that time. French speakers were fighting for a linguistic and cultural
autonomy. In this school, a group of English speaking parents suggested an
exclusive education in French for their children in order to get a better integration in
the French-speaking society where they were living and also to demonstrate their
integrating attitude in a divided society.
 

3.2.- Practical considerations to maintain motivation

The next question would be how can schools and teachers keep children’s
motivation an interest at a high level to improve their communicative competence
and to develop these positive attitudes?
3.2.a.- Individual differences
3.2.b.- Global approach
3.2.c.-  Teaching program
3.2.d.- Teacher’s role
3.2.e.- Classroom management
3.2.f.- Teacher-parents communication
 
 

4.- Conclusion
In conclusion I can state that although children follow similar patterns and paces of
development, they are different, they do not evolve at the very same rhythm, and
they are different in interests, previous knowledge and abilities.
These differences affect the general learning process. Second language learning is
also affected by these general factors and other linguistic factors such as mother
tongue development, analysis of the new linguistic code….Because of these
differences, the teaching process must be complex, flexible and varied in order to
suit every child’s needs and therefore develop a successful learning.
On the other hand, motivation and interest is another important factor for achieving
a linguistic competence in a foreign language. Individual differences and the social
context play an important role in motivation. One of the main goals as English
teachers is to keep children motivated towards English and so help them to achieve
a good linguistic competence and to be respectful and open minded towards other
cultures and realities. Motivation can be increased if personal differences are taken
into account during the teaching process, if teachers are well prepared – personally
and professionally-if the teaching program  and the classroom management is
suitable, and if communicative situations and attitudes are fostered in class and
with parents.
A Child Centred approach will have teachers designing a teaching learning process
including individual differences and taking into account students motivation and
interests. Using a Child Centred approach we will help our students to learn
English, developing not only the linguistic competence but also the learning to learn
competence and moreover, autonomy and self initiative.
 
 

5.- Bibliography
-Organic Law for the Improvement of the Quality of Education (L.O.M.C.E) 8/2013,
December 9th
-Royal Decree 126/2014 February 28th that establishes the basic curriculum for the
Primary Education
– GARDNER,H.  Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. NY:    
   Basic Books, 1993.
–   SIGUAN,M, Enseñanza en dos lenguas y resultados escolares.   
    I.C.E. 1985.
 MUÑOZ, C. Segundas lenguas. Adquisición en el aula. Ariel  
     Lingüística.2000
 LARSEN-FREEMAN,D. Introducción al estudio de la adquisición   
      de segundas lenguas. Gredos. 1994
 GENESEE,F. Educating Second Language Children. Cambridge 
      University Press. 1994
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Guía documental: lenguas
extranjeras. Primaria. Madrid, 1993.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Orientaciones didácticas. Primaria.
Madrid, 1992.
 MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN Y CIENCIA, Área de lenguas extranjeras.
Primaria. Madrid,1992.
 SCOTT,W. & YTREBERG,L. Teaching English to children. Longman.1993.