AICE Bio Notes Pages 186-190

Gas Exchange
The human gas exchange system links the circulatory system with the atmosphere. It’s adapted to:

 Clean and warm the air that enters during breathing

 Maximize the surface are for diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and
atmosphere
 Minimize the distance for this diffusion
 Maintain adequate gradients for this diffusion

In single-celled organisms, the oxygen simply diffuses from the fluid out the cell, through the cell surface
membrane and into the cytoplasm. In multicellular organism (e.g., human) however most of the cells are a
considerable distance away from the external environment from which the oxygen is obtained.
Multicellular organisms therefore usually have a specialized gas exchange surface where oxygen from
the external environment can diffuse into the body, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out.

In humans, the gas exchange surface is the alveoli (singular: alveolus) in the lungs. Although each
individual alveolus is tiny, the alveoli collectively have a huge surface area, probably totaling round 70
2
m in an adult. This means that a large number of oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules can diffuse
through the surface at any one moment to hive a high rate of gas exchange.

Lungs
The lungs are in the thoracic (chest) cavity surrounded by the pleural membranes, which enclose an
airtight space. This space contains a small quantity of fluid to allow friction-free movement as the lungs
are ventilated by the movement of the diaphragm and ribs.

Trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles

The lungs are ventilated w/ air that passes through a branching system of airways. Leading from the
throat to the lungs is the trachea. At the base of the trachea are 2 bronchi (singular: bronchus), which
subdivide and branch extensively forming a bronchial ‘tree’ in each lung. Each bronchus divides many
times to form small bronchioles. Terminal bronchioles divide to form even narrower respiratory
bronchioles that supply the alveoli w/ the air.
Cartilage in the trachea and bronchi keeps these airways open and the air resistance low and prevents
them from collapsing or bursting as the air pressure changes during breathing. In the trachea, there is a
regular arrangement of C-shaped rings of cartilage; in the bronchi, there are irregular blocks of cartilage
instead.
Bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle, which can contract or relax to adjust the diameter of these
tiny airways. During exercise, the muscles relax to allow a greater flow of air to the alveoli. The absence
of cartilage makes these adjustments possible.

Warming & Cleaning the Air

As air flows through the nose and the trachea, it’s warmed to body temperature and moistened by
evaporation from the lining, so protecting the delicate surfaces inside the lungs from desiccation (drying
out). Protection is also needed against the suspended matter carried in the air, which may include dust,
sand, pollen, fungal spores, bacteria, and viruses. All are potential threats to the proper functioning of
the lungs. Particles larger than about 5-10um are caught on the hairs inside the nose & the mucus lining
the nasal passages and other airways.

In trachea and bronchi, mucus is produced by goblet cells of the ciliated epithelium. The upper part of
each goblet cell is swollen w/ mucin droplets which have been secreted by the cell. Mucus is a slimy
solution of mucin, which is composed of glycoproteins w/ many carbohydrate chains that make them
sticky and be able to trap inhaled particles.

The rest of goblet cell, which contains the nucleus, is quite slender like the stem of a goblet. Mucus is
also made by mucous glands beneath the epithelium. Some chemical pollutants (e.g., sulfur dioxide &
nitrogen dioxide), can dissolve in mucus to form an acidic solution that irritates the lining of the airways.

Between the goblet cells are ciliated cells. Continual beating of their cilia carries the carpet of mucus
upwards towards the larynx at a speed of about 1cm mi n−1. When mucus reaches the top of the trachea
it’s usually swallowed so that pathogens are destroyed by the acid in the stomach.

Phagocytic white blood cells known as macrophages patrol the surfaces of the airways scavenging small
particles such as bacteria & fine dust particles. During an infection, the macrophages are joined by other
phagocytic cells which leave the capillaries to help remove pathogens.

Alveoli
At the end of the pathway between the atmosphere and the bloodstream are the alveoli. Alveolar walls
contain elastic fibers which stretch during inspiration and recoil during expiration to help force out air.
This elasticity allows alveoli to expand according to the volume of air breathed in. When the alveoli are
fully expanded during exercise, the surface area available for diffusion increases, and the air is expelled
efficiently when the elastic fibers recoil.

The alveoli have extremely thin walls, each consisting of single layer of squamous epithelial cells no
more than 0.5um thick. Pressed closely against the alveoli walls are blood capillaries. Oxygen and carbon
dioxide molecules diffuse quickly between the air and the blood b/c distance is very small.

For gas exchange to take place rapidly, a stoop concentration gradient must be maintained. This is done
by breathing & by movement blood. Breathing brings supplies of fresh air into the lungs, w/ a relatively
new high oxygen concentration and a relatively low carbon dioxide concentration. Blood is brought to the
lungs w/ a lower concentration of oxygen and a higher concentration of carbon dioxide than the air in
the alveoli. Oxygen therefore diffuses down its concentration gradient from the air in the alveoli to the
blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses down its concentration gradient in the opposite direction. The blood is
constantly flowing through and out of the lungs, so, as the oxygenated blood leaves, more
deoxygenated blood enters to maintain the concentration gradient with each new breath.