Abstract Algebra

Chapter 13 - Field Theory

David S. Dummit & Richard M. Foote
Solutions by positrón0802
positron0802@mail.com

Contents
13 Field Theory 1
13.1 Basic Theory and Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
13.2 Algebraic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
13.3 Classical Straightedge and Compass Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
13.4 Splitting Fields and Algebraic Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
13.5 Separable and Inseparable Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

13 Field Theory
13.1 Basic Theory and Field Extensions
Exercise 13.1.1.
p(x) = x3 + 9x + 6 is irreducible in Z[x] by Eisenstein Criterion with p = 3. By Gauss Lemma, then it
is irreducible in Q[x]. To find (1 + θ)−1 , we apply the Euclidean algorithm (long division) to p(x) and
1 + x. We find
x3 + 9x + 6 = (1 + x)(x2 − x + 10) − 4.
Evaluating at θ, we find (1 + θ)(θ2 − θ + 10) = 4. Therefore

θ2 − θ + 10
(1 + θ)−1 = .
4

Exercise 13.1.2.
Let f (x) = x3 − 2x − 2. f is irreducible over Z by Eisenstein Criterion with p = 2, hence over Q by
Gauss Lemma. Now, if θ is a root of f , then θ3 = 2θ + 2. Hence

(1 + θ)(1 + θ + θ2 ) = 1 + 2θ + 2θ2 + θ3 = 3 + 4θ + 2θ2 .

1+θ
For computing , first we compute (1+θ +θ2 )−1 . Applying the Euclidean algorithm, we obtain
1 + θ + θ2
x3 − 2x − 2 = (x2 + x + 1)(x − 1) − 2x − 1,

and
x2 x 7 9
x3 − 2x − 2 = (2x + 1)( − − )− .
2 4 8 8
Evaluating at θ, from this equalities we obtain
8 θ2 θ 7
(θ2 + θ + 1)(θ − 1) = 2θ + 1 and (2θ + 1)−1 = ( − − ).
9 2 4 8
Combining these two equations we obtain
8 2 θ2 θ 7
(θ + θ + 1)(θ − 1)( − − ) = 1.
9 2 4 8

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 13.1 Basic Theory and Field Extensions

So,
8 θ2 θ 7 2θ2 θ 5
(θ2 + θ + 1)−1 = (θ − 1)( − − ) = − + + ,
9 2 4 8 3 3 3
where we used θ3 = 2θ + 2 again. Therefore,

1+θ 2θ2 θ 5 θ2 2θ 1
2
= (1 + θ)(− + + ) = − + + .
1+θ+θ 3 3 3 3 3 3

Exercise 13.1.3.
Since 03 + 0 + 1 = 1 and 11 + 1 + 1 = 1 in F2 , then x3 + x + 1 is irreducible over F2 . Since θ is root of
x3 + x + 1, then θ3 = −θ − 1 = θ + 1. Hence, the powers of θ in F2 (θ) are

θ, θ2 , θ3 = θ + 1, θ4 = θ2 + θ, θ5 = θ2 + θ + 1, θ6 = θ2 + 1, and θ7 = 1.

Exercise 13.1.4.
Denote this map by ϕ. Then
√ √ √ √ √ √
ϕ(a + b 2 + c + d 2) = a + c − b 2 − d 2 = ϕ(a + b 2) + ϕ(c + d 2),

and √ √ √
ϕ((a + b 2) · (c + d 2)) = ϕ(ac + 2bd + (ad + bc) 2)
√
= ac + 2bd − (ad + bc) 2
√ √
= (a − b 2)(c − d 2)
√ √
= ϕ(a + b 2)ϕ(c + d 2),
√ √ √ √
hence
√ ϕ is an homomorphism. Moreover, if ϕ(a+b 2) = ϕ(c+d √ 2), then
√ a−b 2 = c−d √2, hence (since
√
2 6∈ Q) a = b and c = d, so ϕ is injective. Also, given a√+ b 2 ∈ Q( 2), then ϕ(a − b 2) = a + b 2,
so ϕ is surjective. Therefore, ϕ is an isomorphism of Q( 2) with itself.
Exercise 13.1.5.
Let α = p/q be a root of a monic polynomial p(x) = xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 over Z, with gcd(p, q) = 1.
Then
p p p
( )n + an−1 ( )n−1 + · · · + a1 + a0 = 0.
q q q
Multiplying this equation by q n one obtains

pn + an−1 pn−1 q + · · · + a1 pq n−1 + a0 q n = 0

⇒ q(an−1 pn−1 + · · · + a1 pq n−2 + a0 q n−1 ) = −pn .

Thus, every prime that divides q divides pn as well, so divides p. Since gcd(p, q) = 1, there is no prime
dividing q, hence q = ±1. The result follows.
Exercise 13.1.6.
This is straightforward. If
an αn + an−1 αn−1 + · · · + a1 α + a0 = 0,
then
(an α)n + an−1 (an α)n−1 + an an−2 (an α)n−2 + · · · + an−2
n a1 (an α) + an−1
n a0
= ann αn + an−1
n an−1 αn−1 + an−1
n an−2 αn−2 + · · · + an−1
n a1 α + an−1
n a0
= an−1
n (an αn + an−1 αn−1 + an−2 αn−2 + · · · + a1 α + a0 ) = 0.

Exercise 13.1.7.
If x3 − nx + 2 is reducible it must have a linear factor, hence a root. By the Rational Root Theorem,
if α is a root of x3 − nx + 2, then α must divide its constant term, so the possibilities are α = ±1, ±2.
If α = −1 or 2, then n = 3; if α = −1, then n = 1; and if α = 2, then n = 5. Therefore, x3 − nx + 2 is
irreducible for n 6= −1, 3, 5.

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 13.1 Basic Theory and Field Extensions

Exercise 13.1.8.
We subdivide this exercise in cases and subcases.
If x5 − ax − 1 is reducible then it has a root (linear factor) or is a product of two irreducible
polynomials of degrees 2 and 3.
Case 1. If x5 − ax − 1 has a root, then, by the Rational Root Theorem, it must be α = ±1. If α = 1
is a root, then a = 0. If α = −1 is a root, then a = 2.
Case 2. Now, suppose that there exists f (x) and g(x) irreducible monic polynomials over Z of
degrees 2 and 3 respectively, such that x5 − ax − 1 = f (x)g(x). Write f (x) = x2 + bx + c and
g(x) = x3 + rx2 + sx + t, where b, c, r, s, t ∈ Z. Then

x5 − ax − 1 = (x2 + bx + c)(x3 + rx2 + sx + t)

= x5 + (b + r)x4 + (br + c + s)x3 + (bs + cr + t)x2 + (bt + cs) + tc.

Equating coefficients leads to

b+r =0
br + c + s = 0
bs + cr + t = 0
bt + cs = −a
ct = −1.
From ct = −1 we deduce (c, t) = (−1, 1) of (c, t) = (1, −1), which give us two cases.
Case 2.1. First suppose (c, t) = (−1, 1). Then the system of equations reduces to

b+r =0
br − 1 + s = 0
bs − r + 1 = 0
b − s = −a.

Now, put b = −r into second and third equations to obtain −r2 − 1 + s = 0 and −rs − r + 1 = 0, that
is, r2 + 1 − s = 0 and rs + r − 1 = 0. Adding these last two equations we obtain r2 + rs + r − s = 0.
Thus r2 + rs + r + s = 2s, so (r + 1)(r + s) = 2s. Now, from r2 + 1 − s = 0 we have r2 = s − 1, so then
r2 + rs + r − s = 0 becomes rs + r = 1, that is, r(s + 1) = 1. Hence, r = 1 and s = 0, or r = −1 and
s = −2. If r = 1 and s = 0, then (r + 1)(r + s) = 2s leads to 2 = 0, a contradiction. If r = −1 and
s = −2, it leads to 0 = −4, another contradiction.
Therefore, (c, t) = (−1, 1) is impossible. We now pass to the case (c, t) = (1, −1).
Case 2.2. Suppose that (c, t) = (1, −1). The system of equations reduces to

b+r =0
br + 1 + s = 0
bs + r − 1 = 0
−b + s = −a.

Adding the second and third equation we obtain b(r + s) + r + s = 0, so that (b + 1)(r + s) = 0. Then
b = −1 or r = −s, so one more time we have two cases. If r = −s, then br + 1 + s = 0 becomes
br + 1 − r = 0. Hence, b = −r and br + 1 − r = 0 gives r2 + r − 1 = 0. By the Rational Root Theorem,
this equation has no roots on Z. Since r ∈ Z, we have a contradiction. Now suppose b = −1. From
b = −r we obtain r = 1, so, from br + 1 + s = 0 we obtain s = 0. Finally, from −b + s = −a we
obtain a = −1. Therefore, the solution (b, c, r, s, t) = (−1, 1, 1, 0, −1) is consistent and we obtain the
factorization

x5 − ax − 1 = (x2 + bx + c)(x3 + rx2 + sx + t) = (x2 − x + 1)(x3 + x2 − 1).

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 13.2 Algebraic Extensions

13.2 Algebraic Extensions

Exercise 13.2.1.
Since the characteristic of F is p, its prime subfield is (isomorphic to) Fp = Z/pZ. We can consider F as
a vector space over Fp . Since F is finite, then [F : Fp ] = n for some n ∈ Z+ . Therefore

|F| = |Fp |[F:Fp ] = pn .

Exercise 13.2.2.
Note that g and h are irreducible over F2 and F3 . Now, is θ is a root of g, then F2 (θ) ∼ = F2 /(g(x))
has 4 elements and F3 (θ) ∼
= F3 /(g(x)) has 9 elements. Furthermore, is θ2 is a root of h, then F2 (θ2 ) ∼
=
F2 /(h(x)) has 8 elements and F3 (θ2 ) ∼
= F3 /(h(x)) has 27 elements.
The multiplication table for F2 /(g(x)) is

· 0 1 x x+1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 x x+1
x 0 x x+1 x
x+1 0 x+1 x x

The multiplication table for F3 /(g(x)) is

· 0 1 2 x x+1 x+2 2x 2x + 1 2x + 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 x x+1 x+2 2x 2x + 1 2x + 2
2 0 2 1 2x 2x + 2 2x + 1 x x+2 x+1
x 0 x 2x 2x + 1 1 x+1 x+2 2x + 2 2
x+1 0 x+1 2x + 2 1 x+2 2x 2 x 2x + 1
x+2 0 x+2 2x + 1 x+1 2x 2 2x + 2 1 x
2x 0 2x x x+2 2 2x + 2 2x + 1 x+1 1
2x + 1 0 2x + 1 x+2 2x + 2 x 1 x+1 2 2x
2x + 2 0 2x + 2 x+1 2 2x + 1 x 1 2x x+2

In both cases, x is a generator of the cyclic group of nonzero elements.

Exercise 13.2.3.
Since 1 + i 6∈ Q, its minimal polynomial is of degree at least 2. We try conjugation, and obtain

(x − (1 + i))(x − (1 − i)) = x2 − 2x + 2,

which is irreducible by Eisenstein with p = 2. Therefore, the minimal polynomial is x2 − 2x + 2.

Exercise 13.2.4.
√ √ √ √ √ √
First, note that (2+ 3)2 = 4+4 3+3 = 7+4 3. Let θ = 2+ 3. Then θ2 −4θ = 7+4 3−8−4 3 = −1,
hence θ is a root of x2 −4x+1. Moreover,
√ x2 −4x+1 is√irreducible over Q (because θ 6∈ Q), so x2 −4x+1
is the minimal polynomial
√ of 2 + 3. Therefore, 2 + 3 has degree 2 over Q.
Now, let α = 3 2 and β = 1 + α + α2 . Then β ∈ Q(α), so Q ⊂ Q(β) ⊂ Q(α). We have [Q(α) : Q] =
[Q(α) : Q(β)][Q(β) : Q]. Note that [Q(α) : Q] = 3 since α has minimal polynomial x3 − 2 over Q, so
[Q(β) : Q] = 1 or 3. For a contradiction, suppose [Q(β) : Q] = 1, that is, Q(β) = Q so β ∈ Q. Then

β 2 = (1 + α + α2 )2 = 1 + 2α + 3α2 + 2α3 + α4 = 5 + 4α + 3α2 ,

where we used α3 = 2. So

β 2 − 3β = 5 + 2α + 3α2 − 3(1 + α + α2 ) = 2 − α,

hence α = −β 2 + 3β + 2 ∈ Q(β) = Q, a contradiction. Therefore, [Q(β) : Q] = 3.

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Exercise 13.2.5.
Since the polynomials have degree 3, if they were reducible they must have a linear factor, hence √ a root
√
3 3
in F . Note
√ that every element of F is of the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ Q. The roots of x − 2 are 2, ζ32
and ζ 2√3 2, where ζ is the primitive 3’rd root of unity, i.e., ζ = exp(2πi/3) = cos(2π/3) + i sin(2π/3) =
√
− 12 + 23 . Since 3 6∈ Q, none of this elements is in F , hence x3 − 2 is irreducible over F . Similarly, the
√ √ √
roots of x3 − 3 are 3 3, ζ 3 3 and ζ 2 3 3, and by the same argument non of this elements is in F . Hence
x3 − 3 is irreducible over F .
Exercise 13.2.6.
We have to prove that F (α1 , . . . , αn ) is the smallest field containing F (α1 ), . . . , F (αn ). Clearly F (αi ) ⊂
F (α1 , . . . , αn ) for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Now let K be a field such that F (αi ) ⊂ K for all i. If θ is an
element of F (α1 , . . . , αn ), then θ is of the form θ = a1 α1 + · · · + an αn , where a1 , . . . , an ∈ F . Every
ai αi is in K, hence θ ∈ K. Thus F (α1 , . . . , αn ) ⊂ K. Therefore, F (α1 , . . . , αn ) contains all F (αi )
and is contained in every field containing all F (αi ), hence F (α1 , . . . , αn ) is the composite of the fields
F (α1 ), F (α2 ), . . . , F (αn ).
Exercise 13.2.7.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Since 2 +√ 3 is in√Q( 2, 3), √ √ Q( 2 + 3)√⊂ Q(√ 2, 3). For the other direction we have to
clearly
prove that 2 and 2 are in Q( 2 + 3). Let θ = 2 + 3. Then
√ √ √ √
θ2 = 5 + 2 6, θ3 = 11 2 + 9 3 and θ4 = 37 + 15 6.

So
√ 1 3 √ 1 √
(θ − 9θ),
2= 3 = (11θ − θ3 ) and θ4 = 49 + 20 6.
2 2
√ √ √ √ √ √
Therefore
√ √ 2 ∈ Q(θ) and
√ √3 ∈ Q(θ), so Q( 2, 3) ⊂ Q( 2 + 3). The equality follows. Hence,
[Q( 2 + 3) : Q] = [Q( 2, 3) : Q] = 4.
We also have
√ √
θ4 − 10θ2 = (49 + 20 6) − 10(5 + 2 6) = −1, so θ4 − 10θ2 + 1 = 0.
√ √ √ √
Since [Q( 2 + 3) : Q] = 4, then x4 − 10x2 + 1 is irreducible over Q, and is satisfied by 2 + 3.
Exercise 13.2.8.
√ √
The elements of F ( D1 , D2 ) can be written in the form
p p p
a + b D1 + c D2 + d D1 D2 , where a, b, c, d ∈ F.

We have p p p p p p
[F ( D1 , D2 ) : F ] = [F ( D1 , D2 ) : F ( D1 )][F ( D1 ) : F ].
√ √ √ √ √
Since [F ( √ D1 ) :√
F ] = 2, then
√ [F ( D1 , D2 ) : F ] can be 2 or 4. Now, 2[F ( D1 , D2 ) : F ] = 2 if
√ and
only if [F ( √D1 , D2 )√: F ( D1 )] = 1, and that occurs exactly when x − D2 is reducible in F ( D1 )
(i.e., when D2 ∈ F ( D1 )), that is, if there exists a, b ∈ F such that
p p
(a + b D1 )2 = D2 , so that a2 + 2ab D1 + b2 D12 = D2 .
√
Note that ab = 0 as ab 6= 0 implies D1 ∈ F , contrary to the hypothesis. Then a = 0 or b = 0. If
2
b = 0, then D2 is a square in F , contrary to the hypothesis. If a = 0, √ then b D1 = D2 , and thus
D2 2 2
D1 D2 = ( b ) , so D1 D2 is a square in F . So, x − D2 is reducible in F ( D1 ) if and only if D1 D2 is a
square in F . The result follows.
Exercise
p 13.2.9.
√ √ √ √ √
Suppose a + b = m + n for some m, n ∈ F ,p then a + b = m + n + 2 mn. Since b is not a
√ √ √ √ √
square in F , this means b = 2 mn. We also have a + b − n = m, so
√ √ √ √
q
b = 2 n( a + b − n).

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 13.2 Algebraic Extensions

Hence,
√q √
b = 2 n(a + b) − 2n
√ √
⇒ ( b + 2n)2 = 4n(a + b)
√ √
⇒ b + 4n b + 4n2 = 4n(a + b)
⇒ b + 4n2 − 4na = 0
√
4a ± 16a2 − 16b
⇒ n=
8
p 2n
⇒ a2 − b = ± .
a
√
Therefore, since a and n are in F , a2 − b is in F . √
Now suppose that a2 − b is a square in F , so that a2 − b ∈ F . We prove that there exists m, n ∈ F
p √ √ √
such that a + b = m + n. Let
√ √
a + a2 − b a − a2 − b
m= and n = .
2 2
p √ √ √
Note that m and n are in F as char(F ) 6= 2. We claim a + b = m + n. Indeed, we have
√ √ √ p √ p √
(a + b) + 2 a2 − b + (a − b) a+ b+ a− b 2
m= =( ) ,
4 2
and √ √ √ p √ p √
(a + b) − 2 a2 − b + (a − b) a+ b− a− b 2
n= =( ) .
4 2
Thus p √ p √ p √ p √
√ a+ b+ a− b √ a+ b− a− b
m= and n= .
2 2
Therefore, p √ p √ p √ p √
√ √ √
q
a+ b+ a− b a+ b− a− b
m+ n= + = a+ b,
2 2
as claimed. p √
Now, we this to determine when the field
p Q( a + b), a, b ∈ Q, is biquadratic over Q. If a2 − b
√ √ √ √ √
is apsquare in Q and b is not, we have Q( a + b) = Q( m + n) = Q( m, n), so by last exercise
√
Q( a + b) is biquadratic over Q when a2 − b is a square in Q, and neither b, m, n or mn are squares
in Q. Since √ √
a + a2 − b a − a2 − b b
mn = = ,
2 2 4
p √
then mn is never a square when b isn’t. Thus, Q( a + b) is biquadratic over Q exactly when a2 − b
is a square in Q and neither b, m nor n is a square in Q.
Exercise
p 13.2.10.
√ p √ 2
Note that 3 + 2 2 = 3 + 8. Recalling last exercise with a = 3 and b = 8, we have p a −b
√
= 9−8 = 1
√
pand b √
is a square in Q = 8 is not. Hence, we find (m = 2 and n = 1 from p
√
last exercise) 3 + 8 = 2+1.
√
Therefore, Q( 3 + 2 2) = Q( 2) and the degree of the extension Q( 3 + 2 2) over Q is 2.
Exercise 13.2.11.
(a) First, note that the conjugation map a + bi → a − bi is an isomorphism of C, so it takes squares √ roots
to square roots, and maps numbers of the first quadrant to the fourth (and reciprocally). Since 3 + 4i
√ its conjugate is the square of root of 3 − 4i in the fourth
√ of 3 + 4i in the√first quadrant,
is the square root
quadrant, so is 3 − 4i. Hencep 3 + 4i and 3 − 4i are conjugates each other. Now, we use Exercise
√ √
9 again. Note that 3 + 4i = 3 + −16. With a = 3 and b = −16, we√have a2 − b =√25 is a square
in Q and b = −16 is not.√ Hence, we find m = 1 and √ n = −4√and thus 3 + 4i √= 1 + √ −4 = 1 + 2i.
Furthermore, we find 3 − 4i = 1 − 2i. Therefore, 3 + 4i + 3 − 4i = 4, i.e., 3 + 4i + 3 − 4i ∈ Q.

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p √ p √
(b) Let θ = 1 + −3 + 1 − −3. Then
√ √ √ √ √
q q
θ2 = ( 1 + −3 + 1 − −3)2 = (1 + −3) + (2 1 + 3) + (1 − −3) = 6.

Since x2 − 6 is irreducible over Q (Eisenstein p = 2), then θ has degree 2 over Q.

Exercise 13.2.12.
Let E be a subfield of K containing F . Then

[K : F ] = [K : E][E : F ] = p.

Since p is prime, either [K : E] = 1 or [E : F ] = 1. The result follows.

Exercise 13.2.13.
m
Note that, for all 1 ≤ k ≤ √n, we have [Q(α1 , . . . , α√
k ) : Q(α1 , . . . , αk−1
√ )] = 1 or 2. Then [F : Q] = 2
for some m ∈ N. Suppose 3 2 ∈ F . √Then Q ⊂ Q( 3 2) ⊂ F , so [Q( 3 2) : Q] divides [F : Q], that is, 3
divides 2m , a contradiction. Hence, 3 2 6∈ F .
Exercise 13.2.14.
Since α2 ∈ F (α), clearly F (α2 ) ⊂ F (α). Thus we have to prove α ∈ F (α2 ). For this purpose, consider
the polynomial p(x) = x2 − α2 , so that p(α) = 0. Note that α ∈ F (α2 ) if and only if p(x) is reducible
in F (α2 ). For a contradiction, suppose p(x) is irreducible in F (α2 ), so that [F (α) : F (α2 )] = 2. Thus

[F (α) : F ] = [F (α) : F (α2 )][F (α2 ) : F ] = 2[F (α2 ) : F ],

so [F (α) : F ] is even, a contradiction. Therefore, p(x) is reducible in F (α2 ) and α ∈ F (α2 ).

Exercise 13.2.15.
We follow the hint. Suppose there exists a counterexample. Let α be of minimal degree such that F (α)
is not formally real and α having minimal polynomial f of odd degree, say deg f = 2k +1 for some k ∈ N.
Since F (α) is not formally real, then −1 can be express as a sum of squares in F (α) ∼
= F [x]/((f (x))).
Then, the exists polynomials p1 (x), . . . , pm (x), g(x) such that

−1 + f (x)g(x) = (p1 (x))2 + · · · + (pm (x))2 .

As every element in F [x]/((f (x)) can be written as a polynomial in α with degree less than deg f ,
we have deg pi < 2k + 1 for all i. Thus, the degree in the right hand of the equation is less than
4k + 1, so deg g < 2k + 1 as well. We prove that the degree of g is odd by proving that the degree of
(p1 (x))2 + · · · + (pm (x))2 is even, because then the equation −1 + f (x)g(x) = (p1 (x))2 + · · · + (pm (x))2
implies the result. Let d be the maximal degree over all pi , we prove that x2d is the leading term of
(p1 (x))2 + · · · + (pm (x))2 . Note that x2d is a sum of squares (of the leading coefficients of the pi ’s of
maximal degree). Now, since F is formally real, 0 can’t be expressed as a sum of squares in F . Indeed,
Pl Pl−1
if i=1 a2i = 0, then i=1 (ai /al )2 = −1. Therefore x2d 6= 0, so the degree of (p1 (x))2 + · · · + (pm (x))2
is 2d, as claimed. Hence, the degree of g must be odd by the assertion above. Then g must contain an
irreducible factor of odd degree, say h(x). Since deg g < deg f , we have deg h < deg f as well. Let β be
a root of h(x), hence a root of g(x). Then

f (x)g(x)
−1 + h(x) = (p1 (x))2 + · · · + (pm (x))2 ,
h(x)

so −1 is a square in F [x]/((h(x)) ∼
= F (β), which means F (β) is not formally real. Therefore, β is a root
of an odd degree polynomial h such that F (β) is not formally real. Since deg h < deg f , this contradicts
the minimality of α. The result follows.
Exercise 13.2.16.
Let r ∈ R be nonzero. Since r is algebraic over F , there exist an irreducible polynomial p(x) =
a0 + a1 x + · · · + xn ∈ F [x] such that p(r) = 0. Note that a0 6= 0 since p is irreducible. Then
r−1 = −a−10 (r
n−1
+ · · · + a1 ). Since ai ∈ F ⊂ R and r ∈ R, we have r−1 ∈ R.

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 13.2 Algebraic Extensions

Exercise 13.2.17.
Let p(x) be an irreducible factor of f (g(x)) of degree m. Let α be a root of p(x). Since p is irreducible,
then [F (α) : F ] = deg p(x) = m. Now, since p(x) divides f (g(x)), we have f (g(α)) = 0 and thus g(α)
is a root of f (x). Since f is irreducible, this means n = [F (g(α)) : F ]. Note that F (g(α)) ⊂ F (α).
Therefore,
m = [F (α) : F ] = [F (α) : F (g(α))][F (g(α)) : F ] = [F (α) : F (g(α))] · n,
so n divides m, that is, deg f divides deg p.
Exercise 13.2.18.
(a) We follow the hint. Since k[t] is an UFD and k(t) is its field of fractions, then, by Gauss Lemma,
P (X)−tQ(X) is irreducible in k((t))[X] is and only if it is irreducible in (k[t])[X]. Note that (k[t])[X] =
(k[X])[t]. Since P (X) − tQ(X) is linear in (k[X])[t], is clearly irreducible in (k[X])[t] (i.e., in (k[t])[X]),
hence in (k(t))[X]. Thus, P (X) − tQ(X) is irreducible in k(t). Now, x is clearly a root of P (X) − tQ(X)
P (x)
since P (x) − tQ(x) = P (x) − Q(x) = P (x) − P (x) = 0.
Q(x)
(b) Let n = max{degP (x), degQ(x)}. Write

P (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 and Q(x) = bn xn + · · · + b1 x + b0 ,

where ai , bi ∈ k for all i, so at least one of an or bn is nonzero. The degree of P (X) − tQ(X) is clearly
≤ n, we prove is n. If an or bn is zero then clearly deg (P (X) − tQ(X)) = n. Suppose an , bn 6= 0. Then
an , bn ∈ k, but t 6∈ k (as t ∈ k(x)), it cannot be that an = tbn . Thus (an − tbn )X n 6= 0, so the degree of
P (X) − tQ(X) is n.
(c) Since P (X) − tQ(X) is irreducible over k(t) and x is a root by part (a), then [k(x) : k(t)] =
degP (X) − tQ(X), and this degree equals max{degP (x), degQ(x)} by part (b).
Exercise 13.2.19.
(a) Fix α in K. Since K is (in particular) a commutative ring, we have α(a + b) = αa + αb and
α(λa) = λ(αa) for all a, b, λ ∈ K. If, in particular, λ ∈ F , we have the result.
(b) Fix a basis for K as a vector space over
F . By part (a), for every α ∈ K we can associate a
F -linear transformation Tα . Denote by Tα
the matrix of Tα with respect to the basis fixed above.
Then define ϕ : K → Mn (F ) by ϕ(α) = Tα . We claim ϕ is an isomorphism. Indeed, if α, β ∈ K,
then T(α+β) (k) = (α + β)(k) = αk + βk = Tα (k) + Tβ (k) for every k ∈ K, hence T(α+β) = Tα + Tβ .
We also have T(αβ) (k) = (αβ)(k) = αkβk = Tα (k)Tβ (k) for every k ∈ K, so T(αβ) = Tα Tβ . Thus
ϕ(α + β) = ϕ(α) + ϕ(β) and ϕ(αβ) = ϕ(α)ϕ(β) (since the basis is fixed), so ϕ is an homomorphism.
Now, if ϕ(α) = ϕ(β), then αk = βk for every k ∈ K, so letting k = 1 we find that ϕ is injective.
Therefore, ϕ(K) is isomorphic to a subfield of Mn (F ), so the ring Mn (F ) contains an isomorphic copy
of every extension of F of degree ≤ n.
Exercise 13.2.20.
The characteristic polynomial of A is p(x) = det(Ix − A). For every k ∈ K, we have (Iα − A)k =
αk − Ak = αk − αk = 0, so det(Iα√ − A) = 0 in K. √ Therefore,
√ p(α) = 0.
3 3 3
Now, consider
√ the field Q(
√ 2) with basis
√ {1, 2, 4} over
√ Q.√ Denote the elements of this basis by
e1 = 1, e2 = 3 2 and e3 = 3 4. Let α = 3 2 and β = 1 + 3 2 + 3 4. Then α(e1 ) = e2 , α(e2 ) = e3 and
α(e3 ) = 2e1 . We also have β(e1 ) = e1 + e2 + e3 , β(e2 ) = 2e1 + e2 + e3 and β(e3 ) = 2e1 + 2e2 + e3 . Thus,
the associated matrices of the their linear transformations are, respectively,
   
0 0 2 1 2 2
Aα = 1 0 0 and Aβ = 1 1 2 .
0 1 0 1 1 1

The characteristic
√ polynomial of Aα is x3 − 2, hence is the monic polynomial of degree 3 satisfied by
3
α = 2. Furthermore, the characteristic polynomial
√ √ of Aβ is x3 − 3x2 − 3x − 1, hence is the monic
3 3
polynomial of degree 3 satisfied by β = 1 + 2 + 4.

8
 13.3 Classical Straightedge and Compass Constructions

Exercise 13.2.21.
The matrix of the linear transformation "multiplication by α" on K is found by acting 
of α in the
 basis
√ √ √ √ a bD
1, D. We have α(1) = α = a + b D and α( D) = a D + bD. Hence the matrix is . Now
b a
√
 
a bD
let ϕ : K → M2 (Q) be defined by ϕ(a + b D) = .
b a
We have
√ √ √ √
     
a + c (b + d)D a bD c dD
ϕ(a + b D + c + d D) = = + = ϕ(a + b D) + ϕ(c + d D),
b+d a+c b a d c
and
√ √
     
ac + bdD (ad + bc)D a
bD c dD
ϕ((a + b D) · (c + d D)) = = ·
ad + bc ac + bdD b
a d c
√ √
= ϕ(a + b D)ϕ(c + d D),
so ϕ is an homomorphism. Since K is a field, its ideals are {0} and K, so ker(ϕ) is trivial or K. Since
ϕ(K) is clearly non-zero, then ker(ϕ) 6= K and thus ker(ϕ) = {0}. Hence, ϕ is injective. Therefore, ϕ
is an isomorphism of K with a subfield of M2 (Q).
Exercise 13.2.22.
Define ϕ : K1 × K2 → K1 K2 by ϕ(a, b) = ab. We prove that ϕ is F -bilinear. Let a, a1 , a2 ∈ K and
b, b1 , b2 ∈ K2 . Then
ϕ((a1 , b) + (a2 , b)) = ϕ(a1 + a2 , b) = (a1 + a2 )b = a1 b + a2 b = ϕ(a1 , b) + ϕ(a2 , b),
and
ϕ((a,1 b) + (a, b2 )) = ϕ(a, b1 + b2 ) = a(b1 + b2 ) = ab1 + ab1 = ϕ(a, b1 ) + ϕ(a, b2 ).
We also have, for r ∈ F , ϕ(ar, b) = (ar)b = a(rb) = ϕ(rb). Therefore, ϕ is a F -bilinear map. Hence, ϕ
induces a F -algebra homomorphism Φ : K1 ⊗F K2 → K1 K2 . We use Φ to prove both directions. Note
that K1 ⊗F K2 have dimension [K1 : F ][K2 : F ] as a vector space over F .
First, we suppose [K1 K2 : F ] = [K1 : F ][K2 : F ] and prove K1 ⊗F K2 is a field. In this case
K1 ⊗F K2 and K1 K2 have the same dimension over F . Let L = Φ(K1 ⊗F K2 ). We claim L = K1 K2 ,
i.e. Φ is surjective. Note that L contains K1 and K2 . Since L is a subring of K1 K2 containing K1 (or
K2 ), then L is a field (Exercise 16). Hence, L is a field containing both K1 and K2 . Since K1 K2 is
the smallest such field (by definition), we have L = K1 K2 . Therefore Φ is surjective, as claimed. So,
Φ is an F -algebra surjective homomorphism between F -algebras of the same dimension, hence is an
isomorphism. Thus, K1 ⊗F K2 is a field.
Now suppose that K1 ⊗F K2 is a field. In this case Φ is a field homomorphism. Therefore, Φ
is either injective or trivial. It is clearly nontrivial since Φ(1 ⊗ 1) = 1, so it is injective. Hence,
[K1 : F ][K2 : F ] ≤ [K1 K2 : F ]. As we already have [K1 K2 : F ] ≤ [K1 : F ][K2 : F ] (Proposition 21 of
the book), the equality follows.

13.3 Classical Straightedge and Compass Constructions

Exercise 13.3.1.
Suppose the 9-gon is constructible. It has angles of 40◦ . Since we can bisect an angle by straightedge and
compass, the angle of 20◦ would be constructible. But then cos 20◦ and sin 20◦ would be constructible
too, a contradiction (see proof of Theorem 24).
Exercise 13.3.2.
Let O, P, Q and R be the points marked in the figure below.

9
 13.3 Classical Straightedge and Compass Constructions

Then α = ∠QP O, β = ∠RQO, γ = ∠QRO, and θ is an exterior angle of 4P RO. Since 4P QO is

isosceles, then α = ∠QP O = ∠QOP . Since β is an exterior angle of 4P QO, it equals the sum of the
two remote interior angles, i.e., equals ∠QP O + ∠QOP . This two angles equals α, hence β = 2α. Now,
since 4QRO is isosceles, then β = γ. Finally, since θ is an exterior angle of 4P RO, equals the sum of
the two remote interior angles, which are α and γ. Therefore, θ = α + γ = α + β = 3α.
Exercise 13.3.3.
We follow the hint. The distances a, b, x, y and x − k are marked in the figure below.

From the figure, using similar triangles for (a), (b) and (c), and Pythagoras Theorem for (d), the 4
relations are clear. Hence, we have
√ √
1 − k2 b+k y 1 − k2
y= , x=a , = and (1 − k 2 ) + (b + k)2 = (1 + a)2 .
1+a 1+a x−k 3k
√ 3ky
So, 1 − k 2 = y(1 + a) = x−k implies 3k = (x − k)(1 + a). From the equation for x above, we find
3k = ( a(b+a)
1+a − k)(1 + a) = a(b + k) − k(1 + a), so b + k =
4k+ka
a . Using this in the last equation and
reducing, we get
(1 − k 2 ) + (b + k)2 = (1 + a)2
4k + ka 2
⇒ (1 − k 2 ) + ( ) = (1 + a)2
a
⇒ a2 (1 − k 2 ) + (4k + ka)2 = a2 (1 + a)2
⇒ a2 − (ka)2 + (4k)2 + 8k 2 a + (ka)2 = a2 + 2a3 + a4
⇒ a4 + 2a3 − 8k 2 a − 16k 2 = 0.
We let a = 2y to obtain
h4 + h3 − k 2 h − k 2 = 0.
We find h = k 2/3 , hence a = 2k 2/3 . From b = 4k+ka
a − k, we find b = 2k 1/3 . Therefore, we can construct
1/3 2/3
2k and 2k using Conway’s construction.
Exercise 13.3.4.
Let p(x) = x3 + x2 − 2x − 1 and α = 2 cos(2π/7). By the Rational Root Theorem, if p has a root in Q,
it must be ±1 since it must divide its constant term. But p(1) = −1 and p(−1) = 1, so p is irreducible
over Q. Therefore, α is of degree 3 over Q, hence [Q(α) : Q] cannot be a power of 2. Since we can’t
construct α, the regular 7-gon is not constructible by straightedge and compass.
Exercise 13.3.5.
Let p(x) = x2 + x − 1 = 0 and α = 2 cos(2π/5). By the Rational Root Theorem, if p has a root in Q,
it must be ±1. Since p(1) = 1 and p(−1) = −1, p is irreducible over Q. Hence, α is of degree 2 over
Q, so it is constructible. We can bisectpan angle by straightedge and compass, so β = cos(2π/5) is also
constructible. Finally, as sin(2π/5) = 1 − cos2 (2π/5), sin(2π/5) is also constructible. Therefore, the
regular 5-gon is constructible by straightedge and compass.

10
 13.4 Splitting Fields and Algebraic Closures

13.4 Splitting Fields and Algebraic Closures

Exercise 13.4.1.
√ √ √ √
Let f√(x) = x4 − 2. The roots of f are 4 2, − 4 2, i√4 2 and −i 4 2. √ Hence, the √ field of f is
√ splitting
2). So, the splitting field of f has degree [Q(i, 4 2) : Q] = [Q(i, 4 2) √
Q(i, 4 √ : Q( 4 2)][Q( 4 2) : Q] over Q.
Since 4 2 is √a root of the irreducible polynomial x4√− 2 over Q, then [Q( 4 2) : Q] = √ 4. Furthermore,
√
since i 6∈ Q( 4 2),√then x2 + 1 is irreducible over Q( 4 2) having i as a root, so [Q(i, 4 2) : Q( 4 2)] = 2.
Therefore, [Q(i, 4 2) : Q] = 8.
Exercise 13.4.2.
Let f (x) = x4 + 2. Let K be the splitting field of f and let L be the splitting field of x4 − √2, that√is,
√
L = Q(i, 4 2) (last exercise). We claim K = L, so that [K : Q] = 8 by last exercise. Let ζ = 22 + i 22 .
First we prove ζ ∈ L and ζ ∈ K, then we prove √ K = L. √
√ We prove ζ ∈ L. This is easy. Let θ = 4
2. Since θ ∈ L, then θ2 = 2 ∈ L. We also have i ∈ L, so
2, i ∈ L implies ζ ∈ L. √
We prove ζ ∈ K. We have to prove i ∈ K and 2 ∈ K. Let α be a root of x4 + 2, so that α4 = −2.
Let β be a root of x4 − 1, so that β 4 = 1. Then (αβ)4 = α4 β 4 = −2, hence αβ is also a root of x4 + 2.
Since the roots of x4 − 1 are ±1, ±i, the roots of x4 + 2 are ±α and ±iα. Since K is generated over
Q by there roots, then iα/α = i ∈ K.√ Now let √ γ = α2 ∈ K. Since γ 2 = α4 = −2, then γ is a root of
2 2
x + 2. Since the√ roots of x + 2 are i 2 and −i 2, then γ is one of this roots. In either case γ/i ∈ K,
which implies 2 ∈ K. Therefore, ζ ∈ K.
Now we prove L = K proving both inclusions.
Let α be a root of x4 + 2 and θ be a root of x4 − 2. Then α4 = −2 and θ4 = 2. Note that ζ 2 = i,
so ζ 4 = −1. Hence, (ζθ)4 = ζ 4 θ4 = −2, so ζθ is a root of x4 + 2. Then, as we proved earlier, the roots
of x4 + 2 are ±ζθ and ±iζθ. We also have (ζα)4 = ζ 4 α4 = 2, so ζα is a root of x4 − 2. Then, by last
exercise, the roots of x4 − 2 are ±ζα and ±iζα. Now, since ζ and α are in K, we have ζα ∈ K. We also
have i ∈ K, so all roots of x4 − 2 are in K. Since L is generated by these roots, then L ⊂ K. Similarly,
ζ and θ are in L, so ζθ ∈ L; since i ∈ L, then all roots of x4 + 2 are in L. Since K is generated by these
roots, we have K ⊂ L. Therefore, K = L, so [K : Q] = 8.
Exercise 13.4.3.
√
Let f (x) = x4 + x2 + 1. Note that f (x) = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 − x + 1), so the roots of f are ± 21 ± i 23 .
√
Let w = 12 − i 23 , so this roots are w, −w, w, −w, where w denotes the complex conjugate of w (i.e.,
√
w = 21 + i 23 ). Hence, the splitting field of f is Q(w, w). Since w + w = 1, then Q(w, w) = Q(w).
Furthermore, w is a root of x2 − x + 1, that is irreducible over Q since w 6∈ Q. Therefore, the degree of
the splitting field of f is [Q(w) : Q] = 2.
Exercise 13.4.4.
√ √ √
Let f (x) = x6 − 4. Note that f (x) = (x3 − 2)(x3 + 2). The roots of x3 − 2 are 3 2, ζ 3 2 and ζ 2 √ 3
2,
where ζ is the primitive 3’rd root of unity, i.e., ζ = exp(2πi/3) = cos(2π/3) + i sin(2π/3) = − 12 + 23 .
√ √ √
Furthermore,
√ the roots√of x3 + 2 are − √3
2, −ζ 3 √
2 and −ζ √
2 3
2. Therefore, the splitting
√ field of f is
Q(ζ, 3 2). Then [Q(ζ, 3 2) : Q] = [Q(ζ, √ 3
2) : Q( 3 2)][Q( 3 2) : Q]. We have that 3 2 is a root of the
irreducible polynomial
√ x3 − 2 over Q, so 3 2 has degree
√ 3 over Q. Furthermore, ζ is a root of x2 + x + 1,
3 3
irreducible
√ over Q( 2), so ζ has degree 2 over Q( 2). Hence, the degree of the splitting field of f is
[Q(ζ, 3 2) : Q] = 6.
Exercise 13.4.5.
We follow the hint. First suppose that K is a splitting field over F . Hence, there exists f (x) ∈ F [x]
such that K is the splitting field of f . Let g(x) be an irreducible polynomial in F [x] with a root α ∈ K.
Let β be any root of g. We prove β ∈ K, so that g splits completely in K[x]. By Theorem 8, there
∼
is an isomorphism ϕ : F (α) − → F (β) such that ϕ(α) = β. Furthermore, K(α) is the splitting field for
f over F (a), and K(β) is the splitting field for f over F (β). Therefore, by Theorem 28, ϕ extends to
∼
an isomorphism σ : K(α) − → K(β). Since K = K(α), then [K : F ] = [K(α) : F ] = [K(β) : F ], so
K = K(β). Thus, β ∈ K.
Now suppose that every irreducible polynomial in F [x] that has a root in K splits completely in
K[x]. Since [K : F ] is finite, then K = F (α1 , . . . , αn ) for some α1 , . . . , αn . For every 1 ≤ i ≤ n, let pi
be the minimal polynomial of αi over F , and let f = p1 p2 · · · pn . Since every αi is in K, every pi has a

11
 13.5 Separable and Inseparable Extension

root in K, hence splits completely in K. Therefore, f splits completely in K and K is generated over
F by its roots, so K is the splitting field of f (x) ∈ F [x].
Exercise 13.4.6.
(a) Let K1 be the splitting field of f1 (x) ∈ F [x] over F and K2 the splitting field of f2 (x) ∈ F [x] over
F . Thus, K1 is generated over F by the roots of f1 , and K2 is generated over F by the roots of f2 .
Therefore, f1 f2 splits completely in K1 K2 and K1 K2 is generated over F by its roots, hence is the
splitting field of f1 f2 (x) ∈ F [x].
(b) We follow the hint. By last exercise, we have to prove that every irreducible polynomial in F [x] that
has a root in K1 ∩ K2 splits completely in (K1 ∩ K2 )[x]. So, let f (x) be an irreducible polynomial in
F [x] that has a root, say α, in K1 ∩ K2 . By last exercise, f splits completely in K1 and splits completely
in K2 . Since K1 and K2 are contained in K, by the uniqueness of the factorization of f in K, the roots
of f in K1 must coincide with its roots in K2 . Hence, f splits completely in (K1 ∩ K2 )[x].

13.5 Separable and Inseparable Extension

Exercise 13.5.1.
Let f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 and g(x) = bm xm + · · · + b1 x + b0 be two polynomials. Suppose,
without any loss of generality, that n ≥ m. Thus, we can write g(x) = bn xn + · · · + b1 x + b0 , where some
of the last coefficients bi could be zero. We have f (x) + g(x) = (an + bn )xn + · · · + (a1 + b1 )x + (a0 + b0 ),
so

Dx (f (x) + g(x)) = n(an + bn )xn−1 + · · · + 2(a2 + b2 )x + (a1 + b1 ) = Dx (f (x)) + Dx (g(x)).

Pn
Now we prove the formula for the product. Let cn = k=0 ak bn−k , so that
n
X n
X 2n X
X l 2n
X
f (x)g(x) = ( ak xk )( bk x k ) = ( ak bl−k )xl = cl xl .
k=0 k=0 l=0 k=0 l=0

Hence,
X2n 2n−1
X
Dx (f (x)g(x)) = Dx ( cl xl ) = (l + 1)cl+1 xl ,
l=0 l=0

so the coefficient of xl in Dx (f (x)g(x)) is (l + 1)cl+1 .

Now, we have Dx (f (x)) = nan xn−1 + · · · + 2a2 x + a1 , and Dx (g(x)) = nbn xn−1 + · · · + 2b2 x + b1 .
So (recall product of polynomials, page 295 of the book)
n
X n
X
Dx (f (x))g(x) = ( kak xk−1 )( bk xk )
k=1 k=0
n−1
X n
X 2n−1
X l
X
=( (k + 1)ak+1 xk )( bk x k ) = ( (k + 1)ak+1 bl−k )xl ,
k=0 k=0 l=0 k=0

and
n
X n
X
f (x)Dx (g(x)) = ( ak xk )( kbk xk−1 )
k=0 k=1
n
X n−1
X 2n−1
X l
X
k k
=( ak x )( (k + 1)bk+1 x ) = ( ak (l − k + 1)bl−k+1 )xl .
k=0 k=0 l=0 k=0

12
 13.5 Separable and Inseparable Extension

Therefore, the coefficient of xl in Dx (f (x))g(x) + Dx (g(x))f (x) is

l
X l
X
( (k + 1)ak+1 bl−k ) + ( (l − k + 1)ak bl−k+1 )
k=0 k=0
l−1
X l
X
= (l + 1)al+1 b0 + ( (k + 1)ak+1 bl−k ) + ( (l − k + 1)ak bl−k+1 ) + (l + 1)a0 bl+1
k=0 k=1
l
X l
X
= (l + 1)al+1 b0 + ( kak bl−k+1 ) + ( (l − k + 1)ak bl−k+1 ) + (l + 1)a0 bl+1
k=1 k=1
l
X
= (l + 1)al+1 b0 + ( (l + 1)ak bl−k+1 ) + (l + 1)a0 bl+1
k=1
l+1
X
= (l + 1)( ak bl−k+1 ) = (l + 1)cl+1 .
k=0

Since all their coefficients are equal, we conclude Dx (f (x)g(x)) = Dx (f (x))g(x) + Dx (g(x))f (x).
Exercise 13.5.2.
The polynomials x and x + 1 are the only (non-constant, i.e. 6= 0, 1) polynomials of degree 1 over F2 ;
they are clearly irreducible. A polynomial f (x) ∈ F2 [x] of degree 2 is irreducible over F2 if and only
if it does not have a root in F2 , that is, exactly when f (0) = f (1) = 1. Hence, the only irreducible
polynomial of degree 2 over F2 is x2 + x + 1. Now, for a polynomial f (x) ∈ F2 [x] of degree 4 to be
irreducible, it must have no linear or quadratic factors. We can also apply the condition f (1) = f (0) = 1
to discard the ones with linear factors. Furthermore, f must have an odd number of terms (or it will
be 0), and must have constant term 1 (or x will be a factor). We are left with

x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 x4 + x3 + 1
x4 + x2 + 1 x4 + x + 1.

For any of this polynomials to be irreducible, it can’t be factorized as two quadratic irreducible factors.
Since x2 + x + 1 is the only irreducible polynomial of degree 2 over F2 , only (x2 + x + 1)2 = x4 + x2 + 1 of
this four is not irreducible. Hence, the irreducible polynomials of degree 4 over F2 are x4 +x3 +x2 +x+1,
x4 + x3 + 1 and x4 + x + 1.
Now, since x + 1 = x − 1 in F2 , we have (x + 1)(x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1) = x5 − 1. We also calculate
(x + x + 1)(x4 + x + 1)(x4 + x3 + 1) = x10 + x5 + 1. So, the product of all this irreducible polynomials
2

is
x(x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x4 + x + 1)(x4 + x3 + 1)(x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1)
= x(x5 − 1)(x10 + x5 + 1) = x16 − x.

Exercise 13.5.3.
We follow the hint. Suppose d divides n, so that n = qd for some q ∈ Z. Then xn − 1 = xqd − 1 =
(xd − 1)(xqd−d + xqd−2d + . . . + xd + 1). So xd − 1 divides xn − 1.
Conversely, suppose d does not divide n. Then n = qd + r for some q, r ∈ Z with 0 < r < d. Thus
xn −1 = (xqd+r −xr )+(xr −1) = xr (xqd −1)+(xr −1) = xr (xd −1)(xqd−d +xqd−2d +. . .+xd +1)+(xr −1).
Since xd − 1 divides the first term, but doesn’t divide xr − 1 (as r < d), then xd − 1 does not divide
xn − 1.
Exercise 13.5.4.
The first assertion is analogous to the last exercise.
d
Now, Fpd is defined as the field whose pd elements are the roots of xp − x over Fp . Similarly is
defined Fpn . Take a = p. So, d divides n if and only if pd −1 divides pn −1, and that occurs exactly when
d n d d
xp −1 − 1 divides xp −1 − 1 (by last exercise). Thus, if d divides n, any root of xp − x = x(xp −1 − 1)
n n d
must be a root of xp − x = x(xp −1 − 1), hence Fpd ⊆ Fpn . Conversely, if Fpd ⊆ Fpn , then xp −1 − 1
n
divides xp −1 − 1, so d divides n.

13
 13.5 Separable and Inseparable Extension

Exercise 13.5.5.
Let f (x) = xp −x+a. Let α be a root of f (x). First we prove f is separable. Since (α+1)p −(α+1)+a =
αp + 1 − α − 1 + a = 0, then α + 1 is also a root of f (x). This gives p distinct roots of f (x) given by
α + k with k ∈ Fp , so f is separable.
Now we prove f is irreducible. Let f = f1 f2 · · · fn where fi (x) ∈ Fp [x] is irreducible for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Let 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n and let αi be a root of fi and αj be a root of fj , so that fi is the minimal polynomial
of αi and fj the minimal polynomial of αj . We prove deg fi = deg fj . Since αi is a root of fi , it is a
root of f , hence there exists k1 ∈ Fp such that αi = α + k1 . Similarly, there exists k2 ∈ Fp such that
αj = α + k2 . Thus, αi = αj + k1 − k2 , so fi (x + k1 − k2 ) is irreducible having αj as a root, so it must
be its minimal polynomial. Hence, fi (x + k1 − k2 ) = fj (x), so deg fi = deg fj , as claimed. Since i and
j were arbitrary, then all fi are of the same degree, say q. Then p = deg f = nq, so n = 1 or n = p (as
p is prime). If n = p, then all roots of f are in Fp , so α ∈ Fp and thus 0 = αp − α + a = a, contrary to
the hypothesis. Therefore, n = 1, so f is irreducible.
Exercise 13.5.6.
n n
By definition, Fpn is the field whose pn elements are the roots of xp − x over Fp . Since xp − 1 =
n
x(xp −1 − 1), clearly
n Y
xp −1 − 1 = (x − α).
α∈F×
pn

Set x = 0. Then Y n Y
−1
−1 = (−α) = (−1)p α
α∈F×
pn
α∈F×
pn
n n n Y
−1 −1 −1
⇒ (−1)p (−1) = (−1)p (−1)p α
α∈F×
pn
n Y
⇒ (−1)p = α.
α∈F×
pn

Hence, the product of the nonzero elements is +1 if p = 2 and −1 is p is odd. For p odd and n = 1, we
have Y
−1 = α,
α∈F×
p

so taking module p we find [1][2] · · · [p − 1] = [−1], i.e., (p − 1)! ≡ −1 (mod p).

Exercise 13.5.7.
Let a ∈ K such that a 6= bp for every b ∈ K. Let f (x) = xp − a. We prove that f is irreducible and
inseparable. If α is a root of xp − a, then xp − a = (x − α)p , so α is a multiple root of f (with multiplicity
p), hence f is inseparable. Now, let g(x) be an irreducible factor of f (x). Note that α 6∈ K, otherwise
a = αp , contrary to the hypothesis. Then g(x) = (x − α)k for some k ≤ p. Using the binomial theorem,
we have
g(x) = (x − α)k = xk − kαxk−1 + · · · + (−α)k .
Therefore, kα ∈ K. Since α 6∈ K, then k = p, so g = f . Hence, f is irreducible. We conclude that K(α)
is an inseparable finite extension of K.
Exercise 13.5.8.
Let f (x) = an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 ∈ Fp [x]. Since Fp has characteristic p, then (a + b)p = ap + bp for any
a, b ∈ Fp . Easily we can generalize this to a finite number of terms, so that (x1 +· · ·+xn )p = xp1 +· · ·+xpn
for any x1 , · · · , xn ∈ Fp . Furthermore, by Fermat’s Little Theorem, ap = a for every a ∈ Fp . So, over
Fp , we have

f (x)p = (an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 )p = apn xnp + . . . + ap1 xp + ap0 = an xnp + . . . + a1 xp + a0 = f (xp ).

14
 13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions

Exercise 13.5.9.
By the binomial theorem, we have
pn  
pn
X pn
(1 + x) = xi ,
i=0
i

so the coefficient of x in the expansion of (1 + x) is pn

pi


pn
pi .
Since Fp has characteristic p, we have (1+x)pn = 1+xpn = (1+xp )n , so over Fp this is the coefficient
of (xp )i in (1 + xp )n . Furthermore, (1 + x)pn = (1 + xp )n implies
n   pn  
X n
p n p i
X pn i
(1 + x ) = (x ) = x = (1 + x)pn
i=0
i i=0
k
pn n



over Fp , hence pi ≡ i (mod p).
Exercise 13.5.10.
This is equivalent to prove that for any prime number p, we have f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )p = f (xp1 , xp2 , . . . , xpn )
in Fp [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ]. Let
X
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = aγ1 ,...,γn xγ11 . . . xγnn
γ1 ,...,γn =0

be an element of Fp [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ].
Since Fp has characteristic p, then (x1 + · · · + xn )p = xp1 + · · · + xpn for any x1 , · · · , xn ∈ Fp .
Furthermore, by Fermat’s Little Theorem, ap = a for every a ∈ Fp . Hence, over Fp we have
X X
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )p = ( aγ1 ,...,γn xγ11 . . . xγnn )p = (aγ1 ,...,γn xγ11 . . . xγnn )p
X X
= apγ1 ,...,γn (xγ11 . . . xγnn )p = aγ1 ,...,γn (xpγ 1 pγn p p p
1 . . . xn ) = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).

Exercise 13.5.11.
Let f (x) ∈ F [x] with no repeated irreducible factors in F [x]. We can suppose f is monic. Then
f = f1 f2 · · · fn for some monic irreducible polynomials fi (x) ∈ F [x]. Since F is perfect, f is separable,
hence all fi has distinct roots. Thus, f splits in linear factors in the closure of F , hence splits in linear
factors in the closure of K. Therefore, f (x) has no repeated irreducible factors in K[x].

13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions

Exercise 13.6.1.
Since (ζm ζn )mn = 1, then ζm ζn is an mnth root of unity. Now, let 1 ≤ k < mn. Then (ζm ζn )k = ζm k k
ζn .
k k k
For a contradiction, suppose ζm ζn = 1. Then, ζm = 1 and ζnk = 1, hence m divides k and n divides k,
so mn divides k (as m 6= n). Since 1 ≤ k < mn, this is impossible. So, (ζm ζn )k 6= 1 for all 1 ≤ k < mn
and thus the order of ζm ζn is mn. Therefore, ζm ζn generates the cyclic group of all mnth roots of unity,
that is, ζm ζn is a primitive mnth root of unity.
Exercise 13.6.2.
Since (ζnd )(n/d) = ζnn = 1, then ζnd is an (n/d)th root of unity. Now let 1 ≤ k < (n/d). Then (ζnd )k = ζnkd .
Since 1 ≤ kd < n, then ζnkd 6= 1, so (ζnd )k 6= 1. Hence, the order of ζnd is (n/d), so it generates the cyclic
group of all (n/d)th roots of unity, that is, ζnd is a primitive (n/d)th root of unity.
Exercise 13.6.3.
Let F be a field that contains the nth roots of unity for n odd and let ζ be a 2nth root of unity. If
ζ n = 1, then ζ ∈ F , so suppose ζ n 6= 1. Since ζ 2n = 1, then ζ n is a root of x2 − 1. Since the roots of
this polynomial are 1 and −1, and ζ n 6= 1, then ζ n = −1. Hence, (−ζ)n = (−1)n (ζ)n = (−1)n+1 = 1
(since n is odd), so −ζ ∈ F . Since F is a field, then ζ ∈ F .
Exercise 13.6.4.
k k
Let F be a field with char F = p. The roots of unity over F are the roots of xn −1 = xp m −1 = (xm −1)p ,
so are the roots of xm − 1. Now, since m is relatively prime to p, so is xm − 1 and its derivative mxm−1 ,

15
 13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions

so xm − 1 has no multiple roots. Hence, the m different roots of xm − 1 are precisely the m distinct nth
roots of unity over F .
Exercise 13.6.5.
√
We use the inequality ϕ(n) ≥ n/2 for all n ≥ 1. Let K be an extension of Q with infinitely many
2
roots of unity. Let N ∈ N. Then, there exits n ∈ N such √ that n > 4N and there exits some nth root
of unity ζ ∈ K. Then [K : Q] ≥ [Q(ζ) : Q] = ϕ(n) ≥ n/2 > N . Since N was arbitrary, we conclude
that [K : Q] > N for all N ∈ N, so [K : Q] is infinite. Therefore, in any finite extension of Q there are
only a finite number of roots of unity.
Exercise 13.6.6.
Since Φ2n (x) and Φn (−x) are irreducible, they are the minimal polynomial of any of its roots. Thus, it
is sufficient to find a common root for both. Let ζ2 be the primitive 2th root of unity and let ζn be a
primitive nth root of unity. Note that ζ2 = −1, so that ζ2 ζn = −ζn . Since n is odd, 2 and n are relatively
prime. So, by Exercise 1, ζ2 ζn is a primitive 2nth root of unity, i.e, a root of Φ2n (x). Furthermore,
−ζn is clearly a root of Φn (−x). Thus, −ζn is a common root for both Φ2n (x) and Φn (−x), hence
Φ2n (x) = Φn (−x).
Exercise 13.6.7.
The
P Möbius Inversion Formula sates that if f (n) is defined for all nonnegative integers and F (n) =
( nd ). So lets start with the formula
P
d|n f (d), then f (n) = d|n µ(d)F
Y
xn − 1 = Φd (x).
d|n

We take natural logarithm in both sides and obtain

Y X
ln(xn − 1) = ln( Φd (x)) = ln Φd (x).
d|n d|n

So, we use the Möbius Inversion Formula for f (n) = ln Φn (x) and F (n) = ln(xn − 1) to obtain
X X
ln Φn (x) = µ(d) ln(xn/d − 1) = ln(xn/d − 1)µ(d) .
d|n d|n

Hence, taking exponentials we obtain

X Y Y
Φn (x) = exp( ln(xn/d − 1)µ(d) ) = (xn/d − 1)µ(d) = (xd − 1)µ(n/d) .
d|n d|n d|n

Exercise 13.6.8.
x`−1 (x−1)`
(a) Since p is prime, in Fp [x] we have (x − 1)p = xp − 1, so Φ` (x) = x−1 = x−1 = (x − 1)l−1 .
(b) Note that ζ has order ` as being a primitive `th root of unity. Since pf ≡ 1 mod `, then pf − 1 = q`
f
for some integer q, hence ζ p −1 = ζ q` = 1, so ζ ∈ Fpf . Now we prove that f is the smallest integer
n
with that property. Suppose ζ ∈ Fpn for some n. Then ζ is a root of xp −1 − 1, hence ` divides pn − 1
(see Exercise 13.5.3). Since f is the smallest power of p such that pf ≡ 1 mod `, is the smallest integer
such that ` divides pf − 1, so n ≥ l, as desired. This in fact proves that Fp (ζ) = Fpf , so the minimal
polynomial of ζ over Fp has degree f .
(c) Since ζ a ∈ Fp (ζ), clearly Fp (ζ a ) ⊂ Fp (ζ). For the other direction we follow the hint. Let b the
the multiplicative inverse of a mod `, i.e ab ≡ 1 mod `. Then (ζ a )b = ζ, so ζ ∈ Fp (ζ a ) and thus
Fp (ζ) ⊂ Fp (ζ a ). The equality follows.
Now, consider Φ` (x) as a polynomial over Fp [x]. Let ζi for 1 ≤ i ≤ ` be ` distinct primitive `th roots
of unity. The minimal polynomial of each ζi has degree f by part (b). Hence, the irreducible factors of
Φ` (x) have degree f . Since Φ` have degree ` − 1, then there must be `−1 f factors, and all of them are
different since Φ` (x) is separable.
(d) If p = 7, then Φ7 (x) = (x − 1)6 by part (a). If p ≡ 1 mod 7, then f = 1 in (b) and all roots have
degree 1, so Φ7 (x) splits in distinct linear factors. If p ≡ 6 mod 7, then f = 2 is the smallest integer

16
 13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions

such that pf = p2 ≡ 36 ≡ 1 mod 7, so we have 3 irreducible quadratics. If p ≡ 2, 4 mod 7, then f = 3 is

the smallest integer such that p3 ≡ 23 , 43 ≡ 8, 64 ≡ 1 mod 7, so we have 2 irreducible cubics. Finally, if
p ≡ 3, 5 mod 7, then f = 6 is the smallest integer such that p6 ≡ 36 , 56 ≡ 729, 15626 ≡ 1 mod 7, hence
we have an irreducible factor of degree 6.
Exercise 13.6.9.
Let A be an n by n matrix over C for which Ak = I for some integer k ≥ 1. Then the minimal polynomial
of A divides xk − 1. Since we are working over C, there are k distinct roots of this polynomial, so the
minimal polynomial ofA canbe split in linear factors. Hence, A is diagonalizable.
1 α
Now consider A = where α is an element of a field of characteristic p.
0 1  
n 1 nα
Computing powers of A, we can prove (by induction) that A = for every positive integer
0 1
p
n. Since pα = 0, then A = I. Now, if A is diagonalizable, there exists some non-singular matrix P
such that A = P DP −1 , where D is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the eigenvalues of A.
Since A has only one eigenvalue 1, then D = I, and thus A = P IP −1 = I. So, if A is diagonalizable, it
must be α = 0.
Exercise 13.6.10.
Let a, b ∈ Fpn . Then ϕ(a + b) = (a + b)p = ap + bp = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b), and ϕ(ab) = (ab)p = ap bp = ϕ(a)ϕ(b),
so ϕ is and homomorphism. Moreover, if ϕ(a) = 0, then ap = 0 implies a = 0. Hence, ϕ is injective.
Since Fpn is finite, then ϕ is also surjective so it is an isomorphism. Furthermore, since every element
n n
of Fpn is a root of xp − x, then ϕn (a) = ap = a for all a ∈ Fpn , so ϕn is the identity map. Now, let m
m
be an integer such that ϕm is the identity map. Then ap = a for all a ∈ Fpn , so every element of Fpn
m
must be a root of xp − x. Hence, Fpn ⊂ Fpm and thus n divides m (Exercise 13.5.4), so n ≤ m.
Exercise 13.6.11.
Note that the minimal polynomial of ϕ is xn − 1, for if ϕ satisfies some polynomial xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
n−1
of degree n − 1 (or less) with coefficients in Fp , then xp + · · · + a1 xp + a0 for all x ∈ Fpn , which
is impossible. Since Fpn has degree n as a vector space over Fp , then xn − 1 is also the characteristic
polynomial of ϕ, hence is the only invariant factor. Therefore, the rational canonical form of ϕ over Fp
is the companion matrix of xn − 1, which is
 
0 0 ··· 0 1
1 0 · · · 0 0
 
0 1 · · · 0 0
 .
 .. .. . . . .
. . . .. .. 
0 0 ··· 1 0

Exercise 13.6.12.
We’ll work over the algebraic closure of Fpn , to ensure the field to contain all eigenvalues. In last exercise
we proved that the minimal and characteristic polynomial of ϕ is xn − 1. Moreover, the eigenvalues of ϕ
are the nth roots of unity. We use Exercise 4 and write n = pk m for some prime p and some m relatively
k
prime to p, so that xn − 1 = (xm − 1)p and we get exactly m distinct nth roots of unity, each one with
k
multiplicity p . Since all the eigenvalues are zeros of both the minimal and characteristic polynomial of
multiplicity pk , we get m Jordan blocks of size pk . Now, fix a primitive mth root of unity, say ζ. Then,
each Jordan block each of the form
 i 
ζ 1 0 ··· 0 0
 0 ζi 1 · · · 0 0 
 0 0 ζi · · · 0 0 
 
Ji =  .
 
.. .. . . .. .. 
 .. . . . . .
 
 0 0 0 · · · ζi 1 
0 0 0 · · · 0 ζi

17
 13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions

for some 0 ≤ i ≤ m − 1. We already know the Jordan canonical form is given by

 
J0 0 · · · 0
 0 J1 · · · 0 
 
0
 0 ··· 0 .
 .. .. . . .. 
. . . . 
0 0 · · · Jm−1

Exercise 13.6.13.
(a) Z is a division subring of D, and it is commutative by definition of the center, so Z is a field. Since
it is finite, its prime subfield is Fp for some prime p, so it is isomorphic to Fpm for some integer m. Let
q = pn , so that Z is isomorphic to Fq . Since D is a vector space over Z, then |D| = q n for some integer
n.
(b) Let x ∈ D× and let CD (x) be the set of the elements in D that commutes with x. Clearly Z ⊂ CD (x).
We prove that every element a ∈ CD (x) has an inverse in CD (x). Since a ∈ CD (x), then ax = xa.
Since D is a division ring, then a−1 ∈ D. Moreover, we have a−1 ax = a−1 xa and thus x = a−1 xa, so
xa−1 = a−1 x and a−1 ∈ CD (x). Hence, CD (x) is a division ring. Now, since Z ⊂ CD (x), then CD (x)
is a Z-vector space, so |CD (x)| = q m for some integer m. If x 6∈ Z, then CD (x) is a proper subset of D
and hence m < n.
(c) The class equation for the group D× is
r
X
|D× | = |Z(D× )| + |D× : CD× (xi )|,
i=1

where the xi are the representatives of the distinct conjugacy class. By (a) we have |D× | = q n − 1,
qn − 1 qn − 1
|Z(D× )| = q − 1 and |CD× (xi )| = q mi − 1. Then |D× : CD× (xi )| = = mi . Replacing in
|CD× (xi )| q −1
the class equation we obtain
r r
X qn − 1 X qn − 1
q n − 1 = (q − 1) + = (q − 1) + .
i=1
|CD× (xi )| i=1
q mi − 1

qn − 1
(d) Since |D× : CD× (xi )| is an integer, then |D× : CD× (xi )| = is an integer. Hence, q mi − 1
q mi − 1
divides q n − 1, so (Exercise 13.5.4) mi divides n. Since mi < n (no xi is in Z), no mth i root of unity is a
nth root of unity. Therefore, as Φn (x) divides xn −1, it must divide (xn −1)/(xmi −1) for i = 1, 2, . . . , r..
Letting x = q we have Φn (q) divides (q n − 1)/(q mi − 1) for i = 1, 2, . . . , r.
(e) From (d), Φn (q) divides (q n − 1)/(q mi − 1) for i = 1, 2, . . . , r, so the class equation in (c) implies
Φn (q) divides q − 1. Now, let ζ 6= 1 be a nth root
Q of unity. In the complex plane q is closer to 1 that ζ
is, so |q − ζ| > |q − 1| = q − 1. Since Φn (q) = ζ primitive (q − ζ) divides q − 1, this is impossible unless
n = 1. Hence, D = Z and D is a field.
Exercise 13.6.14.
We follow the hint. Let P (x) = xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a monic polynomial of degree ≥ 1 over Z. For
a contradiction, suppose there are only finitely many primes dividing the values P (n), n = 1, 2, . . ., say
p1 , p2 , . . . , pk . Let N be an integer such that P (N ) = a 6= 0. Let Q(x) = a−1 P (N + ap1 p2 . . . pk x).
Then, using the binomial theorem, we have

Q(x) = a−1 P (N + ap1 p2 . . . pk x)

= a−1 ((N + ap1 p2 . . . pk x)n + · · · + a1 (N + ap1 p2 . . . pk x) + a0 )
= a−1 (N n + an−1 N n−1 + · · · + a1 N + a0 + R(x))
= a−1 (P (N ) + R(x))
= 1 + a−1 R(x)

18
 13.6 Cyclotomic Polynomials and Extensions

for some polynomial R(x) ∈ Z[x] divisible by ap1 p2 . . . pk . Hence, Q(x) ∈ Z[x]. Moreover, for all n ∈ Z+ ,
P (N + ap1 p2 . . . pk n) ≡ a (mod p1 , p2 , . . . , pk ), so Q(n) = a−1 P (N + ap1 p2 . . . pk n) ≡ a−1 a = 1 (mod
p1 , p2 , . . . , pk ). Now let m be a positive integer such that |Q(m)| > 1, so that Q(m) ≡ 1 (mod pi ) for
all i. Therefore, none of the pi ’s divide Q(m). Since |Q(m)| > 1, there exists a prime q 6= pi for all i
such that q divides Q(m). Then q divides aQ(m) = P (N + ap1 p2 . . . pk m), contradicting the fact that
only the primes p1 , p2 , . . . , pk divides the numbers P (1), P (2), . . ..
Exercise 13.6.15.
We follow the hint. Since Φm (a) ≡ 0 (mod p), then am ≡ 1 (mod p). Hence, there exist b such that
ba ≡ 1 mod p (indeed, b = am−1 ), so a is relatively prime to p. We prove that the order of a is m.
For a contradiction, suppose ad ≡ 1 (mod p) for some d dividing m, so that Φd (a) ≡ 0 (mod p) for
some d < m. Thus, a is a multiple root of xm − 1, so is also a root of its derivative mam−1 . Hence,
mam−1 ≡ 0 mod p, impossible since p does not divide m nor a. Therefore, the order of a in (Z/pZ)× is
precisely m
Exercise 13.6.16.
Let p be an odd prime dividing Φm (a). If p does not divide m, then, by (c), a is relatively prime to p
and the order of a in F× ×
p is m. Since |Fp | = p − 1, this implies m divides p − 1, that is, p ≡ 1 (mod m).

Exercise 13.6.17.
By Exercise 14, there are infinitely many primes dividing Φm (1), Φm (2), Φm (3), . . .. Since only finitely
of them can divide m, then, by Exercise 16, there must exists infinitely many primes p with p ≡ 1 (mod
m).

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