ARC 1421 - Module 2 - 1.7-1.9 Fundamentals of Lighting-1

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ARC1421: BUILDING UTILITIES 3

Acoustics and Lighting Systems
MODULE 2 LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Fundamentals of Lighting
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BUILDING UTILITIES CLUSTER
MODULE 2: LIGHTING SYSTEMS
ARC1421: BUILDING UTILITIES 3 (Acoustics and Lighting Systems)
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FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING BUILDING UTILITIES CLUSTER
Daylighting
Daylighting is an excellent light source for almost all interior spaces. It is best for offices,
schools, and workspaces requiring a lot of light and for public spaces such as malls, airports,
and institutions. Windows, skylights, and other forms of fenestration are used to bring
daylight into the interiors of buildings. Daylight is highly desirable as a light source because
people respond positively to it. (Karlen & Benya, 2004).
Daylighting is the complete process of designing buildings to utilize natural light to its fullest.
It includes all of the following activities.
o Siting the building
o Massing the building
o Choosing fenestration
o Shading
o Adding appropriate operable shading devices
o Designing electric lighting controls
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Daylighting Concepts
TOP LIGHTING
Top lighting behaves as direct electric lighting
does by radiating light downward.
Figure 1. Toplighting Concepts
SIDE LIGHTING
Side lighting employs vertical fenestration
(usually windows) to introduce natural light.
Figure 2. Sidelighting Concepts

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Types of Daylighting
Windows Atria
Windows have the advantage of providing both Atria have become an increasingly popular feature
daylight to the interior and a view out. of buildings. Atria are often used to light central
circulation or social area by daylight admitted
through a glass roof or wall.
Clerestories
Clerestory windows are strictly a narrow strip of
windows high up on the wall. Remote distribution
Such systems take various forms, but all collect
daylight and sunlight in some way and transmit in
Rooflight through a shaft or pipe by reflection to a distribution
Rooflights are a glazed opening in the roof of a point in the space.
building.
Borrowed light
Borrowed light is a term used to describe the
lighting of an enclosed internal space through a
window that connects to an adjacent daylit space
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Types of Daylighting
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Problems of Daylighting
VISUAL
The visual problems of daylighting are glare and veiling reflections. Glare
is caused by a direct view of either the sun or the bright sky.
THERMAL
Daylight admitted to a building represents a heat load. In winter this may
be useful but in summer it can represent an additional cooling load.
PRIVACY
Extensively glazed buildings can present privacy problems, particularly on
the ground floor. Concerns about privacy can lead to blinds being closed
at all times with a consequent lack of daylight and view out.
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Artificial Lighting
The first artificial light source was the flame of fire, in which glowing particles of carbon produce light
that, like sunlight, has a continuous spectrum.
For a long time, the production of light was based on this principle, which exploited flaming torches
and kindling, then the candle and the oil lamp and gas light to an increasingly effective degree.
With the development of the incandescent mantle for gas lighting in the second half of the 19th
century the principle of the self-luminous flame became outdated; in its place we find a material that
can be made to glow by heating – the flame was now only needed to produce the required
temperature.
Incandescent gas light was accompanied practically simultaneously by the development of electric arc
and incandescent lamps, which were joined at the end of the 19th century by discharge lamps.
In the 1930s gas light had practically been completely replaced by a whole range of electric light
sources, whose operation provides the bases for all modern light sources.
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Science and Lighting
Until the birth of modern chemistry, the belief laid down by the ancient Greeks was taken to be true:
during the burning process, a substance called “phlogistos” was released.
It was only through Lavoisier’s experiments that it became clear that combustion was a form of
chemical action and that the flame was dependent on the presence of air.
Francois Argand constructed a lamp that was to be named after him, the Argand lamp.
The next step involved surrounding wick and flame with a glass cylinder.
Optical instruments have been recognized as aids to controlling light from very early times. Mirrors are
known to have been used by ancient Greeks and Romans and the theory behind their application set
down in writing.
At the turn of the first millennium, there were a number of theoretical works in Arabia and China
concerning the effect of optical lenses.
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Science and Lighting
In the late 16th century, the first telescopes were designed by Dutch lens grinders. In the 17th
century these instruments were then perfected by Galileo, Kepler and Newton; microscopes and
projector equipment were then constructed.
Huygens, on the other hand, saw light as a phenomenon comprising waves.
With the development of photometrics – the theory of how to measure light – and illuminances –
through Boguer and Lambert in the 18th century, the most essential scientific principles for workable
lighting engineering were established.
The proposal to light lighthouses using systems comprising Argand lamps and parabolic mirrors
was made in 1785.
In 1820 Augustin Jean Fresnel developed a composite system of stepped lens and prismatic
rings which could be made large enough to concentrate the light from lighthouses; this construction
was also first installed in Cordouan. Since then, Fresnel lenses have been the basis for all lighthouse
beacons and have also been applied in numerous types of projectors.
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Light Sources
PRODUCTION OF RADIATION
Incandescence
When an object is heated to a high temperature, the
atoms within the material become excited by the many
interactions between them and energy is radiated in a
continuous spectrum.
Electric discharges
An electric discharge is an electric current that flows
through a gas.
Figure 8. Electric discharge through an ionized gascv
Electroluminescence
Some materials will convert electricity into light directly.
Luminescence
The process involves a material absorbing radiation and
then re-emitting light.
Figure 9. Simplified representation of energy level scheme in luminescence
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Light Sources
PRODUCTION OF RADIATION
Radioluminescence
This occurs in a similar manner to luminescence, but the primary source of the activation energy is
particles or gamma rays emitted by a decaying nucleus of a radioactive atom.
Cathodoluminescence
In cathodoluminescence the energy driving the phosphor is an electron that has been accelerated
away from a cathode. This process is the means by which light is generated in a cathode ray tube.
Chemiluminescence
Some chemical reactions can produce light directly, not via the heat the reaction creates. The process
is used by some living organisms to generate light; the best-known example being the glow worm.
Thermoluminescence
This is exhibited by some materials when they are heated. The materials give out much more light than
would be expected due to black body radiation. The best-known practical use of the method of light
production is the mantle used in some types of gas lamps.
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Light Sources
DAYLIGHT
Sunlight
The key to the understanding of sunlight is knowing where the
sun will be in the sky at any given time or date relative to the site
in question. On any given day the sun will rise in the east. In the
northern hemisphere the sun then rises through the southern sky;
reaching its highest altitude at due south at solar noon and
passes through the southern sky before setting in the west.
Figure 10. The daily sun path

Skylight
Skylight is the light from the sun which is scattered in the
atmosphere. The distribution and amount of light received at
ground level is dependent on atmospheric conditions.
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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Incandescent
The incandescent lamp is operated by heating a filament in
the lamp to a high temperature, so that it emits light. The
hotter the filament, the whiter the light. The problem is that as
the lamp filament gets hotter, the more rapid the evaporation
of metal from the filament.
Common Application
Standard incandescent lamps, such as A and R lamps, are Figure 11. The construction of incandescent lamp
still commonly used in residences, hotels and motels, and
some retail environments where a residential- like quality is
desired. In these applications, the designer is trading the low
energy efficiency and short life of the incandescent lamp for
its warm color and low costs.
Figure 12. Forms of incandescent lamp

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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Tungsten Halogen
Tungsten-halogen lamps (also called TH or simply halogen
lamps) give off whiter light and last longer than standard
incandescent lamps.
Common Application
Halogen PAR lamps are commonly used in residential
downlighting and outdoor lighting, hotels and motels, and Figure 13. The representation of the tungsten halogen cycle
especially in retail display. IR/HIR lamps, the most common
display light source in service, are used in recessed lighting,
track lighting, and other lamp holders in stores of all types.
MR16 and PAR (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector Lamp) low-

voltage lamps are commonly used in museums and galleries,
residences, landscape lighting, and other applications where
a modest amount of light and excellent beam control are
called for.
Figure 14. Forms of tungsten halogen lamps

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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Fluorescent
Fluorescent lamps work by generating ultraviolet radiation
in a discharge in low pressure mercury vapor. This is then
converted into visible light by a phosphor coating on the
inside of the tube. The electric current supplied to the Figure 15. Working principle of a fluorescent lamp
discharge has to be limited by control gear to maintain
stable operation of the lamp.
Fluorescent and compact fluorescent lamps provide good

energy efficiency, good to excellent color, dimming, and
many other features expected of modern light sources.
Improvements in fluorescent lighting since 1980 now make
it useful in homes, businesses, and for almost every other
type of lighting application.
Figure 16. Types of compact fluorescent lamp

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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
High Pressure Mercury

In this type of lamp, a discharge takes place in a quartz
discharge tube containing mercury vapor at high pressure (2
to 10 atmospheres). Some of the radiation from the discharge
occurs in the visible spectrum but part of the radiation is
emitted in the ultraviolet. The outer bulb of the lamp is coated
internally with a phosphor that converts this UV radiation into
light. Figure 17. Construction of high pressure mercury lamp
The operation of the lamp is quite complex and needs to be

considered in three phases: ignition, run-up and stable
running.
Figure 18. Forms of high pressure mercury lamp

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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Metal Halide
Metal halide lamps were developed as a way of improving the
performance of high-pressure mercury lamps in terms of their
color appearance and light output. They work by introducing
the salts of other metals into the arc tube. As each element
has its own characteristic spectral line, by adding a mixture of
different elements into the discharge it is possible to create a
light source with good color rendering in a variety of colors.
The construction of a metal halide lamp is similar to that of a

high-pressure mercury lamp. The key differences are that it is
unusual to use an auxiliary electrode in the lamp, lamp
ignition being achieved using a high voltage pulse from the
control gear. Also, there is no phosphor coating on the outer
bulb.
Figure 19. Forms of metal halide lamp
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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Low Pressure Sodium

Low pressure sodium lamps are similar in many ways to
fluorescent lamps as they are both low pressure discharge
lamps. All the differences in characteristics stem from the use
of sodium in the discharge tube rather than mercury. The key
differences are the need to run the lamp hotter to maintain
the vapour pressure of sodium, the need to contain the very
reactive sodium metal; and the fact that sodium emits its light
in the visible rather than the UV frequency range, so there is
no need for a phosphor layer.
There used to be a range of designs for sodium lamps but

currently the U-tube lamp is by far the most common type.
Figure 20. The construction of a low pressure sodium lamp

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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
High Pressure Sodium

The high pressure sodium lamp generates light in a discharge
through sodium vapor at high pressure. As the vapor
pressure of sodium in a lamp rises the spectrum at first
broadens and then it splits in two with a gap appearing at
about 586 nm.
Figure 21. The construction of a high pressure sodium lamp
The discharge tube is mounted into a support frame and
sealed into an outer bulb. The outer bulb is generally made of
a borosilicate glass and may be in a number of different
shapes.
Figure 22. Outer bulb shapes for high pressure sodium lamps
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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Induction
Induction lamps are essentially gas discharge lamps that do
not have electrodes. Instead, the electric field in the lamp is
induced by an induction coil that is operating at high
frequency. The only types of induction lamps that are
currently in production are based on fluorescent lamp
technology.
The lamp consists of a glass bottle with a cavity in it into

which the induction coil is placed. The glass vessel has a gas
filling similar to a conventional fluorescent lamp and the
phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp is also similar.
Figure 23. Construction of a cavity type induction lamp

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Light Sources
ELECTRIC LIGHT
Light Emitting Diode

LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes, colors and
power ratings and development is proceeding at a rapid rate.
LEDs generally have a long life and may last up to 100,000
hours. LEDs generally emit light in a relatively narrow band
so that most LEDs produce light that is a saturated color.
It is possible to make white LEDs by using a blue or

ultraviolet chip and putting a phosphor coat round it. White
can also be achieved by combining a mixture of red, green
and blue chips.
Figure 24. The construction of low power (top) and high power (bottom) LEDs
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Perceptual Psychology
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CONSTANCY
One of the most important tasks of perception is to

differentiate between constant objects and changes in our
surroundings in the continuously changing shapes and
distribution of brightness of the image on the retina.
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As a rule, the folded card is perceived as if it is

being viewed from the outside (fold to the front).
In this case it appears to be uniformly white but lit
from one side. If the card is seen as being viewed
from inside (fold to the rear), it is perceived as
being uniformly lit but with one half coloured
black. The luminance pattern of the retina image
is therefore interpreted differently
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LAW OF GESTALT
The process of identifying this object in the profusion of

continuously changing stimuli on the retina is no less
problematic than the perception of objects. Or to put it in
more general terms: how does the perceptual process
define the structures its attention has been drawn to and
how does it distinguish them from their surroundings.
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LAW OF GESTALT
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LAW OF GESTALT
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LAW OF GESTALT
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REFERENCES BUILDING UTILITIES CLUSTER
• Boyce, P. & Raynham, P. (2009). The Society of Light and Lighting. The Society of Light and Lighting. London.
• Ganslandt, R., & Hoffman, H. (1992). Handbook of Lighting Design (ERCO 1st E). Germany: ERCO Leuchten
GmbH, Lüdenscheid Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden.
• Karlen, M. & Benya, J. (2004). Lighting Design Basics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey.
• Zumtobel (n.d.) (2008). The Lighting Handbook. 6th edition. Zumbotal Lighting GmbH. Austria.

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ARC1421: BUILDING UTILITIES 3

Figure 1. Toplighting Concepts

Figure 2. Sidelighting Concepts

Science and Lighting

Science and Lighting

Huygens, on the other hand, saw light as a phenomenon comprising waves.

Figure 10. The daily sun path

Figure 12. Forms of incandescent lamp

MR16 and PAR (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector Lamp) low-

Figure 14. Forms of tungsten halogen lamps

Fluorescent and compact fluorescent lamps provide good

Figure 16. Types of compact fluorescent lamp

High Pressure Mercury

The operation of the lamp is quite complex and needs to be

Figure 18. Forms of high pressure mercury lamp

The construction of a metal halide lamp is similar to that of a

Low Pressure Sodium

There used to be a range of designs for sodium lamps but

Figure 20. The construction of a low pressure sodium lamp

High Pressure Sodium

The lamp consists of a glass bottle with a cavity in it into

Figure 23. Construction of a cavity type induction lamp

Light Emitting Diode

It is possible to make white LEDs by using a blue or

One of the most important tasks of perception is to

As a rule, the folded card is perceived as if it is

The process of identifying this object in the profusion of

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