ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS OF CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS
Due to precarious and complex nature of humans and environments, it is
obvious that human beings must engage in series of adjustments processes
which are necessary condition for coping with life and its challenges. Most
psychologists Piaget, Vygostky, Freud, and Kholberg in (Santrock 2007)
believed that period from birth through childhood is -essentially the most
crucial and critical period in human life span, as experiences ,encounters and
adjustments in early years have tremendous impact in later life .

This spectrum of adolescent problem is wide. The problems vary in there

severity and in how common they are for girls versus boys and for different
social economic groups.

Some adolescence problems are short lived; others can persist over many
years.

Some problems are more likely to appear at one developmental level then at
another. For example fears are more common in early childhood, many
school related problem surface for the first time in middle and late
childhood, and drug related problems become more common in adolescence
(Edlebrock, 1989).

Adolescence from a lower social economic background were more likely to

have problems than those from a middle social economic background. Most
problems reported for adolescence from a lower social economic back
ground were uncontrolled externalizing behaviors- destroying others
belongings and fighting

for example these behaviors also were more characteristic of boys than girls;
For girls these problems were anxiety or depression.

Children and adolescence had more problems when they had fewer related
adults in their homes, head biological parents who were unmarried in their
homes, parents who were separated and divorced etc.

Many studies have shown that factors such as poverty, ineffective parenting
and mental disorders in parents predict adolescence problems (Pianta, 2005)
The Children and adolescents are faced not only with difficulties incidental to
growing up physically-rapid physiological changes, increased hormonal
activity-but also with an increasing number of psychological problems. In
most instances the troubles and conflicts of both early childhood and the
beginning school years still persist in adolescence . Research has indicated
that these problems may be classified into two broad dimensions:
externalizing and internalizing behaviour problems ( Achenbach,1991; Frick
& Kimonis, 2008).

The Concept of Externalizing Behavior

Externalizing behavior problems refers to a grouping of behavior

problems that are manifested in children’s outward behavior and reflect the
child negatively acting on the external environment (Campbell, Shaw, &
Gilliom, 2000; Eisenberg et al., 2001). In the research literature, these
externalizing disorders consist of disruptive, hyperactive, and aggressive
behaviors (Hinshaw, 1987).

Aggression: Generally speaking, aggression is one component of

conduct disorder; it consists of physical or verbal behaviors that
harm or threaten to harm others, including children, adults, and
animals (APA, 1994). In addition, aggression may be either
appropriate and self-protective or destructive to the self and others
(Ferris & Grisso, 1996). It is an important childhood concept
because studies show that childhood aggression is a strong predictor
of adult crime and violence (Farrington, 2001; Moffitt, 1993).
Moreover, Farrington found that early onset of aggressive and
antisocial behavior was the strongest predictor of later convictions.
Generally speaking, aggression is found to be more common in boys
than in girls. While boys often engage in physical aggression, girls
are more likely to exhibit what has been termed “relational
aggression,” such as exclusion of others from their social group, and
slander (Hadley, 2003).

While there are numerous factors that contribute to the development of

childhood aggression, they generally can be categorized into two main
types: biological and psychosocial. The integration of both of these types is
the key point of the biosocial interaction approach.

Research on the causes of aggression includes work on social learning,

imitation, family violence, child abuse, neglect, school aggression, TV
violence, malnutrition, structural and functional brain abnormalities,
hormones (e.g., testosterone), and neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin)
(Campbell, Woods, Chouaf, & Parker, 2000; Feshbach & Feshbach, 1998; Fishbein, 2001; Huesmann, 1997; Liu, Raine, Venables,
& Mednick, in press; Little & Kantor, 2002; Lutenbacher, 2000; Preski & Shelton, 2001; Raine, 2002).

Delinquency: Delinquency is a broad and heterogenous concept.

When aggressive behavior results in the breaking of laws it becomes
delinquency. Farrington (1987) has argued that it reflects diverse
antisocial acts such as theft, burglary, robbery, vandalism, drug use,
and violence. In case of children it includes anti-social behaviors
reflected in the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (Achenbach,
1991; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983), such as lying, cheating,
stealing, and committing antisocial acts with bad companions. As
with aggression, boys are found to be more involved than girls.
Psychosocial and environmental factors have been strongly
implicated in the etiology of both delinquency and aggression.

Some researchers have proposed that both delinquent and aggressive

behavior are learned (Huesmann, 1997; Shahinfar, Kupersmidt, & Matza,
2001). For example, Moise and Huesmann (1996) found an association
between violent television viewing in the first year of the study and
aggression 2 years later for girls ages 6 to 11 years. Furthermore, research
has found that ethnic bias, ethnic conflict, and prejudice contribute to
aggression at the elementary, middle, and high school levels (Feshbach &
Feshbach, 1998), and that empathy training in school could help bring about
more positive social behaviors and a more positive self-evaluation in
aggressive children (Feshbach & Feshbach, 1982).

Another important influence on both delinquency and aggression

is exposure to physical and sexual abuse (Fogel & Belyea,
2001; Widom, 1997). Others have argued for the importance of
transactional influences on antisocial behavior involving a
complex interplay among parental stress, parental
responsiveness, discipline practices, and infant temperament
(Shaw & Winslow, 1997).
Genetic influences also have been implicated in non-violent forms
of antisocial and criminal behavior.

Hyperactivity: DSM-IV uses the term

“attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder” (APA, 1994). It is a term
that really refers to two types of problems. The first type is an
excess of motor activity or restlessness, while the second type
involves attention deficits, particularly with respect to the child
being unable to sustain and modulate his/her attention in a
controlled setting such as the classroom.

Like aggression and delinquency, hyperactivity is found to be

more common in boys than girls and is thought to affect between
3% and 5% of the school-age population (APA, 1994; Hinshaw,
1987). Although parents often notice the start of this problem in
toddlers, the disorder is usually diagnosed when the child is in
elementary school. After this time the disorder is usually stable
throughout adolescence
It is has long been known that hyperactivity is predictive of later antisocial
behavior (Lilienfeld & Waldman, 1990). Follow-up studies of young children
with hyperactivity show they have higher rates of conduct problems in later
childhood and adolescence (Mannuzza, Klein, & Addalli, 1991; Barkley et al.,
1990).

“A substantial proportion of children referred to clinics with Attention

Deficit/Hyper-active Disorder also have Oppositional Defiant Disorder or
Conduct Disorder” (APA, 1994).

Running Away: Running away-leaving home-is a frequent manifestation

of disturbed adolescent behavior. The first sign of this pattern often appear
in early childhood. Little heed, however is given to the young child who talks
of running away because of some unpleasantness that has arisen. An
accumulation of such unpleasant experience is in the home gives rise to
strong insecure aggressive, and hostile feelings.
The unhappiness, resentment and desire for revenge may eventually cause
the teenager to run away from home. Since he is not big enough and
reasonably capable of taking care of himself, he decides to go off on his
own.

The law forbids a teenager under 18 to leave home without the consent of
his parents. Therefore any teenager who run away from home technically
breaking the law and is legally considered a delinquent.Very often these
runaways are placed in Juvenile hall or some correctional school for
punishment.

This manner of handling the runaways only causes greater emotional

confusion and increased feeling of insecurity. Runaways need love and
affection , kindness and understanding , recognition and appreciation and a
sincere personal interest.

Substance Abuse : substance abuse is the habitual misuse of

intoxicating and addicting substances such as alcohol drugs and tobacco (i.e.
nicotine).

Habit of substance abuse is mostly catch individual in adolescence. Many

adolescence in peer pressure or for getting stimulation do such activities.
Adolescence who don't have good relationship with family have more
likelihood to indulge in substance abuse.

Abuse of substances damages people mentally, physically

emotionally ,socially, and spiritually.

For example-the abuse of alcohol is frequently involved in disorderly or hi

Ness behavior from public drunkenness to date rape (Fagan,2006)

The Concept of Internalizing Behavior

Internalizing behaviors are not always as easy to observe. These negative

behaviors are directed towards the "self". A student exhibiting these types
of behaviors may hurt him or herself and not lash out on others. These
students are more likely to be rejected by same-age peers and adults.
Children may develop internalizing behavior problems such as
withdrawn, anxious, inhibited, and depressed behaviors, problems that more
centrally affect the child’s internal psychological environment rather than the
external world. Other terms for this cluster of behavior problems include
“neurotic” and “overcontrolled” (Campbell et al., 2000; Eisenberg et al.,
2001; Hinshaw, 1987).

Depression: Depression is a psychiatric mood disorder characterized by

excessive sadness and loss of interest in usually enjoyable activities. Depression
occurs in 1% of preschoolers, 2% of school-aged children, and 5–8% of
adolescents. Split in two types: major depression and dysthymia (APA, 1994)

Teenage suicide: Depression is linked to an increase in suicide ideation and

suicide attempts in adolescence (Werth,2004). A recent study found that
psychological factor of being overly self-critical and having a sense of hopelessness
were also related to suicide ideation and behavior (Cox,Enna, & Clara,2004).

Suicide behavior is rare in childhood but escalate in adolescence (Judge &

Billick,2004). Suicide is third leading cause of death in 10 to 19 years old today in
the United States (National center for health statistics , 2002).

Although a suicide thread should always taken seriously, for adolescence

contemplate or attempt it unsuccessfully than actually commit it (Mazza,2005)

Females were more likely to attempt suicide than males, but males were more
likely to succeed in committing suicide.

Males use more lethal means such as guns in their suicide attempts, whereas
adolescent females are more likely to cut their wrists or take an overdose of
sleeping pills-methods less likely to result in death.

Recent study of adolescence indicated that suicide ideation peaked at age 15

(Rueter & Kwon, 2005).

Anxiety: most common psychiatric disorder in children. Anxiety can be

described as a ‘state of apprehension without cause’ Anxiety disorders result when
anxiety is consistent and negatively interferes with school, social interactions,
activities or family functioning. Five main types: separation anxiety, social anxiety
disorder, general anxiety disorder, PTSD, OCD. (Tandon et al, 2009)

Somatic complaints: Somatic complaints are physical symptoms with no

identfiable, specific physiological cause. Common paediatric somatic complaints
include headaches, nausea or abdominal pain. Non-specific causes usually include
psychological distress, anxiety, family patterns and life events (Chapman 2005)

Companionship with opposite sex: Many adolescence encounter their

greatest emotional difficulties in trying to establish satisfactory social relationships
with members of opposite sex. Their concern with status and prestige very often
centres around dating a going study and having a boy or girl friend.

Sexual Behavior problems:

Adolescence is a time of self-discovery and physical, as well as cognitive,
development. It is within this context that adolescent sexual development
and sexual behavior occur. Many adolescents show symptoms of disturbed
personality by their deviant sexual behavior. A number of deviations in
sexual patterns of behaviors as evidenced in the adolescence it are the
result of psychological factors. These deviant sexual patterns are usually
indicator of marked feeling of insecurity, inadequacy or guilt.

Included in these they went patterns are the following conditions: excessive
masturbation, homosexuality, exhibitionism and promiscuity.

Excessive masturbation: Masturbation is sexual self-excitement and

is gained by manual artificial stimulation of the genitals. This pattern of
sexual behavior is normal in adolescence.

In many adolescence boys and girls, the desire to masturbate is any bit by
fears and guilty feelings as there is still an erroneous attitude prevailing in
present-day society that masturbation causes serious physical and mental
harm and it is a shame.

It is from the erroneous attitude and not from the practice sets of that
unfavourable psychological effect sometimes develop.

Homosexuality: A serious problem in adolescence adjustment is

homosexuality. Homosexuality occurs in from 2-4% of adolescents.

Primary causes are considered to: Mount hostility to word apparent of the
opposite sex; inharmonious marital relationships on the part of parents;
strong attachment to apparent of opposite sex; being reared as a child of
the opposite sex; unsatisfactory social relations with members of the
opposite sex (being rebuffed or ridiculed); and feeling of inadequacy.
Homosexuality , like excessive masturbation alcoholism is a symptom of
maladjustment. Sach adolescents can be referred to a clinical psychologist or
psychiatrist for psychotherapy.

Exhibitionism : This is a sexual abbreviation in which the adolescent

obtain sexual gratification from exhibiting is genitals to another person. This
public display of the genitals for sexual excitement is fairly common
occurrence and adolescents.

Most sexual exhibitionists are boys; this abbreviation is rarely observed in

girls.

Exhibitionism constitutes a fair percentage of delinquent behavior in

adolescents.

The adolescent with exhibitionist tendencies is emotionally disturbed and in

need of psychotherapy

Promiscuity: It refers to the practice of indiscriminate sexual relations.

The promiscuous adolescent will have several sexual affairs, sometimes with
several partners at the same time. The promiscuous behavior is seen in both
girls and boys equally.

There are many reasons for the pattern of promiscuity, some adolescents
become promiscuous because of the feeling of rejection in to them a sexual
relationship , of whatever nature give them a feeling of being laughed and
wanted. The more of years they have the more important they feel and
more boastful they become.

Occasionally and adolescent will become promiscuous because of repressed

hostility. The promiscuous adolescent is an emotionally disturbed person.

He can be helped by sympathetic attitude on the part of parents, teachers

and law enforcement officers. He can also take psychotherapeutic help.

Vocational selection : Vocational selection another hurdle that the

adolescent always encounters and that he must successfully overcome is
the problem of preparing himself for a vocation. To offset the dollar sent
fumbles long taking courses that are easy for those that friends are taking.
The reason for this is that few adolescence don't have any serious idea of
what they are going to do in adult life.
Like all human beings, adolescence need attention, affection,
encouragement, and appreciation. The specially desire such responses
from their parents. An adolescent who does enjoy parental love and
understanding will ordinarily develop into a happy confident coma socially
adjusted adult. He will successfully survive the turmoil of teenage years.
Many, however, succumb because of their inability to cope adequately with
the emotional problems that confront them during this difficult and stormy
period.