CHAPTER 2

You have just reached the second chapter for this subject! What a terrific journey
you must have had with the first chapter. Let’s keep the momentum going with the topics
in store for the second chapter.
As you have learned on the previous topics, an art piece communicates a
message to its audience that is open for various interpretation and understanding. Within
that art piece are stylistic features that helps the artist communicate meaning to its
audience. These features are what we call elements of art. These elements guide the
viewer to a deeper understanding of any piece of art when we are analyzing it
intentionally. Basically, in this unit, you will identify elements, and answer questions as
you carefully look at paintings and other works of art and analyze how these elements
are used purposefully.

Wassily Kandinsky, a Russian

painter, printmaker, and art theorist, is one
of the most famous 20th century artists
and is generally considered the first
important painter of modern abstract art.
As an early modernist in search of new
modes of visual expression and spiritual
expression, he theorized (as did
contemporary occultists and theosophists)
that pure visual abstraction had corollary
vibrations with sound and music. He
posited that pure abstraction could express
Kandinsky, W. (1913). Composition VII. https://bit.ly/3Mrdr8r
pure spirituality.
You will also look into the ways and mechanics of selecting a content in art. It
may be realistic or abstract. Find out how several prominent artists showcase their
content in a myriad of ways. Discover what is the difference between a subject and a
content.
You had better prepare yourself for this long, bumpy, and meaningful ride!

Course Learning Outcomes:

CLO 1 Demonstrate an understanding and appreciation of arts in general, including
their function, value and historical significance
CLO 2 Analyze and appraise works of art based on aesthetic value, historical
context, tradition, and social relevance
CLO 3 Create their own works of art and curate their own production or exhibit.
CLO 4 Utilizing art for self-expression and for promoting advocacies.
COL 5 Discover and deepen their identity through art with respect to their nationality,
culture, and religion.

1
 LESSON 1
Elements and Principles of Art
It is said that art is the process or product of the purposeful arrangement and
rearrangement of items that affects and influences our intellect, senses, and emotions.
In this lesson, we are to tackle the fundamental elements of art are used by artists to
construct a piece of art.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to achieve the following:
A. Identify the elements of art; and
B. Evaluate an art work in terms of the different elements of art

What Are the Elements of Art?

The elements of design are the fundamental aspects of any visual design
which include shape, color, space, form, line, value, and texture. Graphic designers
use the elements of design to create an image that can convey a certain mood, draw
the eye in a certain direction, or evoke a number of feelings. While the elements of
design form the basics of any image, designers also lean on the principles of design,
which are a set of practices of working with the elements of design that make a
composition look pleasing to the eye.

The Elements of Art

1. Color

Color helps establish a mood for your composition. When light waves strike an
object and reflect back to the optic nerve in a human’s eyes, the sensation they
perceive is called color. Artists and designers use color to depict and describe the
subject. Color is used by designers to portray mood, light, depth, and point of view.
Designers use the color wheel  and the tenets of color theory—a set of guidelines for
mixing, combining, and manipulating colors—to create color schemes.

2
What Is Color in Art?

In works of art, artists use color to depict and describe the subject. Artists,
especially painters, utilize their knowledge of color to portray mood, light, depth, and
point of view in a work of art.

Properties of Color in Art

In the Munsell Color System, professor Albert Munsell identified following
properties the three elements of color:

 Hue: Hue refers to the color itself, which is distinct from any other color, and
represents the name we assign that color such as red, orange, and magenta.
 Value: Value is the darkness or lightness of a hue. When hues are mixed with
white, the resulting color will have a lighter value called tints. When hues are
mixed with the color black, they have a darker value called shades. The many
values of a hue can be shown on a gradient spectrum resembling paint
swatches.
 Chroma: A color’s chroma refers to the purity of a color. Chroma is related to
saturation, with high-chroma colors appearing brighter, and low-chroma colors
appearing duller.

A Brief Guide to the Color Wheel

The color wheel is a circular diagram that illustrates the relationships between
different colors. Here is a brief guide to the colors in the color wheel.

3
 [The color wheel]. (n.d.). https://www.pinterest.com/pin/161637074097544182/

 Primary colors: Primary colors are colors that are combined to make a
range of other colors. Traditionally, these are red, yellow, and blue. When
mixed, these three primary colors can form many other colors.
 Secondary colors: Secondary colors are the result of mixing two primary
colors. In the traditional color model, the three secondary colors are green
(yellow plus blue), orange (yellow plus red), and purple (red plus blue).
 Tertiary colors: Tertiary colors are the combination of one primary color
with one secondary color. There are six tertiary colors on the traditional
color wheel: magenta (red-purple), vermillion (red-orange), amber (yellow-
orange), chartreuse (yellow-green), teal (blue-green), and violet (blue-
purple).
 Complementary colors: Complementary colors are colors that are found
opposite each other on the color wheel. Complementary color schemes
include blue with orange, red with green, and yellow with purple.
 Analogous colors: Analogous colors sit next to each other on the color
wheel. Analogous color schemes include yellow paired with chartreuse and
green; red with vermillion and orange; and blue with teal and violet. The
three colors in each pairing share a common hue, so they appear to match.
 Warm colors: Reds, oranges, and yellows are referred to as warm colors.
 Cool colors: Blues, greens, and purples are referred to as cool colors.
 Monochromatic: A color scheme is monochromatic when it only features
shades or tints of a single hue.
 Neutral colors: Blacks, greys, whites and shades of beige are often
referred to as neutral colors.

2. Line:

4
 Line refers to the way that two points in space are connected. Whether they’re
horizontal lines, diagonal lines, or vertical lines, lines can help direct the eye toward a
certain point in your composition. You can also create texture by incorporating
different types of lines such as curved or patterned lines instead of just straight lines.

[Types of lines]. (n.d.). https://www.pinterest.com/pin/194851121351510282/

3. Value:

In design, value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. The values of a

color are often visualized in a gradient, which displays a series of variations on one
hue, arranged from the lightest to the darkest. Artists can use the various values of
color to create the illusion of mass and volume in their work.

5
 Value is a basic element of art that refers to the gradual change of lightness or
darkness of a color. It is created when a light source shines upon an object creating
highlights, form shadows and cast shadows.

Value is most evident on the gray scale where black is represented as lowest or
darkest and white is represented as the highest or lightest value. Or more simply said,
they are the various shades of grey between white and black. Artists us them to
create highlights and shadows (shading) in objects and create depth in their paintings or
drawings.

Colors can have value too. In painting, value changes can be achieved by adding

either black or white to the chosen color. Some colors, like yellow and orange, are
naturally light in value.

The Benefits of Values in an Oil Painting

Successful paintings have a full range of value. This means that there are ample

amounts of both light values and dark values. Paintings which possess a full range of
values tend to stand out more and are more pleasing to the eye.

[Understanding value in painting].

(n.d.).
https://www.artistsnetwork.com/a
rt-subjects/understanding-value-
and-tone-for-better-painting/

Value cr eates contrast and

adds emphasis. The human eye tends to be drawn to areas of high contrast. High
contrast occurs when lighter elements are placed directly next to much darker ones
thereby creating a dramatic effect. This is a technique that is used to draw attention to
specific areas of a painting that the artist wants to emphasize thus creating a focal

6
attention, and a dark figure on a mostly white background will command the
eye’s attention as well.

Value creates the illusion of depth. Value is an important tool to suggest

roundness or depth. It helps to create depth
within by making an object look three-
dimensional or a landscape to appear to recede
into the distance. Light values make elements
feel like they are further away and dark values
make them seem closer.

Types of Value in Art

Colors of different value in art interact with each other to create different effects
that can change the mood or depth of your painting. Here are some types of value in
art.

 High key: High key colors contain the most white and are on the palest end of
the gradient scale.
 Low key: Low key colors contain the most black, and are on the darker end of
the gradient scale.
 High contrast: When two colors have opposite values, such as very dark and
very light blue, they are considered high contrast.
 Low contrast: When two colors have values that are only slightly different
from one another, they are considered low contrast.

4. Space:

Space is an element of art that can draw your audience’s attention to your
intended focal points, or give the illusion of a three-dimensional space.

What Is Space in Art?

Space is one of key elements of art that refers to the distance around and
between the subjects and aspects of a composition. There are three types of space
that are involved in art composition: positive space (which is the area of the work

7
occupied by the subject or subjects), negative space (which is the area around the
subject or subjects), and three-dimensional space (a series of techniques that allows
an artist to transform a two-dimensional space into a three-dimensional one). When
they work together, positive and negative space can draw your viewer’s eye to points
of interest. Three-dimensional space creates an optical illusion that makes your
painting look more realistic.

The 3 Types of Space in Art

There are three types of space for artists to consider when outlining a
composition on your picture plane, or the plane that exists in the world of your
picture.

1. Positive Space: Positive space refers to the space around the subject or
subjects in a picture. For instance, if you’re drawing a still life, a bowl of
fruit might be your positive space.
2. Negative Space: Negative space refers to the empty spaces surrounding
or in between the subject or subjects in a work of art.
3. Three-dimensional Space: Renaissance Artists mastered the technique
of creating the illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat surface. They
did so by utilizing linear perspective, diminishing scale, and atmospheric
perspective. Linear perspective refers to the use of geometric tools, like a
vanishing point, to create the appearance of depth. Diminishing scale
dictates that the farther you are from an object, the smaller it appears.
Atmospheric perspective refers to the object becoming light color as you
move away from it in space.

5. Shape

8
 In its most basic form, a shape is a two-dimensional area that is surrounded by
an outline. Graphic artists can use other elements including line, color, value, and
shadow to give a shape the appearance of a three-dimensional shape. There are
three types of shapes: organic shapes which occur naturally in the
world, geometric shapes which are angular and mathematically consistent,
and abstract shapes that represent things in nature but aren’t perfectly represented.

Shape is one of the principles of art that serves as a building block for
representing every variety of subject matter through painting, sculpture, and
architecture. In its most basic form, a shape is a two-dimensional area that is
surrounded by an outline. Within the context of art, shape is the external form, the
contours, or the outline of a subject. Though shapes are two-dimensional in painting
and drawing, artists use other elements including line, color, value, and shadow to
give a shape the appearance of a three-dimensional shape.

Geometric and Organic Shapes in Art

Shapes can often be split into two

distinct categories: geometric and organic.
Geometric shapes are precise, regular, angular,
geometric constructions that are mathematically
consistent. Basic shapes that are geometric
include circles, squares, and triangles.
[Geometric
and organic
shapes].
(n.d.).
https://general
/geometric-
shapes-
names/

Organic shapes—sometimes called

biomorphic shapes—are free-form,
irregular, or asymmetrical structures that
occur in the natural world, such as flower
petals, dragonfly wings, clouds, and the

human figure.
6. Form:

9
 Form pertains to the way that a shape or physical configuration occupies space.
Form is one of the principles of art that dictates how artists represent dimensional
shapes in two-dimensional or three-dimensional art.

What Is Form in Art?

Form is one of the elements of visual art which pertains to the way that a shape
or physical configuration occupies space. For a three-dimensional work of art like a
sculpture or work of architecture, form is the shape, structure, and arrangement of
components like length, width, and depth of a shape. Instead of creating form
through physical shape, painters create the appearance of form on a flat surface by
using light, shadow, the appearance of an object’s contours, negative space, and the
surrounding objects around the subject matter.

Form is one of the principles of art that dictates how artists represent dimensional
shapes in two-dimensional or three-dimensional art.

Types of Form in Art: Geometric Form vs. Organic Form

The two types of forms or shapes in art: geometric forms and organic forms.

Geometric forms refer to precise, regular, angular, geometric shapes that are
mathematically consistent, including spheres, cubes, pyramids, cones, and cylinders.

[Geometric forms]. (n.d.). https://sciencestruck.com/list-of-different-types-of-geometric-shapes-with-pictures

Organic forms (or biomorphic forms) represent organic, irregular shapes that
often occur in the natural world, which are usually asymmetrical, free-form, or curved.

10

[Organic forms]. (n.d.). https://forums.sketchup.com/t/creating-organic-forms/74368

 7. Texture
Texture is one of the elements of design that is used to represent how an object
appears or feels. Tactile texture is a physical sense of touch, whether it’s rough,
smooth, or ribbed. Visual texture, on the other hand, refers to the imagined feel of
the illustrated texture, which can create more visual interest and a heightened
sensory experience.

Sculptors and architects can create texture in a three-dimensional work of art by

manipulating the surface texture of a piece. Painters can convey the illusion of
texture in a two-dimensional work of art to imply how an object or subject matter
might feel if it was really touched.

What Is the Difference Between Implied Texture and Physical Texture?

When making a work of visual art, you should consider the two types of texture,
known as physical (or actual) texture and visual (or implied) texture.

 Physical texture: The physical texture of a work of art refers to its tactile
texture that you can feel when you touch it. For example, the physical texture
of a work of art may be soft, hard, smooth or rough.
 Visual texture: Artists who create works of art on a two-dimensional surface,
such as painters or draftsmen, are creating a visual texture of their work by
manipulating materials on their canvas.

11
Examples of Texture in Art

Artist Titian

Year 1534

Medium Oil on canvas

Dimension 119 cm
s × 165 cm
(47 in
× 65 in)

Location Uffizi, Floren
ce
Titian. (1532). Venus of Urbino. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/renaissance-reformation/high-ren-florence-rome/late-
Venus of Urbino by Titian (1532–1534): In this
renaissance-venice/a/titian-venus-of-urbino

large-scale painting, Titian depicts a nude woman lounging on a bed. He uses his
paint to indicate the surface quality of the blanket she’s laying on, and the upholstery
of her bed. His ability to convincingly depict the different textures of these costly
fabrics is a sign of his mastery of visual texture .

Principles of Good Design

What exactly are the principles of good

design?

12
Simply put, the principles of good design are the tools every artist uses to create an
effective composition. These tools are: balance, contrast, emphasis, movement,
proportion, repetition, simplicity, space and unity. How well an artist understands and
uses these tools will determine if

the composition is a weak or strong one. In a series of discussions, we’ll take a look at

[Principles of good design]. (n.d.).
each one of these principles.
https://blog.flipsnack.com/10-principles-of-good-design/

Defining the Principles

1. Balance – a feeling of equality of weight, attention, or attraction of the

various elements within the composition as a means of accomplishing
unity.

Balance in art can be defined as a sense of equilibrium

and is achieved when the visual weight of objects
is distributed equally within a composition. When no single
part of the design can overpower or appear heavier than
another
[Balance inpart in the same design, a sense of visual balance is created.
art]. (n.d.).
https://www.lifewire.com/balance-
design-principle-3470048

Horizontal, Vertical and Radial Balance

 Balancing the components within a painting is best illustrated by visualizing
weighing scales or a playground see-saw. As you can see, balance is not
achieved through an actual physical weighing process, but through visual
judgment on the part of the observer. In this respect, to balance a 2D
composition requires a skillful distribution of its components in such a way that
the viewer is satisfied the piece is not about to topple over.

Horizontal Balance

13
 [Horizontal balance]. (n.d.). https://thedailyguardian.com/the-balance-of-life/

When components are balanced left and right of a central axis they are
balanced horizontally.

[Example painting of horizontal balance]. (n.d.). [Example painting of horizontal balance]. (n.d.).
https://fineartamerica.com/featured/balance-with-me- https://fineartamerica.com/featured/balance-with-me-
debbie-criswell.html debbie-criswell.html

14
Vertical Balance

When they are balanced above and below,

they are said to be balanced vertically.

[Vertical balance]. (n.d.). https://thedailyguardian.com/the-balance-of-life/

[Example paintings on vertical balance]. (n.d.). https://fineartamerica.com/featured/balance-with-me-debbie-criswell.html

Do you see the vertical balance suggested in

the painting on the left? Look at where the foreground ends and you will quickly see
how balance is implied by the visual weightiness of the building in the background.

The painting on the right is a little more obvious in its vertical balance. Notice
how the three objects in the top part of the painting balance the apparent heaviness of
the one object (the plate of pancakes) in the lower part of the painting.

Radial Balance

When components are distributed around the

center point, or spring out from a central line,
this is referred to as radial balance.

15
 [Radial balance]. (n.d.).
https://thevirtualinstructor.com/blog/balance-a-principle-of-art

[Example paintings of radial balance]. (n.d.). https://thevirtualinstructor.com/blog/balance-a-principle-of-art

Types of Balance

There are two types of balance — symmetrical or asymmetrical. 

Symmetrical balance is also referred to as symmetry or formal balance.

Asymmetrical balance is also called asymmetry or informal balance. Of these two
types, symmetrical balance is the most stable visually.

Symmetrical Balance

Symmetrical balance is when the weight is equally

distributed on both sides of the central axis. Symmetry is the
simplest and most obvious type of balance. It creates a
secure, safe feeling and a sense of solidity. Symmetrical
balance can be achieved in two ways. One way is by “pure
symmetry,” and the other way is by “approximate symmetry.”
[Brower’s chocolate as example of symmetrical balance]. (n.d.).
https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

A good example of pure symmetry is the human face.

It is the same on both the right side and the left side of the nose. Pure symmetry has its

16
place in certain art works, however, because of its identical repetition, pure symmetry for
a composition can easily become too monotonous and uninteresting to look at.

Approximate symmetry on the other hand has greater appeal and interest for the
viewer. The two sides of a composition are varied and are more interesting to view. Even
though they are varied somewhat, they are still similar enough to make their repetitious
relationship symmetrically balanced.

Asymmetrical Balance

Asymmetrical balance is when both sides of the

central axis are not identical, yet appear to have balance.
The way to use asymmetry is by balancing two or more
unequal components on either side of the fulcrum by
varying their size, value or distance from the center. If the
artist can skillfully feel, judge or estimate the various
elements and visual weight, this should allow him/her to
balance them as a whole, and as a result, achieve a more
interesting composition.
[Graphic illustration of asymmetrical balance]. (n.d.).
https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

The artist will quickly discover the use of asymmetry allows for more freedom of

creativity because there are unlimited arrangements that may be devised by using
asymmetrical balance.

2. Contrast – Another important principle of good design is contrast. This is

principle that is often applied when an artist wants to add visual interest, excitement and
drama to an art piece.

Defining Contrast - Contrast in art refers to the positioning of opposing components

in a work of art. It occurs when two or more related elements are strikingly different. The
greater the difference the greater the contrast.

Opposing Elements in Art

17
The key to working with contrast is to make sure the differences are obvious. The most common
ways of creating contrast are by creating differences in:

Color — complimentary colors on the color wheel, i.e. red vs. green, blue
vs. orange, yellow vs. violet
Hue — saturated vs. muted colors
Movement — fast vs. slow
Shape — organic vs. geometric shapes
Size — large vs. small shapes
Space — positive vs. negative
Temperature — warm vs. cool
Texture — rough vs. smooth
Value — light vs dark

The Significance of Contrast

 Contrast is significant because it adds variety to the total design and creates
unity. It draws the viewer’s eye into the painting and helps to guide the viewer
around the art piece.

 Contrast also adds visual interest. Most designs require a certain amount of
contrast, if there is too much similarity of the components in any design, it
will become monotonous. Too little contrast results in a design that is bland and
uninteresting to view.

Some Examples of the Effective Use of Contrast

The contrast in the illustration coffee pot and cups

is quite obvious. Notice the contrast of the light background
(wall) with dark foreground (table cloth) and the contrast of
the dark shadows on the tea pot and cup against the wall
and with the lights of the same objects against a dark
[Use of contrast in art]. (n.d.).
window. https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

There is also a contrast of thin and thick lines in the

napkin, straight and curved lines, and don’t miss the contrast created by the use

18
of geometric shapes (coffee pot and cups) with organic shapes (steam and clouds). The
dark steam is also contrasted with the light clouds off in the distance.

In the illustration of the lady and parrot is a good example

of contrast between lights and darks. A contrast of color exists
between the red parrot and white dress. Also notice the
contrast in the roundness of shapes in the foreground against
the flatness of the dark background. Contrast of texture is also
implied by the softness of the silk dress and soft feathers of the
bird against the hard, flat background.
[A lady and a parrot painting as example of contrast]. (n.d.).
https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

Contrast in this painting is much more subtle. There is

contrast in texture. Notice the hard texture of the fence in the
background as contrasted with the softness of the butterflies
and kittens. Also, a contrast exists between the soil and the
foliage. The kittens themselves have a contrast depicted in
their colors verses the color of the fence in the background and
even with each other. And the red flowers verse green grass
promotes a contrast of complimentary colors.
[Image of cats as an example of contrast]. (n.d.).
https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

3.Emphasis – the stress placed on a single area of a work or

unifying visual theme.

The principle of emphasis is another important design element. It is applied when an

artist wants to attract more attention to a certain element or area within a painting by
giving it dominance that makes it stand out.

Defining Emphasis
Emphasis in art is when the artist gives dominance to or stresses a particular area or
element of focus in a painting. Without it a composition is nothing more than a
presentation of a group of details with equal importance. When a composition has no
emphasis, nothing stands out as demonstrated in the illustration below.

19
 [Images with emphasis and without emphasis]. (n.d.). https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

Adding Emphasis

The way of achieving emphasis is by creating a center of interest, also

called a focal point. A focal point is an area where the eye tends to center and is the
focus of the viewer’s attention. It is created by making one area or element in the
painting standout or most important visually while all other elements are contributing but
subordinate. Subordinates are other compositional elements that have been minimized
or toned down in order to bring attention to the center of interest. The focal point may be
the largest, brightest, darkest, or most complex part of the whole, or it may get special
attention because it stands out for some other reason. No more than one component
should vie for primary attention. When more than one component gets equal billing,
emphasis is canceled out.

Some ways to create emphasis might include:

Contrast — the more strongly an element contrasts with its surroundings, the more it
stands out and draws attention it to itself. See the discussion on Contrast for information
about how to use this design principle.

Isolation — similar to placement, isolating an element from a group of other elements

will make it stand out.

Line — an arrow, line, or other similar objects can be used to indicate movement or

direction and lead the eye towards an element. Where lines converge also creates a
focal point. See discussion on Movement for about this good design principle.

20
Placement  — elements centered on the canvas will command the viewer’s
attention, however, artists tend to avoid putting the focal point in the center of the
canvas. It is best to off center it a bit and still achieve the same effect. Off center
placement is much more pleasing to the eye.

Size or Scale — this refers to how something seems in scale or size as it is compared
to the objects around it. The larger the scale the more it will stand out  and attract the
eye. Smaller elements tend to recede into the background.

Examples of the Effective Use of Emphasis

In this painting it is easy to see how the artist used

light to put emphasis on the chef. He stands out as
the main focal point of the entire the painting.

[Example of emphasis in painting]. (n.d.). https://www.artistsnetwork.com/art-subjects/understanding-value-and-tone-for-better-painting/

The artist creates emphasis in this painting

through the use of color. By painting the cowboy’s
shirt red he was able to create a center of
interest. Your eye is drawn right to his shirt.

[Emphasis in painting]. (n.d.). https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/rhodes/designprinciples2.html

4.Movement – the suggestion of action or direction, the path our eyes follow when we
look at a work of art.

21
 Movement is the principle of good design which gives the artist control over what
the viewer sees next. Using this principle, the artist can create the path our eyes will
travel as we look at a work of art. For example, our attention is first captured by the main
focal point and then it proceeds to move around the composition as one element after
another catches our attention.

Defining Movement in Art

Movement shows action and creates a feeling of motion within a composition. It

also serves as a guide to direct the eye from one element to the next. An artist controls
and forces the progression of the viewer’s eyes in and around the composition of the
painting using eye travel. For instance, the eye will travel along an actual path such as
solid or dotted line, or it will move along more subtle paths such as from large to smaller
elements, from dark to lighter elements, from color to non-color, from unusual to
usual shapes, etc.

Repetition and Rhythm

Movement also contributes to the overall

unity in a piece by creating a relationship
between the various components of a
work. There are various ways to create this
relationship, it can be done by using repetition
and rhythm.
[Stock image, repetition and rhythm]. (n.d.). https://www.interaction-
design.org/literature/article/repetition-pattern-and-rhythm

The use of repetition to create

movement occurs when elements which have
something in common are repeated regularly or
irregularly thereby creating a visual rhythm.
Repetition doesn’t always have to mean exact duplication either; however, it
does require similarity or near-likeness. Slight variations to a simple repetition are good,
as this will add interest. Repetition tends to relate elements together whether they are
touching or not.

22
 Rhythm is the result of repetition which leads the eye from one area to another
in direct, flowing, or staccato movement. It can be produced by continuous repetition, by
periodic repetition, or by regular alternation of one of more forms or lines. A single form
may be slightly changed with each repetition or be repeated with periodic changes in
size, color, texture, or value. A line may regularly vary in length, weight, or direction.
Color may also be repeated in various parts of the composition in order to unify the
various areas of the painting.

Movement through Action

Movement can also be created by action. In two-

dimensional works of art, action must be implied. Implied
action in a painting creates life and activity. This is best
illustrated by the direction the eye takes along an invisible
path created by an arrow, a gaze, or a pointing finger.
Action can also be indicated by the “freeze frame” effect of
an object in motion, such as a bouncing ball suspended in
mid air, a jogger about to take that next step, or a swimmer
[Painting of Latin dancers]. (n.d.).
taking a dive, etc. https://www.interaction-design.org/l
iterature/article/repetition-pattern-
and-rhythm

Examples of the Effective Use of Movement

Movement in the painting on the left is created in several

ways. You see it as your eye travels from the little girl on
the blanket and moves up the stairs. You will also see
repetition in color. The color of the building is very similar
to the blanket the child is sitting on. In addition, the stairs
create a repetition effect.

[Example painting of movement]. (n.d.). https://www.interaction-

design.org/literature/article/repetition-pattern-and-rhythm
Repetition creates the movement in the painting
right. The color of the gowns is repeated leading the eye

23
 into the painting. The pattern on the floor also creates repetition. You also get the feeling
of movement created by implied action.

[Example painting of movement]. (n.d.).

https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/repetition-pattern-and-rhythm

5. Proportion – the relation of two things in size, number, amount, or degree.

Proportion in art is the relationship of two or more elements in a composition

and how they compare to one another with respect to size, color, quantity, degree,
setting, etc.; i.e. ratio.

When two or more elements are put together in a painting, a relationship is

created. This relationship is said to be harmonious when a correct or desirable
association exists between the elements. This refers to the correct sizing and distribution
of an element which then creates good proportion. Good proportion adds harmony and
symmetry or balance among the parts of a design as a whole.

When the principle of proportion is applied to a work of art it is usually in the

relationship of size. That is, the size of one element as compared to the size of another
related element within the same composition. In this instance, a comparison of size is
made between the:

 Height, width and depth of one element to that of another

 Size of one area to the size of another area
 Size of one element to the size of another element
 Amount of space between two or more elements

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 [Example images of good and bad proportions]. (n.d.) https://www.interaction-
design.org/literature/article/repetition-pattern-and-rhythm

Proportion is usually not even noticed until something is out of proportion. When
the relative size of two elements being compared seems wrong or out of balance it is
said to be “out of proportion”. For example, if a person has a head larger than their entire
body, then we would say that they were out of proportion.

There are several ways for achieving good proportion:

1. Place like elements together which are similar in character or have a common

feature.
2. Create major and minor areas in the design, as equal parts can quickly become
monotonous and boring. However, the differences in size must not be so great as to
make the parts appear unrelated and therefore, out of harmony with each other.
3. Arrangement of space should be in such a way that the eye does not perceive a
standard mathematical relationship. Dividing up the composition in halves, quarters and
thirds should be avoided. A subtle relationship creates a more dynamic design.
4. Create harmony in the art work. Harmony is an agreement between the shapes that
stresses the similarities of all parts. In other words, the shape of one part should “fit” the
shape of the adjoining elements. Shapes should “fit” properly in their positions and
spaces.

25
 [Harmony in art]. (n.d.). https://www.artistsnetwork.com/art-techniques/composition/harmony-in-art/

Examples of the Effective Use of Proportion

There is a real sense of proportion in the painting left.

Without the effective use of the principle of proportion you
would not experience the majesty of the mountain in the
background.

[Art depicting proportion]. (n.d.).

https://www.pinterest.com/johanna
stewart2/proportionscale/

In this painting right proportion is instrumental in emphasizing

the distance of the ship in the background.

[Example painting of proportion]. (n.d.).

https://thevirtualinstructor.com/blog/proportion-a-principle-of-art

Examples of the Effective Use of Harmony

It is easy to observe harmony in action in nature.

Notice how the individual wedges “fit” the orange
painting.

[Painting of oranges]. (n.d.). https://www.pinterest.com/pin/567735096748679303/

In the coat of arms, we observe how the different

elements “fit” together perfectly inside each other to
create harmony.

[Example image of harmony]. (n.d.). https://in.pinterest.com/pin/740068151249608856/

26
 6. Repetition and rhythm – the act of repeating an element either regularly or
irregularly resulting in a rhythm of the repeating elements.

7. Simplicity (a.k.a. visual economy) – the elimination of all non-essential

elements or details to reveal the essence of a form.

Visual Economy in art, also known as simplicity, is the

omitting of all non-essential or unimportant elements and
details which don’t really contribute to the essence of the
overall composition in order to emphasize what is important.
Simplicity suggests that a good composition is the simplest
solution to the design problem. Much of the beauty and skill in good design focuses on
what is left out, rather than trying to include everything you can. The secret to a great
composition is in knowing when to stop; when to put the brush down, stand back and
say “that’s just about right”.

Examples of the effective use of Simplicity

Simplicity is suggested in the painting of the cowboy

by zooming in thus eliminating the extra surrounding element
that would otherwise detract from the main focus of the
painting.

[Painting of a farmer]. (n.d.). https://www.filipinoart.ph/art/isabela-farmer

There is simplicity in the design of the
buildings in the painting right. Detail has been left
out to call your attention to the unique architecture.

[Painting of buildings]. (n.d.).

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/67694800621816473/

27
 In the painting of Egypt detail has been deliberately left out so the shapes rather
than the features become the areas of interest.

[Painting of sunset in Egypt]. (n.d.).

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/418834834096203651/

In the painting on the right the background and

clothing are done in a very simplistic manner so that the
viewer’s attention is drawn to the face of Mary and that of
baby Jesus. More detail would have been a distraction.

[Painting of Mary and Jesus]. (n.d.).

https://uscatholic.org/articles/201612/why-was-
mary-a-virgin/

8. Space – the interval or measurable distance between

objects or forms (two dimensional or three dimensional).

Space in art refers to the distance or area between, around, above, below, or within
shapes and forms found within a composition. In this discussion we will be taking a
closer look at several different ways space is used in art. These are:

 Positive space
 Negative space
 Two-dimensional space
 Three-dimensional space

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Positive and Negative Space
There are two types of space in art: positive and negative. Both positive and
negative space are important factors to be considered in every good composition. They
occur in both two-dimension and three-dimension art and are complementary to one
another. One impacts on and affects the reading of the other.

Positive space is the “occupied” areas in a work of art that

is filled with something such as lines, colors and shapes. It is the
primary subject matter of a painting; the animals, plants, building,
mountain, vase, people, etc., that forms your area-of-interest. It
dominates the eye and is the focal point in a composition.
[Rubin’s vase]. (n.d.). http://teresabernardart.com/tag/positive-space/

In the example here, positive space (the area in black) is

represented as the forms themselves… i.e. the vase, the individual letters, or the words
“positive space”. It is the opposite of negative space.

Negative space is the unoccupied areas that surround the

subject matter. It is more passive in nature and is defined by the
edges of the positive space it surrounds. It is what gives definition
to our composition.
[Rubin’s vase]. (n.d.). http://teresabernardart.com/tag/positive-space/

In the example, it is the “empty space” (the area in black) or

unoccupied areas that lies between objects, shapes and forms
within a composition, and is also the space in the background that
is not at first noticeable. It goes in all directions and goes on forever. It flows in, around
and between shapes and objects.

Do you see the shapes in negative space? These shapes have substance or mass and
are not simply the absence of something. This is important to remember. Negative space
has weight and mass, and plays an important role in defining your subject.

Negative space is most evident when the space around a subject matter, and not the
form itself, forms an interesting or artistically relevant shape. In this case the use of

29
 negative space is very much a key element of the artistic composition. In the example
above, the negative space forms a shape of two men face to face.

Negative space is important in a composition because it gives balance to positive space

by giving the eye a place to rest. This is a basic element that is often overlooked as a
principle of a good design.

Two and Three-dimensional Space

Two-dimensional space is found on a flat surface such as a

canvas. It has no depth, only length and width. In our example, the
image appears flat because all the objects and forms lie on the
same plane. There is no feeling of depth.

[Rubin’s vase, two-dimensional]. (n.d.).

http://teresabernardart.com/tag/positive-space/

However, the same space can be used to make a two-

dimensional artwork appear three-dimensional by giving a feeling of
depth. Three-dimensional space has width, height and depth. These
three-dimensional signals are so common in nature
[Rubin’s vase, three-dimensional]. (n.d.).
http://teresabernardart.com/tag/positive-space/

The tools needed for creating the illusion of three-dimensional space are:

 Overlapping objects
 Changing size and placement of related objects
 Linear perspective
 Relative hue and value
 Atmospheric perspective

30
a. Overlapping objects within your composition is the simplest tool you can use for
creating three-dimensional space in your painting or drawing. The effect is achieved by
allowing the contour of one form to be interrupted by the contour of another form, so that
it looks like one form is physically sitting in front of the other.

b. Changing size and placement of related objects. When two shapes are the same
size and are placed on the same plane, the image tends to appear rather flat and not
have much depth to it. However, by simply varying the size and placement of the shapes
a greater sensation of depth is created.

As a rule of thumb, larger objects tend to appear closer to the viewer and smaller ones
tend to recede into the background. Also, objects placed lower on the canvas appear
closer in distance than those which are placed higher up.

c. Linear perspective (a.k.a. converging lines) is a graphical system used by artists to

create the illusion of depth and volume on a flat surface. As objects move away from the
viewer, they appear to grow smaller and converge toward a vanishing point at the
horizon line. The effective use of linear perspective creates this illusion of diminishing
size by treating the edges as converging parallel lines. The vanishing point may be in
any direction the viewer looks, including up, and may be visible (on the canvas) or
imaginary (somewhere off the canvas).

d. Relative hue and value. Using hue and value to create 3D space on a flat canvas
surface are very important cues that tell us whether an object is nearby or far away. In
general, warm colors or hues tend appear closer, whereas cool hues tend to recede
away from the viewer. On the same token, close objects tend to exhibit brighter, richer
hues, and/or more contrasting in values, including extremes of dark and light. However,
distant objects tend to be either similar or neutral in value, and exhibit grayer hues.
Colors that are close in value are perceived as being on or near the same plane, but
colors that have strong contrast in value appear on separate planes.

e. Atmospheric perspective combines several tools already described above. This

important tool operates when objects that are far away lack contrast, detail, and texture.
As objects get farther away, atmospheric perspective shows color gradually fading to a

31
 bluish gray and details blurring, imitating the way distant objects appear to the human
eye.

As a rule of thumb when using this tool, remember that colors tend to pale and fade as
they recede into the distance. Objects become less defined and lack detail.

Deep Space

When used effectively all of these tools to create the illusion of three-dimensional space
will create a sense of what is referred to as deep space within your painting. In deep
space there are three terms used to describe depth:

 Foreground is the area of a painting that visually appears closest to the viewer. It is
often located on a lower plane or bottom of the canvas.
 Middle ground is space that makes up the distance between the foreground and
background of a painting. There is no specific measurement for what the limits are.
Typically, it is located somewhere on the middle plane of the canvas.
 Background is the area of a painting that visually appears to be far away in the distance
at or near the horizon. It is usually located on a higher plane of the canvas.

There are a number of ways to create the illusion of distance or depth on a flat
surface. Here are some of those ways:

1. Objects that are further away, will appear smaller than those close by. Those same
objects will also grow less distinct the further away they are. Their colors will fade and
blend into the background colors.
2. Objects which are placed higher on a plane create the feeling of depth or distance. The
viewer senses that he or she is standing away from the objects and that there is a large
amount of space in the foreground.
3. Overlapping shapes tend to create a feeling of depth.
4. Arrangement of lights. When light is contrasted against dark, a sense of depth is felt.
5. Converging lines. Parallel lines, as they move away into the distance, appear to come
closer together to form a vanishing point which may or may not be seen. A good
example of this is a road or a path.

32
6. Colors. Warm and bright colors appear closer, whereas cool or dull colors tend to
recede into the distance.

Examples of the Effective Use of Space

Positive and Negative Space

The flat back shadows and

background in the painting on the left
provides a good example of the
effective use of positive and negative
space in this two-dimensional painting.
[Example images of positive and negative space]. (n.d.)
https://za.pinterest.com/visualartvalue/positive-and-negative-space/

The painting on the right demonstrates positive and negative space in a three-
dimensional painting. Can you see the positive and negative here? The fish occupies the
positive space and the water represents the negative space around the fish.

Overlapping Objects
 
Overlapping objects is a helpful tool for
creating an illusion of 3D. Depending
on how it is applied can give a sense
of deep or shallow space within a
composition.
[Example images with overlapping objects]. (n.d.).
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/463589355383772603/

The Statue of Liberty in the painting on

the left overlapping the river and the horizon helps to create a greater sense of depth
than the painting that is on the right. On the left we get the sensation of deep space. On
the right the space a shallow.

33
Changing Size and Placement 

Changing the size and

placement of the objects in these two
paintings helps give more depth to
the painting. Changing the size of the
Indians makes them appear far away
in the painting on the left. On the
right, the ballerinas are on a higher
plane than the ones in the front
[Example images with varied size and placement]. (n.d.)
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/change-the-size-of-a-
pushes them farther away into the background.
shadow/

Linear Perspective

   
[Images with linear perspective]. (n.d.) https://www.pinterest.com/pin/19210735893131219/

Can you see how perspective has given the three paintings above a sense of
depth?

These paintings have very strong one-point perspective which helps create the

illusion of three dimension.

Perspective gives you the sensation that the train is moving away from you and
yet it pulls you down the hallway with it in the painting on the right.

Perspective can also make objects appear 3D. The artist of this building used
two-point perspective to create an object that appears to have volume. Without two-point
perspective this building would lack depth and appear flat.

34
Hue and Value

[Images with hue and value]. (n.d.).

https://www.virtualartacademy.com/three-components-of-
color/
 

Warm colors pull you up close. Cool colors recede off into the distance. The
painting on the left is a good example of this tool in use.

On the right, light moves toward you and darkness moves off into the
background.

Atmospheric Perspective

[Example images with atmospheric

perspective]. (n.d.).
https://vitruvianstudio.com/what-is-

  perspective/

As objects move off into the distance, they become less detailed and grayer. For
example, notice the horizon and the mountain in these two paintings.

For more information about atmospheric perspective see article titled Creating

Depth in Your Paintings via Atmospheric Perspective.

35
Deep Space

[Images showing deep space]. (n.d.).

https://www.liveabout.com/creating-the-illusion-of-
  depth-and-space-2578710

When used effectively all the tools (overlapping, perspective, atmosphere, hue and
value) can create the sensation of deep space.

9. Unity – the relationship between the individual parts and the whole of a
composition. This is the desired result in all great art.

Unity is the hallmark of every good design. It is

the final result when all the design elements work
harmoniously together to give the viewer a satisfying
sense of belonging and relationship. You know unity
has been achieved when all aspects of the design
complement one another rather than compete for
attention.
[Unity in art]. (n.d.). https://www.thoughtco.com/elements-of-
composition-in-art-2577514

Unity is the end result when all of the design

principles (balance, movement, emphasis, visual
economy, contrast, proportion and space) have been correctly applied.

Unity within art accomplishes two things:

1. It creates a sense of order. When a design possesses unity there will be a

consistency of sizes and shapes, as well as a harmony of color and pattern.

36
 2. It also gives elements the appearance of completeness that they belong
together. When a composition has unity the design will be viewed as one piece,
as a whole, and not as separate elements with the painting. Using too many
shapes and forms may cause a design to be unfocused, cluttered and confusing.

When unity is achieved:

a. The individual elements within a composition do not compete for attention.

b. The key theme will be communicated more clearly.
c. The design will evoke a sense of completeness and organization.

Examples of the effective use of Unity

[Example paintings with unity]. (n.d.).

https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/unity-in-art

The painting on the left creates a sense of unity by the effective use of repetition.
See how the artist has repeated similar forms (ducks) and color (brown) throughout the
composition?
On the right grouping of similar objects, proximity was used to create unity within
this painting.

[Example paintings with unity]. (n.d.).

https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/unity-in-art

The road in this painting is the “third element” that helps to create a relationship
between the people in the foreground to the people in the background.

37
 This painting is another good example of how proximity creates relationships
between related objects.

Let Us Do This Practice!

The image below is the Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh. Evaluate the image below
by identifying the elements of art that can be observed from it. Do this on your
worksheet.

Van Gogh, V. (1889). The starry night. https://www.vangoghgallery.com/painting/starry-night.html

38
 LESSON 2
Content in Art
Looking into the what is being depicted by the artwork might be helpful in deriving
the meaning of a particular image. The subject of an artwork has been there as a basic
component of artwork. Let us try to dig deeper into this and other related concepts.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to achieve the following:

A. differentiate representational art and non-representational art;

B. Discuss the difference between an artwork’s subject and its content;
C. Identify the subject matter and specific example in art; and
D. Enumerate the sources of subjects of some artworks

Let Us Engage on This!

Look into the image on the left.
Analyze this by responding to the
following questions:
1. What is the artwork all about?

2. Why do you think this was

created?

3. How was the artwork put

together in a singular concept?

[Oil painting of parrot. Stock illustration]. (n.d.). https://bit.ly/3HFrIep

An artwork holds clues that tell us what it is all about. It is a constant mediation
between the viewer and the artwork. Luckily, there are clues that guide the viewer. The
clues are the three basic components:

 Subject- refers to the visual focus or image presented in the artwork; the “what.”
 Content- the meaning that the artist tries to communicate to the viewer; the
“why.”
 Form- how the art work is presented using the elements and the medium or
materials; the “how.”

39
Types of Subject

 Representational Art- presents subjects that have concrete references to the real
world such as events or objects. Also called “figurative art” because the figures
depicted are easy to decode.
 Non-representational Art- the subject presented have no concrete reference to
the real world; not a person, a place, object or event. Instead, the subject is
presented using visual elements such as colors, shapes, and lines, employed to
convey a particular feeling, emotion, or concept.
 Abstract Art- abstract and non-representational art exist in a spectrum. The
difference between the two is almost indiscernible.
Sources of Subject

 Nature
 Culture
 History
 Heritage
 Religion
 Mythology
 People
 Other works of art
Kinds of Subject

 Still life
 History
 Animals
 Nature
 Figures
 Landscape
 Cityscape
 Seascape
 Dreams
 Mythological characters
 Fantasies
Content in Art
An art work’s content is the message or meaning that it expresses or communicates. A
viewer must take note that there are various levels of meaning that aids in understanding
the content of an art work. They are:

 Factual meaning- the most basic level of meaning for it may be made out from
the immediately recognizable forms in the artwork and how they relate to one
another.
 Conventional meaning- pertains to the widely-recognized interpretation of the
artwork using motifs, signs, symbols and other cyphers. These conventions are
forged through time, strengthened by repetitive use and wide acceptance by the
viewers and scholars who study them.

40
  Subjective meaning- stem from the viewer’s or audiences’ personal
circumstances (what we know, learned, experienced, and values we stand for.)
When these subjectivities come into play, a variety of meaning may arise as
individuals experience and artwork. Subjective meaning is, therefore, never
singular but multiple and varied.

Let Us Do This Practice!

Look into the following images. Respond to the following questions comprehensively.
Do this in your worksheet.
A. Identify the subjects of the following images.
B. What do you think each subject on the image represent?
C. Identify the source(s) of the subjects in the following images.

1.

Bain, G. (1900). Philip Burne-Jones Holding a Cat.

[Photo, George Grantham Bain Collection, Library
Congress, Washington, DC.]. https://bit.ly/3HO2SJ2

2.

Matisse, H. (1905). Landscape at Collioure. [ Oil on

canvas, 38.8 x 46.6cm. Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Matisse was a member of Fauves (French for “wild
beasts”), who used bold colors to convey emeotions].
https://mo.ma/3KnbSqA

41
3.

Oosterwijik, M. (1668). Vanitas Still-Life. [ Oil on

canvas 73 x88.5cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna].
https://arthistoryproject.com/artists/maria-van-
oosterwijck/vanitas-still-life/

4.

Delaunay, R. (1912-1913). Le Premier Disque. [Oil

painting with a style of Orphism].
https://bit.ly/3Kgzflo

5.

Maes, N. (1655). The Idle Servant. [Oil on canvas,

National Gallery, London].
https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/nicolaes
-maes-the-idle-servant

42