Convolutional Neural Networks in Computer Vision: Jochen Lang

Convolutional Neural Networks in Computer
Vision
Jochen Lang
jlang@uottawa.ca
Faculté de génie | Faculty of Engineering

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Convolution
• Image processing and filtering

– Point processing
– Linear filters
– Correlation and convolution
• Convolutional neural networks (CNNs)
– “Classic layers”: Convolutional, pooling and fully-
connected layers
– Visualizing CNNs
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Image Processing
• A common class of image processing methods can be

characterized as processing individual pixels one pixel at
a time or more generally a single point in the image.
• Other methods work on multiple neighboring pixels at a
time (filtering) while others change the geometric
relationship between the pixel and the image
(geometric transformations).
• We use point processing often in pre-processing our
images before learning
Many slides by Alexei Efros
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
What is an image?
• We can think of an image as a function, , from to :

gives the intensity at position
– Realistically, we expect the image only to be defined
over a rectangle, with a finite range:
• A color image is just three functions pasted together.

We can write this as a “vector-valued” function:
Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Images as functions
Source:
Alexei
Efros
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@eecs.uOttawa.ca
Imaging Process
Richard Szeliski, Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications, 2010.
Jochen Lang, EECS

Gamma Correction
• The individual pixel values are modified with an

exponential function (power law) with
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Contrast Enhancement
• The current pixel values are remapped to other values

stretching and compressing some ranges
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Image Histogram
• Build a histogram of all pixel values in an image.

• Image histograms can inform pixel processing.
• Sometime (e.g. in histogram equalization) we like to
obtain the cumulative histogram or distribution.
where is the cumulative distribution and the

current histogram bin or distribution. are the number of
pixels in the image
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
RGB Histogram
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Histogram Equalization
• Derives a mapping for pixel values with the goal to have

a flat histogram
– Calculate a cumulative distribution of pixel values
– Pixel values are remapped based on the CDF
• Global histogram equalization (over the whole image)

may produce a flat appearance and local variants may
produce more attractive looking images
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Global vs Local Histogram
Equalization
Jochen Lang, EECS

Limitations of Point Processing
• Q: What happens if I reshuffle all pixels within the

image?
• A: It’s histogram won’t change. No point processing will

be affected…
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Sampling and Reconstruction
Jochen Lang, EECS

Sampled Representations
• Values at image pixels can be viewed as samples of a

continuous function.
• Reconstruction may be needed, e.g., in 1D:
[FvDFH fig.14.14b / Wolberg]

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Linear Filtering
• Transformations on signals; e.g.:

– blurring/sharpening operations
– smoothing/noise reduction
• Key properties
– linearity:
– shift invariance: behavior invariant to shifting the
input, i.e., not dependent on the location in the
image
• Can be modeled mathematically by convolution
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Moving Average
• Basic idea: define a new function by averaging over a

sliding window
• a simple example to start off: smoothing
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Moving Average
• Can add weights to our moving average

• Weights […, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, …] / 5
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Cross-correlation
• Let be the image, be the kernel (of size

), and be the output image.
• Can think of as the dot product between local
neighborhood and kernel for each pixel
is called the cross-correlation
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Simple 2D Filter: Box Filter
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0
0 0
0 0
0 90
90 0
0 90
90 90
90 90
90 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 90
90 90
90 90
90 90
90 90
90 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 90
90 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 30
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 30
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
?
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 30
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0
?
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0 50
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
1 1 1
1 1 1
Box Filter 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 30 30 20 10
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0 0 20 40 60 60 60 40 20
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0 0 30 60 90 90 90 60 30
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0 0 30 50 80 80 90 60 30
0 0 0 90 0 90 90 90 0 0 0 30 50 80 80 90 60 30
0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 0 0 0 20 30 50 50 60 40 20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 30 30 30 20 10
0 0 90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Source: Steve Seitz

Jochen Lang, EECS
Box Filter
What does it do?

• Replaces each pixel with an
average of its neighborhood
1 1 1
• Smoothing effect (removes sharp
features) 1 1 1
1 1 1
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Example of Linear Filters: Box
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
Original Blur (with a mean
filter)
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

Identity Filter
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
Original Filtered
(no change)
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

Shift Left
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
Original Shifted left

By 1 pixel
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

Sobel Edge Filter
1 0 -1
2 0 -2
1 0 -1
Sobel
Vertical Edge
(absolute value) Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Sobel Edge Filter
1 2 1
0 0 0
-1 -2 -1
Sobel
Horizontal Edge
(absolute value) Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Sharpening Filter
-
0 0 0 1 1 1
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1 =
Sharpening filter
Original (accentuates edges)
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Sharpening
Source: David Lowe
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Gaussian Blur
• Weight contributions of neighboring pixels by nearness
0.003 0.013 0.022 0.013 0.003

0.013 0.059 0.097 0.059 0.013
0.022 0.097 0.159 0.097 0.022
0.013 0.059 0.097 0.059 0.013
0.003 0.013 0.022 0.013 0.003
5 x 5,  = 1
Source: Christopher Rasmussen
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Box vs. Gaussian Filter
Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Gaussian filters
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Be Aware: Kernel Size
• The Gaussian function has infinite support, but discrete

filters use finite kernels
Source: Kirsten Grauman
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Cross-correlation vs. Convolution
• Cross-correlation is
• Convolution is cross-correlation where the filter is

flipped both horizontally and vertically before being
applied to the image:
• It is written:
• Convolution is commutative and associative
Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Properties of Convolution
• Convolution is a multiplication-like operation
– commutative
– associative
– distributes over addition
– scalars factor out
– identity: unit impulse
• Conceptually no distinction between filter and signal
• Usefulness of associativity
– often apply several filters one after another:
1 2 3
– this is equivalent to applying one filter: 1 2

3
Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Gaussian and Convolution
• Removes high-frequency components from the image (low-
pass filter)
• Convolution with self is another Gaussian
=
– Convolving twice with Gaussian kernel of width
convolving once with kernel of width
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Sampling and Reconstruction
• Simple example: a sign wave
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Undersampling
• What if we “missed” things between the samples?
• Simple example: undersampling a sine wave
– unsurprising result: information is lost
– surprising result: indistinguishable from lower
frequency
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Undersampling
• What if we “missed” things between the samples?
• Simple example: undersampling a sine wave
– unsurprising result: information is lost
– surprising result: indistinguishable from lower
frequency
– also, was always indistinguishable from higher
frequencies
– aliasing: signals “traveling in disguise” as other
frequencies
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Anti-aliasing
• Introduce lowpass filters:
– remove high frequencies leaving only safe, low
frequencies
– choose lowest frequency in reconstruction
(disambiguate)
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Aliasing
Plot as image:
Input signal:
Aliasing!
Not enough samples
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Undersampling in Learning-Based
Methods
• In learning-based methods, we often like to reduce the
image size
– loss of information
– undersampling creates aliasing
• What can we do about aliasing?
– Get rid of high frequencies
• Information loss
• But does keep low frequency content intact
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Down-sizing
• Image is too large for

screen or for CNN
• Reduce size
• Throw away every
other row and column
to create a size
image
- image sub-
sampling
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Image Sub-sampling
1/8
1/4
1/2 Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

Aliasing Due to Sub-sampling
1/2 1/4 (2x zoom) 1/8 (4x zoom)

Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

Sampling an Image – No
Aliasing
Jochen Lang, EECS

Sampling an Image - Aliasing
Jochen Lang, EECS

Gaussian Pre-filtering
G 1/8
G 1/4
Gaussian 1/2 Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

Subsampling with Gaussian
pre-filtering Source: Steve Seitz
Gaussian 1/2 G 1/4 G 1/8

Jochen Lang, EECS
Compare with...
1/2 1/4 (2x zoom) 1/8 (4x zoom)
Jochen Lang, EECS

Source: Steve Seitz
Gaussian Pyramid
• Gaussian Pyramid in computer vision [Burt and Adelson,

1983] or mip-mapping in computer graphics [Williams,
1983]
– Color for illustration only (image size is power of 2)
Size of image
, ,
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Gaussian Pyramid Construction
• Repeatedly filter and subsample until minimum
resolution reached
– Relative increase in filter size compared to original
– But can reuse same filter with images in the pyramid
– Total size is only 4/3 of the original image size
filter mask
Drawing by Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
A bar in the
big images is a
hair on the
zebra’s nose;
in smaller
images, a
stripe; in the
smallest, the
animal’s nose
Figure from David Forsyth
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Some Uses of Image Pyramids
• Improve Search
– Search over translations
• Classic coarse-to-fine strategy
– Search over scale
• Template matching
• E.g. find a face at different scales, e.g., MTCNN
Zhang et al. (2016).
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Discrete Partial Derivatives in Image
• Idea: Calculate finite differences with a filter

– The filter is convolved with the image
– The image is discrete
– Our filters are discrete
( , ) , ,
• Reminder: Forward difference
• Images are two-dimensional “functions”
– Calculate partial derivative in x and y
– Can express the gradient with a magnitude and a
direction
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Traditional Finite Difference Filters
-1 0 1 1 1 1
• Prewitt
-1 0 1 0 0 0
-1 0 1 -1 -1 -1
• Sobel
1 2 1 1 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
-1 -2 -1 -1 -2 -1
• Roberts 0 1 1 0
-1 0 0 -1
• Other approximations of derivative filters exist

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Partial derivatives of an image
-1 1
-1 1 1
or
-1
Jochen Lang, EECS
Image Gradient
• Two-dimensional vector
• Can be express as a vector magnitude and an angle wrt

the x-axis
, ,
, ,
,
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Image Gradient
Jochen Lang, EECS

Effects of Noise
• Consider a single row or column of the image

– Plotting intensity as a function of x position gives a
signal
Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Solution: Smooth First
To find edges,
look for peaks
⋆
in
Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Derivative Theorem of Convolution
• This saves us one

operation:
Source: Steve Seitz
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Derivative of Gaussian Filter
x-direction y-direction
Jochen Lang, EECS

Example
Jochen Lang, EECS

Compute Gradients (DoG)
Jochen Lang, EECS

Orientation at Every Pixel
• Threshold at minimum magnitude (here 0.18)

• Color coded result
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Size of Padding
• Size of output
– Maximal sizeof(f) + 2*sizeof(g) – 2
– Typically padding but sizeof(output) = sizeof(f)
– No padding sizeof(f) - 2*sizeof(g) + 2
g g
g g
g g
f f f
g g
g g
g g Image source S. Lazebnik
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Type of Padding
• Behaviour at edge
– Filter window beyond
the edge of the image
– Need to extrapolate
– Methods:
• clip filter (black)
• wrap around
• copy edge
• reflect across edge
Source: Steve Marschner
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Review: Smoothing vs. Derivative
filters
• Smoothing Filters
– Gaussian: remove “high-frequency” components;
“low-pass” filter
– Filter values should sum to one: constant regions
are not affected by the filter
• Derivative Filters
– Derivatives of Gaussian
– Filter values should sum to zero: no response in
constant regions
– High absolute value at points of high contrast
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Template matching
• Goal: find in image
• Main challenge: What is a good

similarity or distance measure
between two patches?
– Correlation
– Zero-mean correlation
– Sum Square Difference
– Normalized Cross Correlation
Side by Derek Hoiem
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Matching with filters

• Method 0: filter the image with eye patch
f = image
h = filter
What went wrong?

Filtered Image
Side by Derek Hoiem
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Matching with Filters
Side by Derek Hoiem
• Method 1: filter the image with zero-mean eye
True
detections
False
detections
Input Filtered Image (scaled) Thresholding

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Matching with Filters: SSD
Side by Derek Hoiem
• Method 2: SSD
True
detections
Input 1- sqrt(SSD) Thresholding

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
SSD as a Filter
• SSD as a filter
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
SSD without Normalization

• Method 2: SSD
Side by Derek Hoiem

Input 1- sqrt(SSD)
Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Matching with filters

• Method 3: Normalized cross-correlation
mean template mean image patch
Side by Derek Hoiem
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Matching with Filters: NCC
Side by Derek Hoiem
• Method 3: Normalized cross-correlation NCC
True
detections
Input NCC Thresholding

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Matching with Filters: NCC –
Intensity Invariance
Side by Derek Hoiem
• Method 3: Normalized cross-correlation
True detections
Input NCC Thresholding

Jochen Lang, EECS
jlang@uOttawa.ca
Comparison Template Matching
• Zero-mean filter: fastest but not a great matcher

• SSD: next fastest, sensitive to overall intensity
• Normalized cross-correlation: slowest, invariant to local
average intensity and contrast
Side by Derek Hoiem
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Denoising
Gaussian
Filter
Additive Gaussian Noise

Jochen Lang, EECS
Reducing Gaussian noise
Smoothing with
larger standard
deviations
suppresses
noise, but also
blurs the image
Source: S. Lazebnik
Jochen Lang, EECS

Reducing Salt-and-Pepper
Noise by Gaussian Smoothing
3x3 5x5 7x7
Jochen Lang, EECS

Alternative idea: Median filtering
• A median filter operates over a window by selecting the

median intensity in the window
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Median filter
• What advantage does

median filtering have
over Gaussian filtering?
– Robustness to outliers
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca
Median filter
Salt-and-pepper noise Median filtered
Jochen Lang, EECS

Source: M. Hebert
Median vs. Gaussian filtering
Gaussian
3x3 5x5 7x7
Median
Jochen Lang, EECS

Summary
• Correlation and Convolution

• Gaussian Image Pyramid
• Basic Filtering Operations
– Smoothing
– Edge Detection
– Template matching
• Linear vs. non-linear operations
Jochen Lang, EECS

jlang@uOttawa.ca

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Convolutional Neural Networks in Computer

Faculté de génie | Faculty of Engineering

• Image processing and filtering

Jochen Lang, EECS

• A common class of image processing methods can be

Many slides by Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

• We can think of an image as a function, , from to :

• A color image is just three functions pasted together.

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

Richard Szeliski, Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications, 2010.

Jochen Lang, EECS

• The individual pixel values are modified with an

Jochen Lang, EECS

• The current pixel values are remapped to other values

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Build a histogram of all pixel values in an image.

where is the cumulative distribution and the

Jochen Lang, EECS

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Derives a mapping for pixel values with the goal to have

• Global histogram equalization (over the whole image)

Jochen Lang, EECS

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Q: What happens if I reshuffle all pixels within the

• A: It’s histogram won’t change. No point processing will

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Values at image pixels can be viewed as samples of a

[FvDFH fig.14.14b / Wolberg]

• Transformations on signals; e.g.:

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Basic idea: define a new function by averaging over a

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Can add weights to our moving average

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

• Let be the image, be the kernel (of size

is called the cross-correlation

Source: Alexei Efros

Jochen Lang, EECS

Source: David Lowe

Jochen Lang, EECS

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

Source: Steve Seitz

What does it do?