EECE 502: Final Year Project

“Performance Assessment of Fuel Cell Based Energy System”

Final Report

Supervisor: Dr. Riad Chedid

Done By: Tony Mina 200202374

Walid Abu Daher 200302060
Karam Wahab 200300510
Abstract

For our final year project, we chose to address one of the key problems facing the world

today; namely, the energy crisis. Fossil fuels are being consumed at an alarming rate;

experts agree that the world’s current rate of consumption is not sustainable.

Our project is an assessment of a proposed design that fuses together two renewable

energy sources and complements them with a hydrogen based fuel cell. Energy from the

sun and wind is harnessed by PV cells and wind turbines. The resulting power is then

routed to the user with the excess being sent to an electrolyser (to provide hydrogen for

the fuel cell); in case the harvested energy is below what the load requires, hydrogen is

channeled to the fuel cell which in turn provides the lacking power.

The project is modeled and assessed using Simulink and Matlab with Graphical User

Interfacing. Each of the systems components were modeled using their governing

formulae then linked. The user can view the resulting assess whether or not the load is

met depending on the choice of turbines and PV cells and the choice of weather

conditions.
 Table of Contents

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………...…………5

1.1 Problem Definition……………………………………………..……………………7

1.1.1 Scarcity……………………………………………………………………….……7

1.1.2 Economic Factors………………………………………………………………….7

1.1.3 Environmental Factors…………………………………………………………….8

1.2 The search for alternatives………………………………………………………..…10

2. Literature Review…………………………………………………………………….11

3. Project Description……………………………………………………………….….19

3.1 General Description………………………………………………………………...19

3.2 Project Relevance…………………………………………………………………...20

3.3 Main Components…………………………………………………………………..22

3.3.1 Photo-voltaic Cells………………………………………………………………..23

3.3.2 Wind Turbine…………………………………………………………………......25

3.3.3 Fuel Cell Model………………………………………………………………......28

3.3.4 The Electrolyser Model………………………………………………………...…29

3.3.5 Controller………………………………………………………………………....29

4. Implementation……………………………………………………………………....31

4.1 General Inputs……………………………………………………………………....33

4.2 Control Block 1…………………………………………………………………..…34

4.3 Wind Turbine Control………………………………………………………..……..35

4.4 Wind Power………………………………………………………………………....36

4.5 Solar Power………………………………………………………………………..37

4.6 Fuel Cell/Electrolyser Control………………………………………………….…38

4.7 Fuel Cell Block……………………………………………………………………39

4.8 Electrolyser Block…………………………………………………………………41

4.9 Hydrogen Storage Tank Block………………………………………………….…42

4.10 Dump Load……………………………………………………………………….44

5. Evaluation…………………………………………………………………………..46

5.1 The Case of Excess Energy…………………………………………………….….48

5.2 The Case of Equilibrium……………………………………………………..……49

5.3 The Case of Deficiency……………………………………………………………50

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….……52

References………………………………………………………….…………………54
1. Introduction

Fresh water and energy are the two major commodities that furnish the fundamentals of

human life. This has been respected since the dawn of civilization; all ancient

civilizations chose to settle where water was readily available. Solar energy is the oldest

and most abundant source of energy, and it is the root material for almost all fossil and

renewable energy sources.

Since the industrial revolution, man has relied primarily fossil fuel for energy production

via conventional steam plants. For example, in 1996 3000 billion kilowatthours of

electricity were produce; of these 66% operated on fossil fuels (coal 56%, petroleum 2%,

and natural gas 8%)[1].

The demand for electric power is increasing dramatically around the world. On average,

human population has been increasing at an average rate of 2% yearly [2]. An increase in

population presents an almost proportional increase in the demand for electrical power.

This contributes to further escalating the energy crisis the world is facing.

So called developing countries are demanding electric power at a rapidly increasing rate.

Countries such as China, Brazil, and India are increasing the number of their power

plants to satisfy energy requirements. This rapid increase is pushing the price of fuel

higher.
Fuel demand plays a major role in Middle-Eastern politics. This is particularly relevant in

our part of the world as much of the tension arising in neighboring countries revolves in

some way or other around the dependence of first world countries on petroleum. Much of

the wars fought in the Middle East over the past three decades revolved around the

world’s energy crisis.

1.1 Problem Definition

The current trend of oil consumption is not sustainable. This is due to three main factors:

the fact that the quantity of oil is limited, economic factors, and environmental factors.

1.1.1 Scarcity

When will our oil supply run out? While there are varying opinions on the time frame,

there does appear to be a consensus that the remaining world oil supply is not sustainable.

The US Department of Energy states that oil production will not peak until close to 2040,

while the work of other geologists claim that this will occur as early as 2010 but no later

than 2020.

Several models have been developed to estimate how much of the global supply remains.

While there are many forecasts, the numbers merely divide the experts into optimists who

believe we have 30 plus years remaining versus pessimists who believe we have much

less time.

1.1.2 Economic Factors

But the question is not so much about whether oil will continue to exist, but whether

there will be sufficient supplies at affordable prices. For countries such as the

United States, who import a large percentage of their oil, availability and price are big

considerations. As oil reserves continue to be depleted, it is clear that independence from

the oil producing countries is an important objective for many nations. The scarcity of the

oil supply coupled with the increasing demand is driving oil prices to record highs.

There is another long-term economic factor to be considered. As fuel sources continue to

be depleted, we are forced to extract fuel from more remote locations. The exhaustion of

readily available fuel wells has led oil companies to extract fuel from deeper reservoirs

and from ocean wells. This makes extracting the fuel more expensive thus adding to the

cost of fuel in the future.

1.1.3 Environmental Factors

Producing energy using fossil fuels is based on the combustion of these fuels. This

inevitably involves the pollution of the surrounding air. While the primary source of air

pollution is emissions from vehicles, power production using fossil fuels contributes to

this as well. The increased exposure to air pollutants has long been linked to a significant

rise in serious health problems. Short term exposure may cause eye irritation, sore throats

and shortness of breath, while longer-term exposure can lead to cancer, heart problems

and other life threatening diseases as exemplified by the growing incidence of asthma

among younger children. Most industrialized nations continue to experience higher than

acceptable limits of pollutants. On a worldwide basis, air pollution contributes to an

estimated 500,000 premature deaths annually [4].

Another major environmental concern is the amounts of gases, such as carbon dioxide,

methane and nitrous oxide that are released into the atmosphere daily causing greenhouse

gases. Greenhouse gases (GHG) are primarily produced from burning hydrocarbon fuels.
These gases trap heat, which many believe leads to globally warming and ultimately to

the instability of the entire ecosystem. The higher the levels of carbon dioxide in the

environment, the hotter the temperature. As an example, the planet Venus, thick with

carbon dioxide is extremely hot, while Mars has a thin atmosphere resulting in very cold

temperatures. Evidence abounds that changes in weather patterns have already begun.

The average global temperature rose 0.6 °C during the 20th century with the 1990’s being

the warmest decade in human history. Once the industrial revolution began, the amount

of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 30% [4]. It continues to increase at

a rate of 0.4% per year, driven mainly by the combustion of fossil fuels and deforestation.
1.2 The search for alternatives

The above mentioned factors have fueled the development of alternative energy sources.

Alternative energy relies on renewable sources such as hydropower, geothermal energy,

solar energy, and wind energy. The advantages of such energy sources are many. They

are virtually inexhaustible, they are abundant everywhere in the world (this applies

especially to solar energy), and they yield no environmental disadvantages. It is worth

mentioning however that there is an underlying irony regarding the development of

viable alternative energy sources. The majority of development resources available to

major oil companies are directed towards refining the oil extraction and refining

processes rather than funding large scale alternative energy research. Many experts have

noted that we could be well into our journey towards alternative energy sources within 10

years if government and industry were genuinely motivated to make it happen. The main

reason alternative energy research is so poorly funded is the huge profits companies make

in dealing oil.
2. Literature Review

The article by M. Santarelli and S. Macagno [5] describes a theoretical stand

alone energy system based only or solar irradiance. This system utilizes PV cells to

provide three things: All of the power requirements, part of the heating requirements, and

hydrogen for storage. The purpose of this system is to supply the complete electric and

part of the heat requests of a small residential user in a remote area (an isolated building

in a valley of the Alps in Italy) during a complete year of operation without integration of

a traditional energy system based on fossil fuels. The system analyzed is composed of a

PV array integrated with an electrolyser, with a tank where the hydrogen is stored as

compressed gas and with a proton exchange membrane fuel cell. Such a system has no

pollutant emissions and is environmentally friendly. This article is very helpful to us

despite the lack of wind turbines in the proposed system. The article accurately describes

the usage of PV cells over the course of an entire year. Furthermore, the load considered

in this article is a residential one which further enhances this article’s relevance. The

article accurately describes the energy requirements of this residence over an entire year.

This will be helpful for future load models. However, the heating requirements presented

in this article will be disregarded as the proposed residence is located in a cold mountain

region (the Italian Alps).

In the article by K’elouwani, Agbossou, Chahine [6], a model is developed to simulate a

power generator fed by renewable energy sources (wind and solar), with batteries and

gaseous hydrogen as energy reservoirs, and electrolyzers and fuel cells as converters of

energy between electrical and hydrogen. Power that is dispatched from the wind turbine
or P/V cell is changed to DC then fed to a DC bus. Later at the load a converter is used

to change current to AC. Batteries are inserted as energy buffers to handle current spikes

or for short time storage; these batteries act as a system-controlling variable that controls

the variability of the bus voltage. Also two important components are being studied: the

buck and boost converters. The buck converter controls the input current to the

electrolyzer cells. This buck converter is a dc voltage reducer designed to maximize the

power transfer from the dc bus to the electrolyzer cells. It uses the multiphase technique

to generate pulse-width modulated (PWM) signals. The boost converter is designed with

the same multiphase switching technique and pulse-width modulated signals, as was used

for the buck converter in order to maximize the power transfer between the FC and the dc

bus. A design is shown below. Also in this article a simulation block diagram is given

based on many equations and an experimental analysis is studied.

This article is relevant to our project but still there are some irrelevant issues like the

type of simulation used to model the system.

 Fig: Block Model of the system described above

This article by Shakyaa, Ayea [7] studies the feasibility of a stand-alone hybrid wind–

photovoltaic (PV) system incorporating compressed hydrogen gas storage in Cooma

(Australia). This system is known for very low efficiency and very high cost. Most of

the cost is due to the hydrogen generation unit consisting of the electrolyser and the

hydrogen purification unit (52% of total cost). On the other hand the hydrogen storage

system does not have high cost. Also hydrogen storage cost is less than battery storage

for long periods. What is totally irrelevant to our project here is that fuel cells are not

used, alternatively hydrogen gas is directly used in diesel generators (modified for using

hydrogen) to generate electricity.

This paper by Nelson, Nehrir, and Wang [8] presents an economical evaluation of a

hybrid wind/PV/FC generation system and a cost comparison with a wind/PV/battery

system for a typical home in the US Pacific Northwest. Current cost figures as well as

the break-even line distance comparison show a clear economic advantage of the

traditional wind/PV/battery system over the wind/PV/FC/electrolyser system, indicating a

need for research and technological advances in the FC/electrolyser area. With

improvement in the efficiency of both FC and electrolyser, it is possible that

FC/electrolyser storage system be economically competitive in the future. Furthermore,

the article presents a suitable control algorithm. This algorithm is presented below.

In the article by Dutton, Bleijs etc… [9] a wind-powered hydrogen plant is designed and

studied. The aim of the study is to determine the tolerance of conventional electrolysers

to input power fluctuations and the potential for smoothing the output from wind power

generators. Also this article studied the cost of this hydrogen from renewable power

generation and found it to be very costly compared to fossil fuel derived hydrogen, or

grid connected electrolysers where the input current is almost constant. As a result

hydrogen from renewable model may be only used in markets where fossil fuel is very

expensive.

This article didn’t discuss how hydrogen is converted into electricity. The comparison

between the two hydrogen extraction schemes is not important for us because the fossil

fuel hydrogen extraction is a non-renewable operation which is outside the aims of our

project. The relevance of this article lies in the use of variable speed wind turbines or a

battery bank for power smoothing.

The article by Frank Menzel concerning a Windmill-Electrolyser system [10] bears some

resemblance to our system. In his article, Menzel describes a system that utilizes wind
energy to both power a load and provide hydrogen for later conversion. The components

of this system are briefly described and some tests are run on the electrolyser and the fuel

cell under various conditions. This text also includes data on catalytic burners. It states

the advantages of using catalytic burners. These include high safety standards, low

emissions, and sturdy constructions. This article is of limited relevance to our project as

the aim of the system is testing and research rather than providing a practical renewable

energy solution. Also, this system relies primarily on wind power. Our project aims to a

system that relies on both wind and solar energy. However, some of the test results and

hardware descriptions are useful.

The paper by Brenda Johnston, Michael C. Mayo, Anshuman [11] discusses Hydrogen as

a fuel broadly. It begins with a listing of motivating factors that drive today’s research

towards alternative fuels. The paper then lists current alternative fuels and singles out

Hydrogen as the most commercially viable. The benefits of using Hydrogen as a fuel are

then discussed. These include energy security, environmental friendliness, and

abundance. It continues to describe how Hydrogen based fuel cells operate and the

advantages Hydrogen fuel cells bear over conventional energy sources. These include

zero emissions, higher efficiency, lower maintenance, and flexibility. The article then

proceeds to discuss the challenges facing hydrogen based power. Challenges include

production, storage, distribution, safety, and public perception. The paper concludes with

brief descriptions of developing hydrogen-based fuel alternatives found in Iceland,

Canada, the US, and Japan. While this article contains no information concerning a stand-

alone PV and wind turbine system, it is relevant to our project. It establishes that there is

a need for renewable systems and provides a great deal of relevant background

information for our project.

In Kolhe and Agbossou [12], a similar system has been developed at the Hydrogen

Research Institute (HRI) consisting of a 1 kW (peak) photovoltaic (PV) array and a 10

kW wind turbine generator (WTG), coupled with a 5 kW electrolyzer. The stored

hydrogen is converted back to electricity via a 5 kW fuel cell generator. These devices

are connected to a 48 V DC bus through power conditioning devices such as AC/DC,

boost and buck converters. The efficiency of the PV is analyzed and equations provided

(including calculations of solar radiation).

It discussed an effective energy management process that is controlled by the battery

state-of-charge (SOC). This is an important topic since it shows one of the ways of

control that our system may use.

A complete methodology has been given to determine the performance of the system.

With the help of this methodology, one can easily estimate the effective contribution of a

PV array and a WTG for energy production and their relative power contribution to the

load and energy storage.

A technical and economical feasibility has been discussed by Da Siliva [13]. It discussed

water electrolysis in detail showing the two types; monopolar and dipolar design.

Tabulated were the: Power of the electrolysis plant, Plant availability, Electric efficiency

of the electrolyzer, Minimum energy necessary to produce 1 m3 of hydrogen, Annual

discount rate, Amortization time, Unitary cost of the electrolysis plant, and Electricity

cost.
It displays the costs feasibility of hydrogen systems which tends to be much lower for

larger plants and this might be a very important resource for future investments in the

Hydrogen Economy.

A system like ours is described by Chaparro and Soler [14], installed in Madrid (Spain)

as the result of a European project. It is composed of a photovoltaic, generator, a battery

set for short-term storage, an electrolyser, a metal-hydride system for hydrogen storage

and a fuel cell. Solar energy is converted into constant, uninterrupted, 200–300W of

electricity, intended for a telecommunication system, remote signal or any other

application demanding 3–4 kWh daily during all the year.

The article mainly discusses efficiency of the path of energy conversion of the system.

Solar energy conversion to electricity may occur by two paths:

(1) Direct path: solar→electricity (ηPV)

(2) Hydrogen path: solar→electricity→hydrogen→electricity (ηH = ηPVηELηFC)

As displayed below:

Fig2: Energy flow paths

In the article by Gall and Stefanoni [15], they talk about the solar-hydrogen cycle, which

is somewhat similar to our project and has relevant information such as; a detailed

process of electrolysis, the specifications of an electrolyser, hydrogen storage procedure,

Fuel cell functionality, Monitoring and control, and building the actual plant.
3. Project Description

3.1 General Description

The project we are assessing is a hydrogen fuel cell based hybrid energy system. This

system comprises 5 main components. These are a PV panel, a wind turbine, an

electrolyser, a hydrogen based fuel cell, and an energy flow control unit. The components

will interact as follows. The PV panel and wind turbine harness both solar and wind

energy to provide the load with its required power. In cases when we have excess power,

the power is channeled to the electrolyser. The electrolyser uses this excess power to

extract hydrogen from water. This extracted hydrogen is stored in a hydrogen tank for

later use. We store the hydrogen until the PV panel and wind turbine cannot provide

enough power for the load. The hydrogen is then channeled to a hydrogen based fuel cell

which will convert the hydrogen into electricity. The energy flow control unit controls the

flow of power depending on the wind and sun conditions.

Fig.3: Simplified Schematic of System

The system we chose to asses includes two of the most abundant renewable energy

sources, namely the sun and wind. We chose these sources because of the ease of their

harness and their wide availability. Yet there is a problem. The varying nature of solar

and wind energy causes a mismatch between the supply and demand in the system. This

mismatch occurs in two different forms: a diurnal mismatch and a seasonal mismatch.

To compensate for this, our project utilizes an electrolyser, a hydrogen tank, and a

hydrogen based fuel cell. As mentioned above, the excess energy is converted into

hydrogen by means of electrolysis. When the load requirement exceeds the generation

capacity, the hydrogen is utilized by means of the hydrogen based fuel cell.

We chose to utilize the electrolyser/hydrogen based fuel cell set-up over a battery for

several reasons. The overall efficiency of the chosen set-up exceeds that of a battery.

Also, batteries have limited capacities while the chosen set-up’s capacity is limited only

by the amount of stored hydrogen. This increased capacity is essential since there might

be circumstances when power generation is cut out for extended periods. Another

drawback of batteries is their limited life time as batteries usually have finite number of

charge cycles.

3.2 Project Relevance

In light of all the draw backs of fossil fuel based energy production mention in the

introduction, alternative methods of supplying electrical power are becoming increasingly

relevant. The proposed project is completely detached from the power grid and thus uses
no polluting energy sources. Instead, it relies purely on renewable energy thus negating

all the negative implications of fossil fuel power.

While our project does not embody the future of power production, it has another critical

advantage. It presents an economically feasible way of providing power to very remote

locations or locations to which power lines cannot easily be extended to reach. The

system is a stand alone system so it avoids the need to extend power lines to remote

places such as facilities on small islands, and remote mountain residences.

The main drawback of systems such as ours is the extremely high initial cost. Alternative

energy devices have no economy of scale and are therefore very expensive. However, the

economic aspects and feasibility of such systems is outside the scope of this project.
3.3 Main Components

The components of the system will be discussed in black-box form at this stage of the

project. The formulae governing the generation of power from the wind turbine and the

PV cells is described below.

As for the operational characteristics of the hydrogen based fuel cell, they do not fall

within the scope of this project; it will therefore be taken in black-box form for the

entirety of the project. What concerns this project is the power output we will get for a

given input of hydrogen. These will be further investigated during the implementation

part of the project. The details of the electrolyser and the hydrogen tanks will also be

further investigated in the implementation part of the project.

The control aspect of the assessment is deeply rooted in the modeling of the system. The

entire Simulink model is geared around several control blocks that route the power flow

to where it is needed. A detailed discussion of the system’s control is present in the

discussion of the Simulink blocks.

3.3.1 Photo-voltaic Cells

Photo-voltaic cells where first produced in 1954. The majority of PV cells are silicon

semiconductor junction devices. PV cells operate on the principles of the photovoltaic

effect. Sunlight is composed of photons, each containing a different amount of energy

(depending on the wavelength). When a photon striking a PV cell is absorbed its energy

is transferred to an electron which now has the sufficient energy to escape its previous

position. This movement of electrons generates a current thus converting sunlight to

electrical energy.

The formulae governing the PV cell output are as follows. Please note that the following

is taken from the course files of EECE 684E.

+
Load or battery
IB Rsh
Cell
output v
ID
_

Iph

Fig.4: PV cell circuit diagram

Isc =Iph – Io (e ((q RsIsc)/AKTo) -1) – (RsIsc)/Rp

Voc = AKTo/q (ln(Iph + Io)/Io)

Prated = ISCVOC
Where: I ph – the photon current

Id – the diode current in the dark

Rsh, Rs are the shunt and series resistances of the cell

Load current: I = Iph – ID – (V – Irs ) / Rsh

And Iph = [ Isc,r + Ki ( T – T r ) ] S / 100

Where Isc,r is the cell short circuit current at reference temperature and radiation, Ki is the

short circuit current temperature coefficient and S is the solar radiation in mW/cm2

ID is the diode current in the dark: ID = Ir – Ig

Where

• Ig = thermally generated current

• Ir = recombination current generated under forward bias

1 – if there is no bias : Ir = Ig

2 – if there is positive forward bias, Ir becomes an increased forward current

Ir = Ig exp ( ev / kT)

k = Boltzman’s constant

Since, PV modules consist of cells connected in series and in //

I = np Iph – np Ig [ exp (e/kTA)(V/ns) – 1 ]

The PV array power can be calculated as P = VI

Or:

P = np Iph V – np Ig V [ exp (e/kTA)(V/ns) – 1 ]

The specifications of the PV generator are determined depending on the load which is in

this case a home.

3.3.2 Wind Turbine

Most wind turbines run at almost constant speed with direct grid connection since it is

required to keep a constant frequency equal to the grid frequency. With indirect grid

connection (in our case) turbine generator runs in its own, separate mini AC-grid. This

grid is controlled electronically (using an inverter), so that the frequency of the

alternating current in the stator of the generator may be varied. In this way it is possible

to run the turbine at variable rotational speed. Thus the turbine will generate alternating

current at exactly the variable frequency applied to the stator.

The generator may be either a synchronous generator or an asynchronous generator, and

the turbine may have a gearbox, or run without a gearbox if the generator has many poles.

In our stand-alone system, using an asynchronous (induction) generator, it is possible to

run the wind turbine at variable speeds, so gusts of wind can be allowed to make the rotor

turn faster, thus storing part of the excess energy as rotational energy until the gust is

over.

Disadvantage:

• The turbine will need a rectifier and two inverters, one to control the stator

current, and another to generate the output current.

• Energy lost in the AC-DC-AC conversion process, and the fact that power

electronics may introduce harmonic distortion of the alternating current, thus

reducing power quality.

• Brushes and slip rings (increasing maintenance costs)

An asynchronous generator is different, because it requires the stator to be magnetized

from the grid before it works. You can run an asynchronous generator in a stand alone

system, however, if it is provided with capacitors which supply the necessary

magnetization current. It also requires that there be some remanence in the rotor iron, i.e.

some leftover magnetism when you start the turbine. Otherwise you will need a battery

and power electronics, or a small diesel generator to start the system).

Wind Turbines with Synchronous Generators

Out of the synchronous machines in practice, permanent magnet synchronous generators

are not used very much. There are several reasons for this. One reason is that permanent

magnets tend to become demagnetized by working in the powerful magnetic fields inside

a generator. Another reason is that powerful magnets (made of rare earth metals, e.g.

Neodynium) are rather expensive. The advantage of the permanent magnet is lack of

brushes and slip rings (reducing O & M costs). A disadvantage of the permanent magnet

is the risk of being demagnetized due to high magnetic fields in the turbine.

Wind turbines which use synchronous generators normally use electromagnets in the

rotor which are fed by direct current from the electrical grid. If you disconnect the

generator from the main grid, however, you will have to crank it at a constant rotational

speed in order to produce alternating current with a constant frequency. Most

Synchronous generators need a Direct Current supplying it to the coil windings around

the electromagnets in the rotor.

In practice, permanent magnet synchronous generators are not used very much because of

the mentioned drawback, but since our turbine will be relatively small with lower
magnetization, it can be used to supply the house. Also the synchronous machine has

approximately 10% higher efficiency than the induction machines.

The choice of our wind turbine is based on the Cut-In Wind Speed, Cut-Off Wind Speed,

Rated Wind Speed, Rated Power, and Swept Area of the blades. The rated power is

chosen according to the value of the load.

1
The power extracted from the wind is: Pw = ρ ⋅ Cp ⋅ A ⋅ V 3
2

Where Cp is a characteristic of our wind turbine, A is the area covered by the rotor in m2,

and V is the wind speed in m/s.

This model is based on the following curve:

PT (Output), W

actual

Pr Standar
d

u, m/s
Cut Rated Cut out
in speed speed
speed
3.3.3 Fuel Cell Model

The fuel cell will be used in conjunction with the electrolyser when the Wind/PV
generators fail to supply the load with sufficient energy. The fuel cell equivalent circuit is
as follows [19]:

Fig.9: Fuel cell equivalent circuit model [19]

Where E is defined via Nernst equation, Ra is the activation resistance, and Rint is the
internal resistance of the fuel cell [19]. The dynamics of the fuel cell are modeled by the
addition of a capacitor C in the following:

E = 1.229 − 0.85 × 10 −3 (T − 298.15) + 4.3085 × 10 −5 ⋅ T ⋅ (ln PH 2 + 0.5 ln PO2 )

# of H 2 moles × Faraday Constant

IFC =
# of Cells

For a given number of H2 molecules (in moles), a corresponding current (IFC) and voltage
(VFC) is produced resulting in the power required to be supplied.

The voltage-current relation for the fuel cell model is given as follows:

VFC = E + Vc − Rint I FC
dVc
Vc = Ra I FC − Ra C
dt
dVc
VFC = E + Ra I FC − Ra C − Rint I FC
dt

Output power of Fuel Cell = IFCVFC

3.3.4 The Electrolyser Model

In modeling the electrolyser, we got a mathematical formula from [2]. This formula

relates the quantity of hydrogen produced from electrolysis to the current entering the

electrolyser.

VH2 = 5.18 x 10-6. I electrolyzer (moles/ s)

3.3.5 Controller

The controller of the system is presented below in general algorithm form.

Fig5: Algorithm used by the controller

As is demonstrated in the figure above, the controler is responsible for routing the power.

If the Wind and PV generators are meeting the load requirement, excess power is routed

to the electrolyser. In case the H2 tanks are full, the power is sent to a dump load. If the

Wind/PV generators cannot meet the load, the controller operates the fuel cell and routes

the power it produces to the load. As stated earlier, detailed discussion of the control

aspect is present in the Simulink discussion.

4. Implementation

The following section will elaborate on each of the Simulink system components.

The project was implemented using Matlab (Simulink). Each of the components

mentioned above was modeled individually. These components were then linked, taking

into consideration the control aspect of the system.

The general methodology used in the development of the Simulink program is the

following. Initially, each of the system blocks (these include inputs such as wind speed,

required area for PV cells, etc… and system components) was modeled in isolation. After

completing models for the main blocks (the main components) of the system, the group

began linking these components in a manner that would provide the desired output; i.e.

taking into consideration the control aspect of routing power to the system’s components.

After modeling the energy sources and sinks, we modeled several control blocks to

control the energy flow. The control aspect of the system was our main focus through out

the implementation of the Simulink section.

The full system’s model is as following:

Fig. 7: Simulink Model Overview
4.1 General Inputs

Area: This input describes the swept area of the blades. This is used in determining the

energy produced by the wind turbines.

W: This input describes the wind speed. This can be entered as an average value or as a

random graph.

S: This input describes the solar irradiance in the area of the PV cells. This can also be

entered as an average value or a random graph. Needless to say, this is instrumental in

calculating the energy produced by the solar panels.

a_pv: This input describes the area occupied by the PV cells, also instrumental in the

calculation of the energy produced by the PV cells.

G1/G2/G3: These are control inputs. These determine whether the user has opted to use

an average value or import a random graph (input 0).

Fig. 8: System Inputs

4.2 Control Block 1

The task of this control block is to decide what sort of input the system will receive; it

allows the user to choose between using an average value and importing a random graph

for both solar and wind. The output of this block is the user’s chosen mode.

Fig. 8: Overview of Control Block 1

Expanded, the control block view is as follows:

Fig 9: Expanded View of Control Block 1

The switches above decide the type of input the user wants. If the user inputs “0”, the

switch chooses to pass a random graph, if the user inputs a numeric value, the switch

chooses that numeric value as an average speed. This block also allows the user to choose

which type of wind turbine to employ. The scopes are placed to verify that the proper

input was chosen and to view the random graph.

4.3 Wind Turbine Control

The task of this block is the measuring of wind speed and making sure it is within the

acceptable range. It applies the principles of Cut in and Cut off discussed previously.

Fig 10: Wind Turbine Control Block Overview

Expanded

Fig 11: Wind Turbine Control Block Expanded

The cut in and cut out speeds are determined according to the choice of turbine the user

makes. The block compares the inputted wind speed to these values, if it falls within the

acceptable range; it is passed to the wind power block. The AND operator will make sure

that a value not in the acceptable range is not passed. Again, the scopes are present for

verification purposes (this is true for all expanded blocks).

4.4 Wind Power

The Task of this block is to compute the power generated by the wind turbines. It has

three inputs; wind speed, the swept area of the blades, and a control input which is

discussed above.

Fig 12: Overview of Wind Power block

Expanded,

Fig 13: Expanded View of Wind Power Block

The function of this block is to apply the formula for calculating the power generated by

the turbines (mentioned earlier); the application of the formula occupies all inputs except

the last. The last input is the number of turbines; this takes into consideration the number

of turbines employed by the user.

4.5 Solar Power

As with the wind power block, the task of this block is to apply the formula. It calculates

the power generated by the PV cells as stated in the governing formula.

Fig 13: Solar Power Block

4.6 Fuel Cell/Electrolyser Control

The task of this block is to assess the power generated by the renewable energy sources.

It takes the sum of the power generated by the PV cells and the wind turbines and

compares it to the power required by the load. If there is an excess of power, it routes this

excess power to the electrolyser. If the power is deficient, it sends a control signal to the

fuel cell to compensate.

Fig 14: Fuel cell/Electrolyser Control Block Overview

Expanded

Fig 15: Expanded View of Fuel cell/Electrolyser Control Block

The inputs of this block are: The energy from the wind turbines; the energy from the solar

panel; the energy being generated by the fuel cell; and the energy required by the load

(which can be either an average value or a random graph). In accordance with the control

paths set earlier, the energy, be it excess or deficient is routed to its proper destination.

The comparisons are carried out by the relational operators that give Boolean outputs.

4.7 Fuel Cell Block

This block models the behaviour of the system’s fuel cell. It has three inputs. P_needed,

this input represents the amount of energy the system requires (in the case of insufficient

wind and solar irradiance). H2_storage, this represents the amount of hydrogen in the

hydrogen tank. Fuel cell control, this input comes from the Fuel cell/Electrolyser Control

Block and either activates or deactivates the fuel cell.

Fig 16: Fuel Cell Block Overview

Expanded,

Fig. 16: Expanded View of Fuel Cell Block (colored boxes are expanded below)

The 10% limit switch limits the hydrogen tank’s draining to 10% of its full value (300L).

The fuel cell current block converts the power needed from the fuel to current. Knowing

the power needed, the fuel cell current can be calculated through the following equation:

2
Needed_Power = V_FCt ∗ i_FC − R_FCt ∗ (i_FC )

Expanded, it is as follows:

Fig 17: Fuel Cell Current Block Expanded

The voltage referring block steps up the voltage. The obtained fuel cell current will

determine the H2 consumption rate, but it is not the current to be delivered to the load

because it is produced at different voltage. Thus a voltage referring box is needed to work

In the load voltage. Expanded, it is as follows:

Fig 18: Voltage Referring Block Expanded

4.8 Electrolyser Block

The task of this block is to apply the electrolyser formula as mentioned earlier in this

report.

Fig 18: Electrolyser Block Overview

Expanded,

Fig 19: Electrolyser Block Expanded View

4.9 Hydrogen Storage Tank Block

This is the model of the hydrogen tank responsible for either supplying hydrogen to the

fuel cell in case of deficiency or taking hydrogen from the electrolyser in case of surplus.

It also converts the current needed into moles of H2 using the formula mentioned earlier

in the report.

Fig 20: Hydrogen Tank Storage Overview

The inputs of the block are the fuel cell current, the electrolyser current and the system’s

excess generated power. Its outputs are H2_Storage which informs the controller the

amount of H2 in the tank (in moles), and H2_Production output tells the system if the

tank can store additional hydrogen; when full, it tells the controller to route the power to

the dump load.

Expanded

Fig 21: Expanded View of Hydrogen Storage Tank

The detailed view of the hydrogen tank exposes many of the block’s function. The task of

the first switch (top left) is to check whether there is an excess of power, if there is, the
switch passes the electrolyser signal; if not the switch passes 0. Another switch (center)

checks if the H2 level is full or not. If full, the power is sent to the dump load. The block

also incorporates memory functions. This is to check the previous state of hydrogen in

the tank and increment or decrement it according to the new state. Another function of

the block is to begin the simulation with the hydrogen level at an initial value (chosen

here to be 400) which may be changed by the programmer.

4.10 Dump Load

All unwanted power in the system is sent to this block. It has two inputs; the excess

power and a signal from the hydrogen tank. If the hydrogen tank is full, it send the

remainder of the excess power to dump.

Expanded

Fig 22: Expanded View of Dump Load

The Dump Load also incorporates a Unit Delay. This proved instrumental for the system

to function properly as the control signal from the hydrogen tank arrived later than the

signal of excess power from the controller.

5. Evaluation

The main goal of our evaluation was to make sure that the main system components are

interacting properly. That is to say that the control blocks are routing the power to where

it belongs.

This was done by placing scopes at the key points of the system and monitoring their

outputs. The outputs monitored are the following:

1. The sum of power generated by both the PV cells and the wind turbine(s)

2. The power required from the full cell (the difference between the load and the

power generated)

3. The systems excess power (the difference between the power generated and the

load)

4. The H2 level in the hydrogen tank

5. The amount of power dumped

6. The load requirement

7. The output of the fuel cell

The evaluation was carried out by simulating the system over a period of 2 hours (7200

seconds) with a period of 180 seconds. The conditions the system was put under were

variable. That is to say that every 180 seconds, the wind speed, solar irradiance, and load

requirements change. The values chosen (the mean values and variances) for each of the

conditions were chosen for testing purposes.

In the following, we will verify that the system simulation is working as it should by

considering different sections of the above plot.

5.1 The Case of Excess Energy

Fig 24: The plot of Excess energy

In the scenario where the power generated by the renewable energy sources exceeds the

needs of the load, we notice the following:

• The required fuel cell power is negative (and equal in magnitude to the excess

power)
 • The H2 level is rising proportionally to the excess of power (since the H2 level

was low) between seconds 4320 and 4460.

• At second 4460, the Hydrogen tank reaches its maximum; here we notice that the

excess power is routed to the dump load.

• The fuel cell power remains zero as the fuel cell provides no power when there is

excess power.

5.2 The Case of Equilibrium

Fig 25: The plot of Equilibrium

In the scenario where the generated power meets exactly the load power, we notice the

following:

• The required fuel cell power is zero.

• The H2 level remains constant.

• No power is sent to the dump load.

• The fuel cell power remains constant at zero value.

5.3 The Case of Deficiency

Fig 26: The plot of deficiency

In the scenario where the generated energy falls short of the energy required by the load,

we notice the following:

• The required fuel cell power is positive and equal to the difference between the

load and the generated power.

• The H2 level begins decreasing at approximately second 5575; when the

generated power no longer meets the load.

• Also at second 5575, the fuel cell power rises to compensate, and the dump power

becomes zero as there is no more excess power.

• At approximately second 5775, the hydrogen tank reaches is minimum capacity

and cannot supply the fuel cell. Here we notice that the fuel cell power becomes

zero and the load is no longer met.

N.B.: The same results were obtained for many other values using random graphs.
Conclusion

The design we have chose exploits nature’s two most abundant energy sources. We

utilized solar and wind energy sources to supply electrical power. A fuel cell incorporated

in the design is used to level out any mismatch between the generation and the load.

Using this design, a load can be supplied with continuous electrical energy while

operating purely on renewable energy sources.

This is the section of loose ends, and there are a few we wish to address. Firstly, the

question of cost analysis. Initially, we had planned to include a cost analysis aspect to our

system for comparison with a similarly sized project powered by the grid. This plan was

abandoned for three reasons. Firstly, there was a timing glitch in the simulation which

took much longer to fix than we had anticipated. Secondly, including a cost analysis tool

proved more complex and difficult than we had thought and is outside the scope of this

project as this is a performance assessment. Thirdly, initial calculations showed that a

system similar to ours would produce power ranging in price from $3/kwhr to $9/kwhr

depending on the type of wind turbines chosen. This is much more expensive than power

produced by fossil fuels (mainly due to high initial cost of a hybrid system) and there is

no need for a more detailed comparison.

Secondly, the simulation interface and the Matlab code were not described in this report.

The interface is graphical and is relatively straight forward. The Matlab code can be

found in the included softcopy and includes nothing worth detailed mention.
During the testing of our simulation, it became abundantly clear that if our proposed

design were implemented, it would not meet the load requirements in unfavourable

conditions. The size of the hydrogen tank would have to be several times larger than the

one considered for it to provide uninterrupted power under all conditions. So, while it can

sustain power for small periods of interruption, it would not be prudent to relinquish the

grid connection.

Another point we would like to raise is that all equipment in our simulation (PV cells,

wind turbines, electrolyser, hydrogen tank, fuel cell) are approximated models of real life

hardware. They are not exact representations however as the search for such information

proved troublesome and difficult to model accurately. This is a recommendation for

future work.

We would however like to state that we were pleased with the results of our simulation. It

produced logical and sound outputs (as was demonstrated earlier) for all manner of

inputs.

To conclude, hybrid systems such as the one proposed are not yet a feasible alternative to

fossil fuels. The initial cost of such systems is unfeasibly high and they still face

problems with providing continuous power.

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