EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, ABAKALIKI

COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

COURSE CODE: CSC 423

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTER NETWORKS

DR. HENRY F. NWEKE

COURSE CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Data Communication and Networking
 Definition and characteristics
 Components of Data communication
 Data flow in data communication
 Types of data flow
 Introduction to computer networks
 Computer Network specification
 Types of computer Networks linkage and connectivity
 Types of Computer Networks
 Application and advantages
 Issues to consider before computer network implementation
2. Network topology
 Definition
 Types of Network topology
3. Networking Hardware and Software
 Endpoints/Workstations
 Network interface card
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Routers
 Networking Software
4. Network protocol models
 Transmission Control protocol models
 Internet Protocol Models
 Open System Interconnect (OSI) Layered Models
o Physical layer
o Datalink Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer
5. Transmission Media
 Guided-Wired Transmission Media
 Unguided-Wireless Transmission Media
6. Network Addressing
 IP Addressing
 Address Space
 Class addressing
 Classless addressing
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
 Network Addressing Resolution (NAT)
 Network performance Measure
 o Delay
o Throughput
o Congestions control
o Packet loss
7. Computer Network Security
 Definition
 Network Security Terms, Issues and Goal
 Security attacks
 Techniques to Counter Network Security Attacks
o Cryptography
o Steganography
o Message integrity
o Message authentication
o Digital Signature
 CHAPTER ONE: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING CONCEPT
1.1 Definition and Characteristics of Data Communication
When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance. The term telecommunication, which includes
telephony, telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for
“far”). The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the
parties creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of
hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).

1.2 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of data communication depends on the following characteristics
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is
called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every
30ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven
quality in the video is the result.
1.3 Components of Data Communication
The main components of data communication include Message, Sender, Receiver,
Transmission Media and Protocols. These components are explained below:
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents, an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.

1.4 Data Representation

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a
code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding
system is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any
language in the world. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII),
developed some decades ago in the United States, now constitutes the first 127 characters in
Unicode and is also referred to as Basic Latin.

Numbers
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to
represent numbers; the number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify
mathematical operations. Appendix B discusses several different numbering systems.
Images
Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel
depends on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000
pixels. In the second case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but
more memory is needed to store the image.
After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value
of the pattern depend on the image. For an image made of only black-and-white dots (e.g., a
chessboard), a 1-bit pattern is enough to represent a pixel.
If an image is not made of pure white and pure black pixels, we can increase the size of the bit
pattern to include gray scale. For example, to show four levels of gray scale, we can use 2-bit
patterns. A black pixel can be represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by
10, and a white pixel by 11.
There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called
because each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The
intensity of each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called
YCM, in which a color is made of a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan,
and magenta.
Audio
Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature different
from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a microphone
to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
Video
Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
1.5 Data flow in Data Communication
Data flow involves the process of communicating with different devices. Data flow are
categorized into simplex, half-duplex and full duplex mode.
Simplex mode
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional
monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor
can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send
data in one direction.
Fig.1: Simplex mode
Half-duplex mode
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars
are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission,
the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever the two devices is transmitting at
the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) are both half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communicate, in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized each direction.
Half-duplex mode is shown in figure 1.
Full duplex mode
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share capacity of the link with signals
going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain
two physically separate transmission paths, for sending and the other for receiving; or the
capacity of the channel is division between signals traveling in both directions.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is requires all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the t directions. Representation
of full duplex mode is shown in figure 2 below.

Figure 2: Full duplex mode

1.7 Computer Networks
Computer networks is the interconnection of a set of devices with the set of protocols for data
communication. The devices include
 Host-computer, mobile devices, and workstations
 Connecting devices-router used to connect other devices
 Switches-connect devices together
 Modem(modulation –demodulation)-change the form of data
1.8 Computer Network criteria
Computer networks need to meet certain criteria and specification. The most important criteria
include
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a
network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of
transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software.
Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often
need more throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If
we try to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay
because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
1.9 Computer Network linkages
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to
imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices
must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types
of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When we change television channels by
infrared remote control, we are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television’s control system. Another important examples is the use of infrared
to transfer files.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called Multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
1.10 Types of Computer Networks
Local area network: This is network that span relatively small areas such as single building.
Campus area network: This describes the network of computers that are within a limited
geographic area, such as a university campus or military base.
Metropolitan Area Network: describes network that span within a city and usually consist of
different local area networks (LAN)
Wide area network: This is a network of local area network that are not limited by geographical
area. It covers large areas such as cities, states and countries.
Client/Server Networks: This involve implementation of distributed and cooperative
processing that split applications, functions and between clients and sever processors. It
provide essential services such as data management of applications, network management and
centralized file storage.
Advantages
 Centralized servers that provide access right and resource allocation
 Proper management of files: files are stored at the same place
 Easy backup and recovery: all files are stored on a server and it is easy to make backup
of it.
 Allow changes to be made easily by updating the server
  Easy accessibility
 Security: allow rules to define security to be made during network set up.
Disadvantages
 Require specialized network operating system
 The server is expensive to purchase
 Require highly skilled network manager
 If any part of the network fails, a lot of disruption can occur. It lacks robustness to
network failure.
Peer to peer network: This is a network suitable for small networks where security is not a
concern. Therefore, it is a network in which one centralized, powerful computer (server) is hub
and connect work stations called clients. Server functions as a slave that respond to request
from clients while client send request to server and receive responses. Peer to peer network is
usually implemented in small organization where users are located in the same building and
security is not a challenge. It is simple and inexpensive to implement and connect less than ten
(10) computers.
1.11 Advantage of implementing computer networks
 File sharing: offers quick and easy way to share files directly instead of through disk
USB. In addition, it enable resources sharing such as printers, fax machine and scanner
 Communication: enable several devices and users in different locations to
communicate.
 Flexible access: networks allow user to remote access to files from computer
throughout the networks.
 Workgroup computing: workgroup computing software such as BackOffice enable user
to contribute to a document concurrently.
 Error reduction and improved consistency: having single sources of information
improve consistency and reduce error on information access.
1.12 Applications of computer Networks
 Allow access to search for past news and stories;
 Airline reservation, hotel booking and car rental;
 Marketing and sales to collect, exchange and analyze data relating to consumer needs
and product development;
 Electronic financial transaction between banks and via cheque clearing houses;
 Electronic mail messaging system;
  Manufacturing: product design through computer aided design (CAD) and computer
assisted manufacturing: this enable users to work on a project simultaneously;
 Stock market information system to search for stock price that meet certain criteria,
performance comparison, moving average and various forecasting methods;
 Different corporate systems such as order entry, centralized purchasing, distributed
inventory control etc.;
 Medical assistance services
 Teleconferencing: multiple users discussion such as voice and video conferencing, chat
etc.;
 Cable TV;
 Shopping information, price and advertisement.

1.13 Issues to consider before computer network implementation

The following are the major key issues to be trashed out very carefully before we go for a
computer network:
1. Nature of Nodes -Whether participating nodes are homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature?
2. Topology - Which of the computer topology has to be followed? Computer topology
accounts for the physical arrangement of participating computers in the network.
3. Interconnection Type - Whether interconnection type is point-to-point, multipoint, or
broadcast type.
4. Reliability - How reliable our network is? Reliability aspect includes error rate, redundancy
and recovery procedures.
5. Channel Capacity Allocation - Whether allocation of channel capacity is time division or
frequency division multiplexing?
6. Routing Techniques - Whether message between nodes are to be routed through:
Deterministic, Stochastic, and Distributed routing techniques?
7. Models - Which of the models i.e. analytical models, queuing models, simulation models,
measurement and validation models are applicable?
8. Channel Capacity - What are the channel capacities of the communication lines connecting
nodes?
9. Access - Whether computer access in the network is direct-access or through a sub-network?
10. Protocols - What levels, standards and formats are to be followed while establishing
communication between participating nodes?
11. Performance - How is higher performance of computer network achieved?
Response time, time to connect, resource utilization, etc. contribute towards performance of
computer network.
12. Control - Whether centralized control, distributed control or hierarchical control of
participating nodes of computer network is suitable?
 CHAPTER TWO: NETWORK TOPOLOGY
2.1 Definition
Network topology is the arrangement of network infrastructures. It represents geometric
relationship of the communication channels to each host in the network. There are different
types of network topology, and include mesh, ring, star, bus, tree, and hybrid topologies.
2.2 Types of Network Topology
2.2.1 Mesh topology: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network
with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1
must be connected to n – 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n
must be connected to n – 1 nodes. We need n (n – 1) physical links. However, if each physical
link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links
by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode
links. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to the other n – 1 stations.
Advantages
 Reliable and network can carry its own load due to dedicated link;
 Eliminate issues that may occur when link has to be shared;
 Robustness to failure. The failure of one link does not affect data transmission;
 Privacy and security. Message is only sent to the intended devices as physical
boundaries prevent other devices from gaining access to the messages;
 Makes fault detection and isolation easy.
Disadvantages
 Require high amount of cable to set up;
 Occupy large space
 Require high number of device which might be expensive to purchase.
2.2.2 Star topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only
to a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to
the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
Advantages
  Cheaper to implement as the network require only one device;
 Easy to install and configure;
 Robustness to failure as the link when disrupted does not affect others;
 Easy fault identification and isolation.
Disadvantages
 Breakdown of the hub would lead to network failure
 Require lots of cabling like mesh topology
2.2.3 Bus topology: The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus
topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line
is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either
splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into
heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason
there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those taps.
Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area networks.
Traditional Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular now
Advantages
 Uses less cabling as it has one single cable as backbone, and drop line and table;
 Ease of installation
Disadvantages
 difficult to add new device or reconnection;
 Signal reflection at the tap can cause degradation of quality. This can be resolved
through limiting the number of devices;
 Fault or break in the bus cable would automatically disrupt all transmission even
between devices on the same side.
2.2.4 Ring topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates
the bits and passes them along. Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-
area network, Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this topology less
popular.
Advantages
 Easy to install and configure because each device is logically linked to nearest device;
 Changing the device only require changing only two components;
 Easy fault isolation. As signal is circulating, any device that fails to receive signal will
raise alarm to the network operator.
Disadvantages
 Disabling one station (node) in the network would result in network breakdown. This
can be resolved using dual ring or switches.
 Slower in performance compare to bus topology;
 It is expensive to implement;
 Lack of scalability: addition and removal of any node during operation is difficult and
may cause issues in the network;
 Difficult to troubleshoot.
2.2.5 Tree topology: combines the features of star and bus topology, whereby it integrate star
topology using bus topology. It is ideal if the nodes are located in a group. It is popular in Local
area network implementation.
Advantages
 Provide scalability with possibility of higher nodes;
 Provide higher flexibility as some of the nodes will not be affected if there is fault or
breakdown ;
 Easy to maintain and identify faults.
Disadvantages
 Require large cable that maybe expensive
 Failure of the central cable will result to breakdown
 Difficult to configure
2.2.6 Hybrid topology: This type of network topology combine other network topology
features explained earlier depending on the need of the organization. Hybrid topology can be
categorized into star-ring and star-bus topology. Star-ring topology connect star with ring using
wired connection. Data can flow in bidirectional or unidirectional way. Unidirectional
communicate either in clockwise or anti-clock. Star-bus topology integrate bus and star
topology using central hub and long cable.
Advantages
 Can be modified based on organizational requirement;
  Scalable and flexible;
 Reliable and robustness to failure.
Disadvantages
 Expensive to implement;
 The design of hybrid network is complex;
 Hardware changes is required to connect different topology.
CHAPTER THREE: COMPUTER NETWORKING HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment
needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network. This chapter
discusses various computer network hardware and software. These include workstation
(nodes), Hub, bridges, switches, repeaters and routers.

Fig. 2: Computer Network hardware

3.1 Workstation
All of the user computers connected to a network are called workstations. A typical workstation
is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking software, and the
appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need floppy disk drives because files can
be saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.
3.2 Network Hub
Simple network device for creating small network. Hub is used to connect multiple networking
devices and act as a repeater to boost signals that travel long distance over connecting cable.
The device is categorized into active and passive hub. Active hub regenerate a signal before
forwarding it to all the port and require power supply. On the other hand, passive hub does not
require power supply and do not regenerate signal.

Fig. 3: Example of Hub

Functions of Hub
 Helps to regenerate network signals;
  Forwarding of data from endpoint to all the port on the hub. This is called broadcasting;
 Connect multiple wires coming from different workstation.
Weaknesses
 Does not filter data (packet filtering and addressing function) but send the packet to all
the devices on the network;
 They are not intelligent to find the best path for data packets. This may lead to
inefficient and wastage.
3.3 Repeater
A network device that help to boost signal traveling along network cable before it become
weak or corrupted. Repeater helps to extend the physical length of a network.
Weaknesses
 Does not have intelligence to keep frame from passing to the right side when it is
meant for station on the left;
 Repeater only copy signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength;
 Both hub and repeater operate at the physical layer.
3.4 Network Interface Card
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated
network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller, network
adapter or LAN adapter. Network interface card is of two types: internal and external. The
internal network card is embedded in the motherboard of the computer where cable is inserted
to provide network access as shown in figure 2a and b. The external interface card is used in
desktop and laptop without an internal interface card, and can be wireless or USB based.
Wireless network card need to be inserted into the motherboard of the computer and require no
cable to connect to the network.
Function of network interface card
 Provide access to wireless and wired communication
 Allows communication between computers connected via local area network (LAN) as
well as communication over large scale network through internet protocol (IP)
 It is both physical and datalink layer device and provide the necessary hardware for
effective running of physical and datalink layer processes.
 a b

Fig.4: Network interface card. a internal interface card, b wireless interface card
3.5 Switches
This is a multiple port device that maintain routing information about nodes in the internal
network. It allow connection to systems like hub and router. Furthermore, switch is used to
connect different LAN.
Functions of switch
 Read hardware address of incoming packets and transmit to appropriate destination;
 Maintain information about media access control(MAC) address of the device
connected to it to determine the correct port;
 Helps to decrease the amount of traffic on each network link;
 Reduce the number of collision that occur during data transmission. This helps to
provide significant improvement on the performance of the network;
 Aid network to operate on full-duplex mode and send data on both side at the same
time.
3.5.1 Switching methods
Switch uses three methods to deal with data when it arrives. These include cut-through, store
and forward, and fragment free.
Cut-through: forward packets as soon as they arrive, and does not check if there is error in the
packets. However, because the integrity and correctness of the packet is not checked, switch
can propagate error.
Store and forward: in store and forward configuration, the switch wait to receive all the
packets before beginning to forward them to perform basic error checking.
Fragment free: read only the part of the packet that only enable it to identify fragment of a
transmission.
3.6 Bridge
This is used to connect two or more network segments. Bridge helps to store and forward
frames between the different segments of the network using medium access control address of
the devices. It works at the datalink layer.
Functions of bridge
 Filtering of incoming packets called frames for address before forwarding using the
dynamic bridge table. The bridge table maintain LAN address for each device on the
network;
 Used to divide network into segment to reduce amount of traffic on each layer subnet
or for security reasons;
 Prevent unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other network segments;
 Helps to isolate busy network from a not so busy one thereby preventing pollution from
busy nodes.
3.6.1 Types of bridges
1. Transparent bridge: perform only the function of blocking or forwarding data based on
the MAC address of the devices on the network. The devices have no idea of the bridge
and, it is the most popular type of bridge for implementing network segments.
2. Translational (Simple) bridge: it translate data it receive and only useful for connecting
two different network segment such as Ethernet and token ring networks.
3. Multiport bridge: multiport bridge can be used to connect more than two LAN. The
bridge maintain three table each holding the physical address of stations reachable
through the corresponding port.
3.7 Network Router
This is an intelligent network device that relay packets among multiple interconnected
networks. Router route packets from one network to any destination network on the internet.
By examining the data as it arrives, router determines the destination address for data and use
routing table to define the best routes to reach the destination table. A routing table is a set of
rules, often viewed in table format, which is used to determine where data packets traveling
over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed. All IP-enabled devices, including
routers and switches, use routing tables. A routing table contains the information necessary
to forward a packet along the best path toward its destination. Each packet contains
information about its origin and destination. Routing Table provides the device with
instructions for sending the packet to the next hop on its route across the network. Unlike
Hub and Switch that use MAC addresses, router uses software-configured address (IP
address) to make decision. This is also more complex as router have to work hard to
determine the information.
Functions of router
 Manage route information between two LAN segments;
 Used to provide connectivity across wide area networks.

3.8 Networking software

Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation, and
operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware based
with software embedded.
3.8.1 Types of Network software
1. Network operating system: this is a system that offers a shared platform for all the
connected devices that can run a shared application. Examples is Net and Novell
software
2. Shared network: networking software whose applications are centrally saved and each
individual computer can access the applications on their own. Examples is oracle
3. Client server network programs: this is a software stored on clients system and server
and both communicate with each other and utilizes their part of the components
accordingly. Example is Microsoft exchange.
3.8.2 Functions of networking software
 Helps to set up and install computer networks
 Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
 Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
 Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
 Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network
 Enables network virtualizations
3.9 Network Operating System
A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system that is designed primarily
to support workstation, personal computer, and, in some instances, older terminal that are
connected on a local area network (LAN). Artisoft's LANtastic, Banyan VINES, Novell's
Netware, and Microsoft's LAN Manager are examples of network operating systems. In
addition, some multi-purpose operating systems, such as Windows NT and Digital's OpenVMS
come with capabilities that enable them to be described as a network operating system.
A network operating system provides printer sharing, common file system and database
sharing, application sharing, and the ability to manage a network name directory, security, and
other housekeeping aspects of a network. Unlike operating systems, such as DOS and Windows
that are designed for single users to control one computer network operating systems (NOS)
coordinate the activities of multiple computers across a network. The network operating system
acts as a director to keep the network running smoothly. Some examples of network operating
systems include Novel Netware, Microsoft
Windows NT, Microsoft Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows XP, Sun Solaris, Linux,
AppleShare
The two major types of network operating systems are:
 Peer-to-Peer
 Client Server
3.9.1 Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on their
computers and to access shared resources found on other computers. However, they do not
have a file server or a centralized management source (See fig. 1.4.1). In a peer-to-peer
network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the same abilities to use the
resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to
medium local area networks. AppleShare and Windows for
Workgroups are examples of programs that can function as peer-to-peer network operating
systems.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

• Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.
• Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to be
reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:
• Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.
• Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.
3.9.2 Client-Server
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file servers (See fig. 1.4.2). The file servers become the
heart of the system, providing access to resources and providing security. Individual
workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers. The network
operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and
allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective of physical
location. Novell Netware and Windows 2000 Server are examples of client/server network
operating systems.

Advantages
• Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
• Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
• Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
• Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
• Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.
Disadvantages
• Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
• Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
• Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.
 CHAPTER FOUR: NETWORK PROTOCOL MODELS
4.1 Network Protocol and element
In computer networks, communication occur between entities in different system entity capable
of sending or receiving information. However, two entities not simply send bit streams to each
other and expect to be understood. For communicate to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicate when it is communicated. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning order in
which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect first 8 bits of
data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be at the of the receiver, and
the rest of the stream to be the message itself.
 Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section. How is a
particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken on that interpretation?
For example, does an address identify the route to be or the final destination of the
message?
 Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should b and how fast
they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 but the receiver can
process data at only1Mbps, the transmission will overload receiver and some data will
be lost.
4.2 Characteristics of network protocols
 Detection of physical (wired or wireless) connection
 Handshaking
 Message formatting
 How to send and receive message
 Negotiation of the various connections
 Correction of the corrupted or improperly formatted message
 Termination of network session

4.3 Types of network protocols

There are a many standard protocols to choose from, standard protocols have their own
advantage and disadvantage i.e., some are simpler than the others, some are more reliable, and
some are faster. From a user’s point of view, the only interesting aspect about protocols is that
our computer or device must support the right ones if we want to communicate with other
computers. The protocols can be implemented either in hardware or in software.
Some examples of network protocols include:

4.3.1 Transmission control protocol

Transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) is the communication protocol used
by internet. It is used for communication in a private network such as internet or extranet. It
performs various functions such as multiplexing, error recovery, flow control, connection
establishment, termination and segmentation.

4.3.2 IP (Internet Protocol)

An Internet protocol (IP) is a unique address or identifier of each computer or communication
devices on the network and internet. Any participating computer networking device such as
routers, computers, printers, internet fax machines and switches may have their own unique IP
address. Personal information about someone can be found by the IP address. Every domain
on the internet must have a unique or shared IP address.

4.3.3 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The data packets travel through various physical networks to reach the destination. At the
physical layer, routers and hosts are recognized by their physical address, which is a local
address. It is usually implemented in hardware. To communicate within the same network, the
physical address can solve the purpose. However, to communicate between different networks,
both the physical (MAC) and logical (IP) address are required. The user should be able to map
a logical address to its corresponding physical address and vice versa. There are two protocols
used for this purpose. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) maps the logical address to a
physical address and the Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) maps the physical
address to a logical address. Address Resolution protocol is associates an IP address with its
physical address when a host or router want to determine the physical address of other host or
router on the network and broadcast ARP query packet containing the physical and IP address
of the receiver over the network Every device and router on the network receives the packet
checks for the IP address and processes it. The interred recipient identifies its IP address and
responds with an ARP reply packet, which contains its IP and physical address. Now the sender
can send all the packet intended for this receiver. Reverse address resolution protocol (RARP),
in a network, each device and router is assigned a unique logical address, which is required
while creating the IP datagram. This address is normally saved in a configuration file, which is
stored on the hard disk. However, when a diskless machine is booted from ROM, it can’t
discover its IP address. Reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) is used to determine the
logical address when the physical address is known. A device booted for the first time gets it
physical address from the NIC card. The device creates a RARP request packet and broadcast
it over the network. Another device on the network working as the server and having all the IP
address responds with a RARP reply packet. This packet includes the IP address of the sender.

4.3.4 Internet message control protocol (IMCP)

Internet control message protocol message (ICMP) is an extension to internet protocol, which
support packets containing error, control and information messages. It provides a method for
communicating error messages and other transmission information. Two types of ICMP
messages are error-reporting message and query messages. Error reporting message report any
problem that router or host may come across while processing the IP datagram. These include
destination unreachable, source quench, time exceeded, and parameter problem (ambiguity in
header and datagram) redirection. While ICMP Query messages are used to identify network
problem. Some the ICMP query messages include echo request and reply, timestamp request
and reply, address mark request etc.

4.3.5 User datagram protocol (UDP)

User datagram protocol (UDP) is a transport layer connection less protocol that uses port
numbers to provide process-to-process communication. The protocol accepts smaller data units
from the processes and delivers them to the receiver. If the UDP detects any kind of error in
the data unit, it drops that unit. UDP sends each datagram independently. The individual
datagram are not related to each other even if they come from the same source application and
reach same destination application program. There are three stages; encapsulation,
encapsulation, and queuing. In UDP, data is passed in the form of packets are called as user
datagram’s. User datagram’s consists of 8-bytes header and data.

4.3.6 Hypertext transfer protocol

Hypertext transfer protocol is a method of transmitting the information on the web. HTTP
basically publishes and retrieves the HTTP pages on the World Wide Web. HTTP is a language
that is used to communicate between the browser and web server. The information that is
transferred using HTTP can be plain text, audio, video, images, and hypertext. HTTP ``11qssis
a request/response protocol between the client and server. Many proxies, tunnels, and gateways
can be existing between the web browser (client) and server (web server). An HTTP client
initializes a request by establishing a TCP connection to a particular port on the remote host
(typically 80 or 8080). An HTTP server listens to that port and receives a request message from
the client. Upon receiving the request, server sends back 200 OK messages, its own message,
an error message or other message.

4.3.7 POP3 (Post Office Protocol)

In computing, e-mail clients such as (MS outlook, outlook express and thunderbird) use
Post office Protocol to retrieve emails from the remote server over the TCP/IP connection.
Nearly all the users of the Internet service providers use POP 3 in the email clients to retrieve
the emails from the email servers. Most email applications use POP protocol.

4.3.8 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is a protocol that is used to send the email messages between
the servers. Most email systems and email clients use the SMTP protocol to send messages to
one server to another. In configuring an email application, you need to configure POP, SMTP
and IMAP protocols in your email software. SMTP is a simple, text based protocol and one or
more recipient of the message is specified and then the message is transferred. SMTP
connection is easily tested by the Telnet utility. SMTP uses the by default TCP port number
25.
4.3.9 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
FTP or file transfer protocol is used to transfer (upload/download) data from one computer to
another over the internet or through or computer network. FTP is a most commonly
communication protocol for transferring the files over the internet. Typically, two computers
are involved in the transferring the files a server and a client.
The client computer that is running FTP client software such as Cuteftp and AceFTP etc.
initiates a connection with the remote computer (server). After successfully connected with the
server, the client computer can perform a number of the operations like downloading the files,
uploading, renaming and deleting the files, creating the new folders etc. Virtually operating
system supports FTP protocols.

4.3.10 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

The DHCP or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is a set of rules used by a communication
device such as router, computer or network adapter to allow the device to request and obtain
and IP address from a server which has a list of the larger number of addresses. DHCP is a
protocol that is used by the network computers to obtain the IP addresses and other settings
such as gateway, DNS, subnet mask from the DHCP server.
DHCP ensures that all the IP addresses are unique and the IP address management is done by
the server and not by the human. The assignment of the IP addresses is expires after the
predetermined period of time. DHCP works in four phases known as DORA such as Discover,
Observe, Request and Authorize

4.3.11 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

The Internet Message Access Protocol known as IMAP is an application layer protocol that is
used to access to access the emails on the remote servers. POP3 and IMAP are the two most
commonly used email retrieval protocols. Most of the email clients such as outlook express,
thunderbird and MS outlooks support POP3 and IMAP. The email messages are generally
stored on the email server and the users generally retrieve these messages whether by the web
browser or email clients. IMAP is generally used in the large networks. IMAP allows users to
access their messages instantly on their systems.

4.4 Open System interconnection Reference Model (OSI)

In computer network, data or information exchange obey set of rules. These rules are effective
to ensure the data arrive destination reliably. In a complex network, these rules are followed
using the layering approach. Protocol layering enable network administrator to:
 Divide the network into small and simplified form;
 It also enable users to separate services from the implementation details;
 It is cheaper to implement.
Therefore, layered networks follow some basic approach that include:
 The system must be capable duplex mode communication, encrypt and decrypt
messages;
 The object should be identical.
Layered network utilize OSI model approach to hierarchically divide networks into modules
that provide specific functions. In simple terms, the OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection
Model) is a conceptual framework used to describe the functions of a networking system. The
OSI model characterizes computing functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in
order to support interoperability between different products and software. In the OSI reference
model, the communications between a computing systems are split into seven different
abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and
Application.
Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was published in 1984
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Though it does not always map
directly to specific systems, the OSI Model is still used today as a means to describe Network
Architecture. The seven layers apply principles explained below.
 A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that the architecture does
not become unwieldy.
These seven layers made up of OSI model are explained below.
4.4.1 Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The
design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by
the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are how many volts should be
used to represent a 1 and how many for a 0, how many microseconds a bit lasts, whether
transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is
established and how it is torn down when both sides are finished, and how many pins the
network connector has and what each pin is used for. The design issues here largely deal with
mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which
lies below the physical layer.
Functions
 Physical characteristics of interface and media: It defines the interface properties
between devices and transmission devices. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.
  It consist of bits streams(0,1) that are encoded into the signals to ensure representation
of bits
 Data rate: In data rate, the number of bits transmitted per second, is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer determines how long the bit lasts.
 Synchronization: synchronize bits between sender and receiver
 Line Configuration: There are two types of line configuration Point-To-Point
Configuration and Multipoint Configuration. In a point-to-point configuration, the two
devices are connected through a separate link. In a multipoint configuration, the link is
shared between multiple devices.
 Topology: The physical layer defines how the different devices are organized in a
network such as a bus, star, mesh, ring topology.
 Transmission mode: provide the transmission mode such as simplex, half duplex and
full duplex

Fig. 7: the OSI model

4.4.2 Datalink layer
The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it into
a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes
this task by having the sender break the input data up into data frames (typically a few hundred
or a few thousand bytes), transmit the frames sequentially, and process the acknowledgement
frames sent back by the receiver. Since the physical layer merely accepts and transmits a stream
of bits without any regard to meaning or structure, it is up to the data link layer to create and
recognize frame boundaries. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame. If these bit patterns can accidentally occur in the data, special
care must be taken to make sure these patterns are not incorrectly interpreted as frame
delimiters.
A noise burst on the line can destroy a frame completely. In this case, the data link layer
software on the source machine can retransmit the frame. However, multiple transmissions of
the same frame introduce the possibility of duplicate frames. A duplicate frame could be sent
if the acknowledgement frame from the receiver back to the sender were lost. It is up to this
layer to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost, and duplicate frames. The data link layer
may offer several different service classes to the network layer, each of a different quality and
with a different price.
Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers is well) is how to
keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation
mechanism must be employed to let the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver
has at the moment. Frequently, this flow regulation and the error handling are integrated. If the
line can be used to transmit data in both directions, this introduces a new complication that the
data link layer software must deal with. The problem is that the acknowledgement frames for
A to B traffic compete for the use of the line with data frames for the B to A traffic. Broadcast
networks have an additional issue in the data link layer to control access to the shared channel.
A special, sub layer of the data link layer, the medium access sub layer, deals with this problem.
Functions
 Framing: divide the bits stream into manageable units called frames
 Physical addressing: add header to the frame for identification and define physical
address of the host.
 Flow control: control the rate of data transfer. This is achieved by introducing a block
of memory called buffer. The buffer is used to store incoming messages (data) until
 they are processed. If the buffer begins to get filled, the system must be able to tell the
sender to halt transmission. Two methods of flow control include stop and wait, and
sliding window. In stop and wait, sender wait for an acknowledgement before sending
another data, and it is only when acknowledgement have been sent that next frame is
released. This continue until the sender receive end of transmission (EOT) frame. This
approach for frame control is simple but inefficient. Slide window method send several
frame before receiving acknowledgement.
 Error correction: add reliability to the physical layer to detect and retransmit damaged
or lost frame. This also helps to prevent duplication of frame
 Access control: helps to determine the device to have control over the link at a given
time.
4.4.3 Network Layer
The network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet. A key design issue
is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static
tables that are "wired into" the network and rarely changed. They can also be determined at the
start of each conversation, for example a terminal session. Finally, they can be highly dynamic,
being determined anew for each packet, to reflect the current network load. If too many packets
are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in each other's way, forming bottlenecks.
The control of such congestion also belongs to the network layer. Since the operators of the
subnet may well expect remuneration for their efforts, there is often some accounting function
built into the network layer. At the very least, the software must count how many packets or
each customer sends characters or bits, to produce billing information. When a packet crosses
a national border, with different rates on each side, the accounting can become complicated.
When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many
problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from the first
one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may
differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is
simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
Functions
 Logical addressing: add header to the packet to distinguish each node
 Routing: helps in routing packet to final destination among internetworks
4.4.4 Transport layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into
smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive
correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently, and in a way that
isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology. Under normal
conditions, the transport layer creates a distinct network connection for each transport
connection required by the session layer. If the transport connection requires a high throughput,
however, the transport layer might create multiple network connections, dividing the data
among the network connections to improve throughput. On the other hand, if creating or
maintaining a network connection is expensive, the transport layer might multiplex several
transport connections onto the same network connection to reduce the cost. In all cases, the
transport layer is required to make the multiplexing transparent to the session layer.
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide the session layer, and
ultimately, the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an error-
free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
However, other possible kinds of transport service are transport of isolated messages with no
guarantee about the order of delivery, and broadcasting of messages to multiple destinations.
The type of service is determined when the connection is established. The transport layer is a
true end-to-end layer, from source to destination, in other words, a program on the source
machine carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination machine, using the
message headers and control messages. In the lower layers, the protocols are between each
machine and its immediate neighbors, and not by the ultimate source and destination machines,
which may be separated by many routers. There is a difference between layers 1 through 3,
which are chained, and layers 4 through 7, which are end-to-end. Many hosts are multi-
programmed, which implies that multiple connections will be entering and leaving each host.
Their needs to be some way to tell which message belong to which connection. The transport
header is one place this information can be put.
In addition to multiplexing several message streams onto one channel, the transport layer must
take care of establishing and deleting connections across the network. This requires some kind
of naming mechanism, so that a process on one machine has a way of describing with whom it
wishes to converse. There must also be a mechanism to regulate the flow of information, so
that a fast host cannot overrun a slow one. Such a mechanism is called flow control and plays
a key role in the transport layer (also in other layers).
Flow control between hosts is distinct from flow control between routers, although we will
later see that similar principles apply to both.
Functions
 Service point addressing: provide service point address (port address) that get packets
to their right destination with correct process and program
 Segmentation and reassembly: helps to reassemble message transmitted as manageable
units as final destination. The message contain segment number
 Connection control: transport layer can be connection or connectionless oriented.
Connectionless oriented treat each message as independent packet and deliver it to the
transport layer at destination node. Connection-oriented makes connection with the
destination node before transmitting the packets. After transmission, the connection is
terminated. This approach is known as handshaking.
 Flow control: helps in flow control at end to end
 Error correction: perform end to end error correction and make sure the entire message
is transmitted. The process is achieved through retransmission.
4.4.5 Session Layer
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
A session allows ordinary data transport, as does the transport layer, but it also provides
enhanced services useful in some applications. A session might be used to allow a user to log
into a remote timesharing system or to transfer a file between two machines. One of the services
of the session layer is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to go in both
directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time. If traffic can only go one way at
a time (analogous to a single railroad track), the session layer can help keep track of whose
turn it is.
A related session service is token management. For some protocols, it is essential that both
sides do not attempt the same operation at the same time. To manage these activities, the session
layer provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the side holding the token may perform the
critical operation. Another session service is synchronization.
Consider the problems that might occur when trying to do a 2-hour file transfer between two
machines with a 1-hour mean time between crashes. After each transfer was aborted, the whole
transfer would have to start over again and would probably fail again the next time as well. To
eliminate this problem, the session layer provides a way to insert checkpoints into the data
stream, so that after a crash, only the data transferred after the last checkpoint have to be
repeated.
Functions
 Dialog control: allow two system to enter into dialog. This is performed using either
half duplex or full duplex.
 Synchronization: Add checkpoint into a stream of data. It maybe check point at every
specific level and helps in retransmission in case of crash.
4.4.6 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer performs certain functions that are requested sufficiently often to
warrant finding a general solution for them, rather than letting each user solve the problems. In
particular, unlike all the lower layers, which are just interested in moving bits reliably from
here to there, the presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted. A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a
standard agreed upon way. Most user programs do not exchange random binary bit strings.
They exchange things such as people's names, dates, amounts of money, and invoices. These
items are represented as character strings, integers, floating-point numbers, and data structures
composed of several simpler items. Different computers have different codes for representing
character strings, integers, and so on. In order to make it possible for computers with different
representations to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an
abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used "on the wire." The presentation layer
manages these abstract data structures and converts from the representation used inside the
computer to the network standard representation and back.
Functions
 Translation: changes information transmitted inform of strings, number into streams
before being transmitted. Helps in interoperability between different encoding methods.
 Encryption: encrypt sensitive information to sender reliably
 Compression: reduce the number and bits size before being transmitted especially in
multimedia such as text, audio, video and pictures.
4.4.7 Application layers
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed. For example,
there are hundreds of incompatible terminal types in the world. Consider, the plight of a full
screen editor that is supposed to work over a network with many different terminal types, each
with different screen layouts, escape sequences for inserting and deleting text, involving the
cursor, etc. One way to solve this problem is to define an abstract network virtual terminal that
editors and other programs can be written to deal with. To handle each terminal type, a piece
of software must be written to map the functions of the network virtual terminal onto the real
terminal. For example, when the editor moves the virtual terminal's cursor to the upper left-
hand corner of the screen, this software must issue the proper command sequence to the real
terminal to get its cursor there too. All the virtual terminal software is in the application layer.
Another application layer function is file transfer. Different file systems have different file
naming conventions, different ways of representing text lines, and so on. Transferring a file
between two different systems requires handling these and other incompatibilities.
This work, too, belongs to the application layer, as do electronic mail, remote job entry,
directory lookup, and various other general purpose and special-purpose facilities.
Functions
 Network Virtual Terminal: It's a physical terminal to the software version. It provides
remote host services. Users can log into remote host using software emulation of
terminal at host
 File transfer, Access, and Management: It allows a user to access, retrieve, and manage
the files from a remote host. Examples include Teamview, Remote desktop, remote
utility for windows, logme-in pro etc.
 Mail services: It provides email forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: Provide distributed database sources and access for global
information.
 CHAPTER FIVE: TRANSMISSION MEDIA

5.1 Introduction
Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly controlled
by the physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to layer zero. A
transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a
source to a destination. For example, the transmission medium for two people having a dinner
conversation is the air. The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or
semaphore. For a written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck,
or an airplane. In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission
medium is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or
fiber-optic cable. The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data
from another form.

Therefore, transmission media is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication. In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals while in a
fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses. The electrical signals can be sent
through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum. The characteristics and
quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of medium and signal.
Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media,
medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics
are more important. Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance. In the OSI (Open System Interconnection)
phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1
component.

Computers and other telecommunication devices use signals to represent data. These signals
are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy, which is
propagated through transmission media.
Electromagnetic energy, a combination of electric and magnetic fields vibrating in relation to
each other, includes power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X,
gamma, and cosmic rays. Each of these constitutes a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

5.2 Classification of transmission media

Transmission media are broadly classified into guided and unguided media as shown in figure
5.2.1 Guided media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these
media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial
cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric
current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light. Figure
8 depicts the classification of transmission media in computer networks.

Figure 8: classification of transmission media

(https://www.javatpoint.com/transmission-media)

1. Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The
outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover as shown in Figure
9. The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI (Electromagnetic interference).
Figure 9: Coaxial Cable
Types of Coaxial cable
a. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at
high speed.
b. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages of Coaxial cable:
 The data can be transmitted at high speed.
 It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:
 It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
 If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
Applications
 Analog digital telephone to carry voice signal
 Cable TV networks
 Traditional Ethernet LAN
Coaxial Connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, coaxial cable uses Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC). The
structure of the connector is shown in figure 10. The BNC connector comes inform of
 BNC Connector: to connect the end of the cable to device such as TV
 BNC-T Connector: to connect Ethernet network to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other devices
 BNC terminator: used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
Figure 10: BNC connectors
2. Twisted Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each
with its own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals
to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the
difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the
wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted
signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same
in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk
sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference at the
receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one
twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist,
the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by
external influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates
the difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals
are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists
per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.
Types of Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair cable is made up of unshielded twisted pair cable and shielded twisted pair
cable as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Types of twisted pair cable

 a. Unshielded twisted Pair cable (UTP): an unshielded twisted pair is widely used in
telecommunication.
Categories
The electronics industries association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded
twisted pair cables. The categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7
as the highest. These categories are listed below:
 Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
 Category 2: It can support up to 4Mbps.
 Category 3: It can support up to 16Mbps.
 Category 4: It can support up to 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
communication.
 Category 5: It can support up to 200Mbps.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair:
 It is cheap.
 Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
 It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
 This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Connectors
The commonest UTP connector is the RJ45 (RJ stand for registered jack), which is a
keyed connector and it is inserted in only one way as depicted in Figure 12.

Figure 12: unshielded twisted pair cable connectors

b. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP): this was first developed by IBM. The cable a metal
foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductor. The casing
helps to prevent penetration of noise or crosstalk. However, it is bulkier and more
expensive compare to UTP.
Characteristics
  The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
 An installation of STP is easy.
 It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
 It has a higher attenuation.
 It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Advantage
 It provide improved data transfer quality
 Prevent the penetration of noise or crosstalk
Disadvantages
 It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable
 It has higher attenuation rate
Performance
The performance of twisted pair cable is measured by comparing the attenuation versus
frequency and distance.
Application
 Telephone lines to provide voice and data channels
 Digital subscriber line to provide higher data rate with high-bandwidth
capability
 Local area networks such as 10Base-T, and 100Base-T

3. Fibre Optics cables

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light travel through one substance suddenly enters another substance of different
density, the ray changes directions. Using reflection principle, fibre optics transmit data
through as inner cable coated with plastic.
Basic element of fibre optics
 Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core.
A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the core, the light
will be transmitted into the fibre.
 Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality
of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause
the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
  Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main
purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.
Propagation mode
Network technology support two modes to transmit light along optical channels with different
characteristics these include the multimode and single mode. The multimode is further divided
into step-index and graded index
Multimode: in multimode, multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different part. In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until
it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change
due to a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam’s motion. The term step-index refers to
the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes
through the fiber. While multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal
through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the
index of refraction is related to density. A graded-index fiber, therefore, is one with varying
densities. Density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at
the edge. Optical fibre propagation mode is shown in Figure 13.
Single mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single-mode fiber itself is
manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with
substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical
angle that is close enough to 90° to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal. In this
case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and delays are negligible. All the
beams arrive at the destination “together” and can be recombined with little distortion to the
signal
Figure 13: Fibre optics propagation mode

Advantages
 Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared
copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
 Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the
fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
 Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
 Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it
is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the
connectivity of copper cable.
 Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can
withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
Disadvantages
 Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
 Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
  Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber
cannot be justified.

Fibre Size
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their
cladding expressed in micrometers. Table 1 list common fiber types.
Table 1: Optical Fiber types
Type Core (µm) Cladding (µm) Mode
50/125 50.0 125 Multimode, graded index
62.5/125 62.5 125 Multimode, graded index
100/125 100.0 125 Multimode, graded index
7/125 7.0 125 Single mode

Fibre Optics cable connectors

There are three types of connectors for fibre optics. These include:
 Subscriber channel (SC) connector for cable TV. The connector uses a push/pull
locking system
 Straight-tip (ST) connector used for connecting cable to networking devices. It uses
bayonet locking system and is more reliable than subscriber channel
 MT-Rj connector, the connector is similar to RJ45 in unshielded twisted pair cable
Applications
 Backbone network, because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective
 Cable TV to create hybrid network of fibre optic and coaxial cable. In this case, optical
fibre provide the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the connection to the
premises
5.3 Unguided Media
An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical
medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission. Air provide the platform through
which electromagnetic energy can flow easily in the media.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
5.31. Radio waves
  Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions
of free space.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
 The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3 KHz to 1 KHz.
 In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
 An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications of Radio waves
 A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
 An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages of Radio transmission
 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
 Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
5.3.2 Microwave
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The following describes some characteristics
of microwave propagation:
 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas
need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long
distance communication.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider sub-bands
can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Characteristics of Microwave
 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-
23 GHz.
 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
 Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.
Advantages
 Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
 It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of
cables.
 Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
 Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.
Disadvantages
 Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious
user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
 Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
 Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind
can distort the signal.
 Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.
Applications
 One-to-one communication such as cellular network
 Satellite network
 Wireless LAN
5.3.3 Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770
nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies,
cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one
system and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by
another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere
with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared
signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun’s rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication.
Applications
Data transmission for high data rate
Communication between devices such as keyboards, mice, OC and printers
 CHAPTER SIX: COMPUTER NETWORK SECURITY
6.1 Introduction
We are living in the information age. We need to keep information about every aspect of our
lives. In other words, information is an asset that has a value like any other asset.
As an asset, information needs to be secured from attacks. To be secured, information needs to
be hidden from unauthorized access (confidentiality), protected from unauthorized change
(integrity), and available to an authorized entity when it is needed (availability). During the
last three decades, computer networks created a revolution in the use of information.
Information is now distributed. Authorized people can send and retrieve information from a
distance using computer networks. Although the three abovementioned requirements such as
confidentiality, integrity, and availability have not changed, they now have some new
dimensions. Not only should information be confidential when it is stored; there should also be
a way to maintain its confidentiality when it is transmitted from one computer to another.
In this section, we first discuss the three major goals of information security. We then see how
attacks can threaten these three goals. We then discuss the security services in relation to these
security goals. Finally we define two techniques to implement the security goals and prevent
attacks.
6.2 Network security Goal
1. Confidentiality: Confidentiality is probably the most common aspect of information
security. We need to protect our confidential information. An organization needs to guard
against those malicious actions that endanger the confidentiality of its information.
Confidentiality not only applies to the storage of information, it also applies to the transmission
of information. When we send a piece of information to be stored in a remote computer or
when we retrieve a piece of information from a remote computer, we need to conceal it during
transmission.
2. Integrity: Information needs to be changed constantly. In a bank, when a customer deposits
or withdraws money, the balance of her account needs to be changed. Integrity means that
changes need to be done only by authorized entities and through authorized mechanisms.
Integrity violation is not necessarily the result of a malicious act; an interruption in the system,
such as a power surge, may also create unwanted changes in some information.
3. Availability: The third component of information security is availability. The information
created and stored by an organization needs to be available to authorized entities. Information
is useless if it is not available. Information needs to be constantly changed, which means it
must be accessible to authorized entities. The unavailability of information is just as harmful
for an organization as the lack of confidentiality or integrity. Imagine what would happen to a
bank if the customers could not access their accounts for transactions.
6.3 Attacks on Network Security: Network security is made up of policies, processes, and
practices adopted by network administrators to detect, prevent and monitor unauthorized
access, misuse, modification or denial of service, and network accessible resources. It involves
the authorization of access to data in network, which is controlled by network administrator
using assigned password, Identification numbers (ID) or other authenticating information that
allow users to gain access to information and programs within the network. However, malicious
parties usually execute network attacks to alter, destroy or steal private data thereby
compromise computer network security. Networks attack threaten the network security goals
of confidentiality, integrity and availability.
6.3.1 Attacks that threatens Confidentiality: The attacks that threaten confidentiality include
snooping and traffic analysis.
Snooping: Snooping refers to unauthorized access to or interception of data. For example, a
file transferred through the Internet may contain confidential information. An unauthorized
entity may intercept the transmission and use the contents for her own benefit. To prevent
snooping, the data can be made non-intelligible to the intercepter by using encipherment
techniques.
Traffic Analysis: Although encipherment of data may make it non-intelligible for the
intercepter, she can obtain some other types of information by monitoring online traffic. For
example, she can find the electronic address (such as the e-mail address) of the sender or the
receiver. She can collect pairs of requests and responses to help her guess the nature of the
transaction.
6.3.2 Attacks that threaten integrity: The integrity of data can be threatened by several kinds
of attacks: modification, masquerading, replaying, and repudiation
Modification: After intercepting or accessing information, the attacker modifies the
information to make it beneficial to herself. For example, a customer sends a message to a bank
to initiate some transaction. The attacker intercepts the message and changes the type of
transaction to benefit herself. Note that sometimes the attacker simply deletes or delays the
message to harm the system or to benefit from it.
Masquerading: Masquerading, or spoofing, happens when the attacker impersonates
somebody else. For example, an attacker might steal the bank card and PIN of a bank customer
and pretend that she is that customer. Sometimes the attacker pretends instead to be the receiver
entity. For example, a user tries to contact a bank, but another site pretends that it is the bank
and obtains some information from the user.
Replaying: In replaying, the attacker obtains a copy of a message sent by a user and later tries
to replay it. For example, a person sends a request to her bank to ask for payment to the attacker,
who has done a job for her. The attacker intercepts the message and sends it again to receive
another payment from the bank.
Repudiation: This type of attack is different from others because it is performed by one of the
two parties in the communication: the sender or the receiver. The sender of the message might
later deny that she has sent the message; the receiver of the message might later deny that he
has received the message. An example of denial by the sender would be a bank customer asking
her bank to send some money to a third party but later denying that she has made such a request.
An example of denial by the receiver could occur when a person buys a product from a
manufacturer and pays for it electronically, but the manufacturer later denies having received
the payment and asks to be paid.
6.3.3 Attacks that threaten availability of data: availability of data is threaten by denial of
service (DoS) attacks.
Denial of Service: Denial of service (DoS) is a very common attack. It may slow down or
totally interrupt the service of a system. The attacker can use several strategies to achieve this.
She might send so many bogus requests to a server that the server crashes because of the heavy
load. The attacker might intercept and delete a server’s response to a client, making the client
believe that the server is not responding. The attacker may also intercept requests from the
clients, causing the clients to send requests many times and overload the system.
Other network security attacks include:
Man-in-middle attack: this occur when malicious parties intercept traffic transmitted between
network and external data sources or within a network. The hacker achieve the attack through
weak security protocol and position themselves as relay or proxy account and manipulate data
in real time transaction.
Unauthorized access: unauthorized access refer to network attack where malicious parties gain
access to enterprise assets without seeking permission due to weak password protection, lack
of encryption, abuse of role privileges, and exploitation of privilege roles without authorization.
SQL injection: this is the process where external parties manipulate forms by submitting
malicious code in place of expected data values. The network security is compromised, and
sensitive data such as password is accessed by the attackers.
REFERENCES
Forouzan, B. A. (2005). Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw.
Introduction to Computer Networks- online at https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-
tutorial
National Open University of Nigeria-Computer Network Course material