Computer Network

UNIT-4

4.1 DESIGN ISSUES OF TRANSPORT LAYER

4.2 DESIGN ISSUES OF SESSION LAYER
4.3 DESIFN ISSUES OF PRESENTATION LAYER
4.4 CONNECTION MANAGEMENT & THREE WAY HANDSHAKE
4.5 TCP WINDOW MANAGEMENT
4.6 REMOTE PROCEDURE CALL
4.7 DATA COMPRESSION TECHIQUES
4.8 CRYPTOGRAPHY
4.9 IEEE FORMAT
4.9.1 802.11 FORMAT
4.9.2 802.3 FORMAT
4.9.3 802.4 FORMAT
4.9.4 802.5 FORMAT

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4.1 DESIGN ISSUES OF TRANSPORT LAYER:

The various functions of transport layer are:
a) Establishing, Maintaining & Releasing Connection
b) Addressing
c) Data Transfer
d) Flow Control
e) Error Control
f) Congestion Control

4.2 DESIGN ISSUES OF SESSION LAYER:

4.2.1 Authentication
Authentication is the act of establishing or confirming something (or someone) as authentic, that is, that claims
made by or about the thing are true. This might involve confirming the identity of a person, the origins of an
artifact, or assuring that a computer program is a trusted one.
4.2.2 Permissions or Access control
One familiar use of authentication and authorization is access control. A computer system supposed to be used
only by those authorized must attempt to detect and exclude the unauthorized. Access to it is therefore usually
controlled by insisting on an authentication procedure to establish with some established degree of confidence the
identity of the user, thence granting those privileges as may be authorized to that identity.
4.2.3 Checkpoints
Session layer is responsible for creating several checkpoints, checkpoints are also treated as recovery points i.e. in
case of failure the system rollback to its previous checkpoint configuration or action.

4.3 DESIFN ISSUES OF PRESENTATION LAYER:

a) Data encryption/decryption

b) Character/string conversion

c) Data compression
d) Graphic handling

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4.4 CONNECTION MANAGEMENT & THREE WAY HANDSHAKE :

A TCP connection is defined to be a 4-tuple consisting of two IP addresses and two port
numbers. It is a pair of endpoints or socketswhere each endpoint is identified by an (IP address,
port number) pair. A connection typically goes through three phases:
a) Setup
b) Data transfer (called established)
c) Teardown (closing).

A three-way handshake is a method used in a TCP/IP network to create a connection between a

local host/client and server. It is a three-step method that requires both the client and server to
exchange SYN and ACK (acknowledgment) packets before actual data communication begins. A
three-way handshake is also known as a TCP handshake.
a) A client node sends a SYN data packet over an IP network to a server on the same or an

external network. The objective of this packet is to ask/infer if the server is open for new
connections.
b) The target server must have open ports that can accept and initiate new connections.

When the server receives the SYN packet from the client node, it responds and returns a
confirmation receipt – the ACK packet or SYN/ACK packet.
c) The client node receives the SYN/ACK from the server and responds with an ACK
packet.

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4.5 TCP WINDOW MANAGEMENT:

Windowing and Window Size: Window management in TCP is an important concept that ensures reliability in
packet delivery as well as reduce the wastage of time in waiting for the acknowledge after each packet.
Window size: window size determines the amount of data that you can transmit before receiving an
acknowledgment.Sliding window refers to the fact that the window size is negotiated dynamically during the TCP
session.

4.6 REMOTE PROCEDURE CALL:

A program on one computer on a network uses a Remote Procedure Call to make a request of a
program on another computer on the network without knowing the network's details. The RPC
protocol is a network programming model for point-to-point communication within or between
software applications. An RPC is also known as a subroutine call or a function call.

In RPC, the sending computer makes a request in the form of a procedure, function, or method
call. RPC translates these calls into requests and sends them over the network to the intended
destination. The RPC recipient then processes the request based on the procedure name and
argument list, and sends a response to the sender when complete. RPC applications
typically implement software modules called "proxies" and "stubs" that broker the remote calls
and make them appear to the programmer to be the same as local procedure calls.

RPC Design Issues:

Exception handling Transparency
a) Necessary because of possibility of network and nodes failures
b) RPC uses return value to indicate errors;
c) Transparency
Delivery guarantees
a) Retry request message: whether to retransmit the request message until either a reply or
the server is assumed to have failed.
b) Duplicate filtering: when retransmission are used, whether to filter out duplicates at the
server.

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c) Retransmission of replies: whether to keep a history of reply messages to enable lost

replies to be retransmitted without re-executing the server operations.

RPC Implementation Issues:

a) Interface processing: integrate the RPC mechanism with client and server programs in conventional
programming languages.
b) Communication handling: transmitting and receiving request and reply messages.
c) Binding: locating an appropriate server for a particular service.

4.7 DATA COMPRESSION TECHIQUES:

Data compression squeezes data so it requires less disk space for storage and less bandwidth on
a data transmission channel. Communications equipment like modems, bridges, and routers use
compression schemes to improve throughput over standard phone lines or leased lines.
Compression is also used to compress voice telephone calls transmitted over leased lines so that
more calls can be placed on those lines.
Two important compression concepts are lossy and lossless compression:

Lossy compression With lossy compression, it is assumed that some loss of information is
acceptable. The best example is a videoconference where there is an acceptable amount of frame
loss in order to deliver the image in real time. People may appear jerky in their movements, but
you still have a grasp for what is happening on the other end of the conference. In the case of
graphics files, some resolution may be lost in order to create a smaller file. The loss may be in
the form of color depth or graphic detail.

Lossless compression With lossless compression, data is compressed without any loss of data.
It assumes you want to get everything back that you put in. Critical financial data files are
examples where lossless compression is required

Lossy compression can provide compression ratios of 100:1 to 200:1, depending on the type of
information being compressed. Lossless compression ratios usually only achieve a 2:1
compression ratio.
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4.8 CRYPTOGRAPHY:
Cryptography is the science of using mathematics to encrypt and decrypt data. Cryptography
enables you to store sensitive information or transmit it across insecure networks (like the
Internet) so that it cannot be read by anyone except the intended recipient.

4.8.1 Symmetrical Encryption

This is the simplest kind of encryption that involves only one secret key to cipher and decipher
information. Symmetrical encryption is an old and best-known technique. It uses a secret key
that can either be a number, a word or a string of random letters. It is a blended with the plain
text of a message to change the content in a particular way. The sender and the recipient should
know the secret key that is used to encrypt and decrypt all the messages.

4.8.2 Public key cryptography

Public key cryptography is an asymmetric scheme that uses a pair of keys for encryption:
a public key, which encrypts data, and a corresponding private, or secret key for decryption. You
publish your public key to the world while keeping your private key secret. Anyone with a copy
of your public key can then encrypt information that only you can read.

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4.8.3 Digital signatures

A digital signature is superior to a handwritten signature in that it is nearly impossible to
counterfeit, plus it attests to the contents of the information as well as to the identity of the
signer.

4.9 IEEE FORMAT :

4.9.1 802.11 FORMAT

802.11 is the collection of standards set up for wireless networking. 802.11 lives in the physical
layer and data link layer in the OSI.

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4.9.2 802.3 FORMAT

IEEE 802.3 uses CSMA/CD for Multiple Access which senses carrier before transmitting and
listens for a collision while transmitting. When it detects collision it backs off and wait for
random time and retransmit.

4.9.3 802.4 FORMAT

A ring is first initialized by using a coordinator and the stations are inserted in the order of their
address.

4.9.4 802.5 FORMAT

IEEE 802.5 uses token ring technique where a small frame called token is passed around the
network. The node which passes the token can transmit data. If a node receiving the token has no
information to send, it passes the token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token
for a maximum period of time.

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EXERCISE
QUE: What is the difference between network layer delivery and the transport layer delivery?
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet across multiple network links.
The transport layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message. transport layer protocol
provides logical communication between processes running on different hosts , whereas network layer protocol
provides logical communication between hosts.

QUE: How does transport layer perform duplication control?

There are three ways to achieve this:
· restricted subnet design - requires central control of the net, coordinated changes,
careful and limited design.
· hop counters - each router decrements hop count. When count reaches zero the packet is
discarded. IP uses this.
· timestamping - simple idea, requires reasonably accurate global clock. Throw away old
packets.

QUE: What is the difference between block cipher and transposition cipher?
Both Block Cipher and Stream Cipher are belongs to the symmetric key cipher. These two
block cipher and stream cipher are the methods used for converting the plain text into cipher text.

The main difference between Block cipher and Stream cipher is that block cipher converts
Converts the plain text into cipher text by taking plain text’s block at a time. While stream cipher
Converts the plaint text into cipher text by taking 1 byte of plain text at a time.

In a transposition cipher, the plaintext is repositioned, but the letters are left unchanged. In
contrast, a substitution cipher maintains the same sequence of the plaintext and modifies the
letters themselves.

QUE: Write different steps of JPEG compression standard

JPEG Compression algorithm has five main basic steps.

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1. RGB color space to YCbCr color space Conversion

In the JPEG compression algorithm, first what it does is this conversion. An digital image in RGB format
that is a combination of Red, Green, Blue color channel is converted to YCbCr color channels. Y is the
brightness of the image and Cb is the blue difference relative to the green color and Cr is the red
difference relative to the red color.
2. Preprocessing for DCT transformation
DCT transformation stands for Discrete Cosine Transformation. Before
doing this transformation, some preprocessing should be done.
First an image need to be separated for 8*8 pixel blocks. That means each
block has 8*8 pixels and it is 64 pixels in one block. Let’s assume that the
dimensions of this image is 240*320. That means this image has 76800
pixels. if we divide this in 64 we can get the number of blocks. 76800 = 64 *
1200. That means we have 1200 blocks in this image.
3. DCT Transformation
This transformation stands for discrete cosine transformation
and this increases the effectiveness in the 5th step encoding.
Before going to this transform I’ll bit talk about the cosine
signal. Cosine signal lies in between the 1 and -1. we represent
the image pixels with different of cosine waves. By doing this
we eliminate high frequencies in the signal. Because human
eye is not sensitive to the very high frequency changes of the
image. It is the graphical explanation of this transformation.
4. Co-efficient Quantization
This step does is the values near to 0 is converted to the 0 and other elements also will be shrink towards zero.
Then each value of the resultant matrix is divided by another matrix called standard jpeg quantization table.

5. Lossless Encoding
This is the final step and this method uses huffman coding and it reduces a large amount of memory without
loosing any detail of the image. Most of the times it saves 70% of the memory. What this encoding method
does is it gets the frequency of different pixels and store that pixels and the frequency instead of storing each
pixel.

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QUE: Write short note on-

Digital Audio
The digital representation of audio data offers many advantages: high noise immunity, stability,
and reproducibility. Audio in digital form also allows the efficient implementation of many
audio processing functions (e.g., mixing, filtering, and equalization) through the digital
computer. The conversion from the analog to the digital domain begins by sampling the audio
input in regular, discrete intervals of time and quantizing the sampled values into a discrete
number of evenly spaced levels. The digital audio data consists of a sequence of binary values
representing the number of quantizer levels for each audio sample. The method of representing
each sample with an independent code word is called pulse code modulation (PCM).

Audio Compression
Digital audio compression enables more efficient storage and transmission of audio data. The
many forms of audio compression techniques offer a range of encoder and decoder complexity,
compressed audio quality, and differing amounts of data compression. The µ-law transformation
and ADPCM coder are simple approaches with low-complexity, low-compression, and medium
audio quality algorithms. The MPEG/audio standard is a high complexity, high-compression,
and high audio quality algorithm. These techniques apply to general audio signals and are not
specifically tuned for speech signals.

Streaming Audio
A one-way audio transmission over a data network. It is widely used to listen to audio clips and radio from the
Internet on computers, tablets and smartphones. In addition, computers are commonly set up to stream a user's
music collection to a digital media hub connected to a stereo or home theater. Computers and mobile devices may
also stream directly to powered speakers via Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.

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QUE: Using the RSA public key cryptography algorithm.

1) If p = 17 and q = 19, list 3 legal values for d.
2) If p = 7, q = 11, and d = 13, find e.
3) Using p = 7, q = 17, and d = 19, find e.
Encrypt "cheers" where a = 1, b = 2, c = 3, ...., and z = 26.

1) n = p x q = 17 x 19 = 323
z = (p - 1) x (q - 1) = 16 x 18 = 288
d should be relatively prime to z 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19

2) n = p x q = 7 x 11 = 77
z = (p - 1) x (q - 1) = 6 x 10 = 60
13 x e mod 60 = 1
13 x e = 1, 61, 121, 181, 241, 301, 361, 421, 481, ....
13 x e = 481 => e = 37

3) n = p x q = 7 x 17 = 119
z = (p - 1) x (q - 1) = 6 x 16 = 96
19 x e mod 96 = 1
19 x e = 1, 97, 193, 385, 481, 577, 673, 769, 865, 961, 1057, 1153, 1249, 1345, 1441,
1537, 1633, 1729, ....
19 x e = 1729 => e = 91

C = P^91 mod 119

c h e e r s
-------------------------
P= 3 8 5 5 18 19
C= 24 36 96 96 18 110

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