Production characteristics AUTHORS

of the fractured reservoirs R. A. Nelson ⬃ BP Amoco Corporation, 200

WestLake Park Boulevard, Houston, Texas 77079-

of the La Paz field, 2696; nelsonr5@bp.com

Ron Nelson has worked professionally within the

Maracaibo basin, Venezuela oil and gas industry for 25 years, first with Amoco
and now with BP Amoco. He provides technology
support and applications in structural geology and
R. A. Nelson, E. P. Moldovanyi, C. C. Matcek, fractured reservoir evaluation company-wide. Ron
has worked as a specialist and manager in all the
I. Azpiritxaga, and E. Bueno
major technical organizations within his company,
including a four-year period on Amoco’s Prospect
Quality Team, assigning technical risk to all of
Amoco’s drilling prospects and acreage capture
ABSTRACT worldwide. He holds a B.S. degree in geology from
Northern Illinois University and an M.S. degree and
La Paz oil field is one of the most famous, well-documented frac- Ph.D., also in geology, from Texas A&M University.
tured reservoirs in the world. Since 1945 it has produced more He has been an AAPG Distinguished Lecturer twice,
than 830 million bbl of oil from both low porosity Cretaceous lime- an SPE Distinguished Author, and author of a
stones and underlying granitic basement. The field is situated on a textbook, Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured
large inversion structure, partially uplifted in the late Eocene, hav- Reservoirs.
ing the majority of the inversion occurring in the Miocene–Pliocene. E. P. Moldovanyi ⬃ Geological Consultant,
Fracture distributions, initial rate and cumulative production dis- present address Vanco Energy Company, One
tributions, and trends in formation water chemistry all suggest that Greenway Plaza, Houston, Texas 77046;
reservoir quality and reserves are controlled by natural fractures epmoldo@yahoo.com
associated with Miocene–Pliocene and younger strike-slip faults and Eva Moldovanyi received her B.A. degree in
possibly by secondary microporosity related to the geometry of the geology from Wellesley College (1977), an M.S.
degree in geology from the University of Michigan,
earlier Eocene block uplift. Production levels within the area of
Ann Arbor (1982), and a Ph.D. in geology from
Eocene uplift are anomalously high, with one well producing 59 Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (1990).
million bbl of oil. Typical wells in other parts of the field produce In 1977 she joined Lagoven S.A. as an operations
1 million bbl of oil. Analysis of the distributions cited previously and development geologist in the Maracaibo basin.
suggests that production has occurred from highly elliptical to linear Later she joined the carbonates group at PDVSA’s
drainage areas surrounding faults. These restricted zones of fault- research institute, Intevep S.A. With almost 20
years of industry experience in production geology,
related fractures allow for communication of hydrocarbons stored Eva has also worked for Amoco and is currently an
in the low porosity rock carbonate matrix to the wellbore. In ad- independent contractor, providing consulting
dition, diagenetic microporosity may be an important component services for the evaluation of producing properties
in matrix storage in the carbonates and may be due to local subaerial and marginal fields.
exposure during the Eocene uplift. C. C. Matcek ⬃ BP Amoco Corporation, 200
This article shows that analysis of the natural fracture system WestLake Park Boulevard, Houston, Texas 77079-
with respect to the production characteristics in even old fields can 2696; matcekcc@bp.com
give rise to new reservoir models, leading to new infill locations Charles Matcek has worked for BP Amoco for 23
within the field limits or additional exploration opportunities in the years as a reservoir engineer, holding various oil
area. and gas assignments in Texas, North Sea,
Argentina, Trinidad, and Venezuela. He is currently
working in the Anadarko Asset, developing gas
reserves in the Texas panhandle area.

I. Azpiritxaga ⬃ Maraven S.A., Caracas,

Venezuela; azpiritxaga@pdvsa.com
Izaskun Azpiritxaga received her engineering
degree from the Universidad Central de Venezuela
Copyright 䉷2000. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
(UCV) in 1979 and an M.S. degree in
Manuscript received November 19, 1998; revised manuscript received March 13, 2000; final acceptance
March 15, 2000.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 84, no. 11 (November 2000), pp. 1791–1809 1791

 sedimentology from the University of Texas at
Austin in 1991. She formerly worked for Maraven
in Caracas and currently works in the Production
Technology Department of PDVSA E & P as a
stratigraphy-sedimentology specialist focusing on
reservoir characterization and modeling technology,
including geologic and flow fluid simulation.
E. Bueno ⬃ The Andrews Group, Calle 33 No.
145, Cuidad del Carmen, Mexico;
emilio_bueno@agi_cdc.com.mx
Until 1998, Emilo Bueno was a geologist with
Maraven, S.A., later PDVSA, Caracas. Emilo is
currently a geoconsultant for The Andrews Group,
a Core Laboratories Company.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We extend our thanks to members of the former
Maraven Management Team, especially Alban
Lugo, Ricardo Piña, and Alfonso Riascos, for creat-
ing the opportunity to perform these analyses. The
team also acknowledges the former Amoco Vene-
zuela and Maraven Management for providing the
latitude to pursue this study and, along with BP
Amoco, for permission to publish its results. Special
thanks are due to the talented technical teams led
by Godofredo Diaz and Amelia Quintero, of Mar-
aven’s Production Office in Maracaibo, for their co-
operation, patience, and generous hospitality ex-
tended during the on-site evaluation phase. Special
recognition is given to Alvaro Rodriguez, who
shared his valuable insight and knowledge regard-
ing La Paz field. Special recognition is also given to
Maika Gambus for her tireless efforts to locate,
provide access to, and assist in the analysis of per-
formance data. Finally, we thank Gabriel Diaz,
Jorge Chirinos, Luis Acosta, Alán Gonzalez, and the
all the other former Maraven staff who often took
time out of their busy schedules to make this study
a success. Fruitful and constructive reviews were
provided by Susan M. Agar, Peter A. Bentham,
Charles Kluth, Steven Laubach, and William Bel-
field. Their input significantly improved this
manuscript.
1792 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field
INTRODUCTION
We initially performed the study reported in this article to inves-
tigate the potential for reactivation of inactive wells within the La
Paz field through improved gas lift techniques and/or the identifi-
cation of new well locations and well paths in potentially undrained
parts of the field. Our findings show that even in well-produced
fractured reservoirs, such as at La Paz, continued analysis of the
production characteristics in light of new observational data and
new interpretations of fracture distribution can lead to new models
for the reservoir characterization and new strategies for continued
depletion and increased reserves.
La Paz field is located in the northwestern part of the Maracaibo
basin, approximately 40 km west of the city of Maracaibo (Figure
1). The field was discovered by Shell in the 1920s. Early production
came exclusively from 50 to 60 wells in Eocene–Paleocene sands
on the western side of the current field limits. Production from the
deeper Cretaceous carbonates started in 1945, when eastward ex-
tension of drilling crossed the central axial fault and encountered
fractured carbonate reservoirs subcropping a top Eocene erosional
surface. This carbonate reservoir ranges up to 610 m (2000 ft) in
thickness. In 1953 the field was deepened again to include up to
305 m (1000 ft) of fractured basement reservoir.
La Paz field has a cumulative production exceeding 830 million
bbl of oil, primarily from 140 wells in the Cretaceous carbonate
and pre-Jurassic crystalline and metamorphic basement reservoirs.
Wells have produced from either the carbonate or basement res-
ervoir with no dual completions. Initial reserves exceeded 1.2 bil-
lion bbl of oil, and approximately 390 million bbl of oil remained
to be produced by additional directional drilling or secondary re-
covery (Chacartegui et al., 1995). La Paz field is famous in the
literature for its fractured carbonate and basement reservoirs (Ste-
phenson, 1951; Bueno and Avila, 1987). The field’s peak produc-
Figure 1. Index map for northern South America and the Caribbean showing
the study area of this article, the major physiographic features of the area, and
the location of the La Paz field.
tion rate was 160,000 BOPD, having essentially no wa-
ter. At present, numerous carbonate and basement
reservoir wells are inactive, either because of mechan-
ical problems or because their production rate is below
economic limits. Current field production levels are on
the order of 8000–10,000 BOPD.
This article describes the La Paz field fractured
reservoirs through a combination of historical rate
and reserve data and new interpretations of the frac-
ture and matrix components of the reservoir sys-
tem(s) present. These new core and seismic obser-
vations are used to create a new model for continued
depletion of this reservoir, as well as a model for ex-
ploring for other fractured reservoirs in this section
within Venezuela and Colombia. The database used
to make these interpretations is heavily weighted to
equivalent reservoirs in nearby fields in the onshore
and offshore Maracaibo basin, although the historic
production data are heavily weighted toward the La
Paz field itself. The observational data available for
this study are detailed in Table 1.
STRATIGRAPHY
A generalized stratigraphic column for northwest
Venezuela, onshore Maracaibo basin, is shown in Fig-
ure 2. The important deep reservoir units in La Paz
field are the pre-Jurassic igneous and metamorphic
basement and the overlying Cretaceous shelf carbon-
ates of the Cogollo Group and La Luna formations.
The total hydrocarbon column in the deep La
Paz reservoirs is reported to be at least 915 m (3000
ft) in height, 305 m (1000 ft) of which is in the
basement reservoir that is made up of fractured gran-
ites, granodiorites, and metamorphic schists. Uncom-
formably overlying the basement reservoir are red-
bed sandstones of the La Quinta Formation and
conglomeratic sandstones of the Rio Negro Forma-
tion. Both were deposited during Jurassic rifting in
the area. Deposition of these units marked the end
of exposure and erosion of the pre-Jurassic basement
complex.
Overlying the Rio Negro conglomerates are the
carbonates of the Apon, Lisure, and Maraca forma-
tions, which make up the Cogollo Group. This car-
bonate sequence is approximately 427 m (1400 ft)
thick and consists of cyclical packages of upwardly
shoaling facies. Faunal assemblages found in cores in
the Cogollo Group suggest that these carbonates
were deposited in a relatively shallow, normally ox-
ygenated, marine environment. Regionally, the Co-
gollo Group consists of tabular lithostromes and al-
ternating cycles of subparallel strata and local shale

Table 1. Data upon Which This Study is Based

La Paz Field
1. Complete production and workover histories for 140 wells in the carbonate and basement reservoirs
2. Water chemistry from 30 carbonate and 14 basement wells
3. 3 of 12 two-dimensional seismic lines
4. Reinterpreted fault and structure maps at the carbonate and basement reservoir tops, after Bueno and Avila (1987)
5. Approximately 3500 ft of core from 5 wells: P-56, P-79, P-111, P-158, X-201
Block I Field
1. Maraven sponsored outcrop studies of the La Lunal and Cogollo units
2. 2 three-dimensional seismic surveys
3. 2500 ft or full diameter core from 6 wells: VLA-710, VLA-711, VLA-712, VLA-722, VLA-978, VLB-704
4. Production data from 12 wells
5. PLT data from 1 well
Lama Field
1. Approximately 1500 ft of core from 2 wells: SVS-225, SVS-229
2. Published fracture descriptions and paragenetic sequence of Franssen et al. (1992)
Rosario Field
1. Published structural and fracture data of Apotria et al. (1996)
Tutumos Field
1. Approximately 1000 ft of core from 1 well: TOT-3

Nelson et al. 1793

Figure 2. Stratigraphic section
for La Paz field area of the Ma-
racaibo basin highlighting the
carbonate and basement reser-
voir sections and the overlying
Colon Shale seal.
interbeds formed at maximum flooding intervals. Pri-
mary porosity is poorly developed in the grain-rich
facies and averages only about 2% (ranging from 0.1
to 9.3%) in the La Paz P-114 well. Locally, fracture
and dissolution porosity typically add 0.5 to 1% to
the average (Stiteler et al., 1997).
The La Luna Formation is a dark, finely lami-
nated, cherty, organic-rich carbonate that overlies the
Cogollo Group. The La Luna is a world-class source
rock, having up to 25% total organic carbon (TOC),
and is thought to be the source of most of the 50
billion bbl of oil reserves contained within the Ma-
racaibo basin. The contact between the shallow-
1794 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field
water Maraca Formation of the upper Cogollo and
the basal La Luna Formation is gradational in nature
(Erlich et al., 1993). Based on core observation in
these carbonates in Block 1 in Lake Maracaibo and
outcrops in the Perija Mountains to the west, the La
Luna and the immediately underlying Maraca for-
mations display a well-developed orthogonal regional
fracture or joint pattern (see Nelson [1985] for the
definition of regional fracture patterns). Where oc-
curring on structure, a system of tectonic fractures
occurs in all of the carbonate and basement rocks
(Franssen et al., 1992) and overprints the regional
fractures in the La Luna and Maraca formations.
TECTONIC AND
STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK
La Paz field is situated in the northwestern part of
a triangular structural block bounded by major
basement-involved wrench faults, each having strike-
slip displacement in excess of 100 km (see Figure 3).
These bordering faults are the Oca fault to the north,
the Santa Marta fault to the southwest, and the Bocono
fault to the southeast. These three major faults prob-
ably have their origins during either the late Paleozoic
compressional event that occurred throughout north-
ern South America (Hercynian) or the Triassic–
Jurassic rifting event associated with the separation of
North and South America (Pindell, 1985). Regardless
of their earlier origins, major strike-slip motion on
these faults and deformation of the intervening Mara-
caibo structural block took place during the late Mio-
cene to Holocene (Andean orogeny), when the Carib-
bean oceanic plate slid eastward past the northern
South American plate margin (Pindell, 1985). This
structural event created inversion structures and flower
structures within the Maracaibo block that resulted
from left-lateral transpressional motion on high-angle
basement faults (see Figure 3). La Paz field is one cul-
mination along one such fault trend, locally called the
Falle Principal.
Regional reconstruction of the prewrench (pre-
Andean) configuration of the area around La Paz field
indicates a local Paleocene basin that deepened to the
east, having a progressive onlap onto the Cretaceous
carbonates. This is illustrated by the schematic repre-
sentation of a seismic line reinterpreted from Aude-
mard (1991) (Figure 4). Based on isopach maps, the
Paleocene has its maximum thickness at the current
crestal position of La Paz field, indicating inversion.
Subsequent Eocene deposition shows onlap onto the
top Paleocene surface until the end of the Eocene. The
Eocene deposition culminated in an erosional uncon-
formity that truncated the Paleocene sequence west of
Figure 3. Map of the tectonic
and structural elements of the
Maracaibo basin area. Shown
are the major strike-slip faults
bounding the basin, mapped
fault traces within the basin and
the adjoining mountain ranges,
structural contours on top of
the Cretaceous carbonate sec-
tion within the basin, and the
location of the carbonate and
basement reservoirs from which
data was compiled for this
study.
Nelson et al. 1795
Figure 4. Representative La Paz field cross section interpreted from two-dimensional seismic coverage, courtesy of R. Barrett.
Interpretation modified from Audemard (1991).

La Paz field and eroded into the Cretaceous on the

eastern side of the La Paz antiform. The first evidence
of onlap onto the exhumed, uplifted surface occurred
during the Pliocene–Pleistocene, supporting the rela-
tively recent timing of the underlying basement trans-
pressional motions.
Geometrically, La Paz field is a weltlike antiform
straddling the central Falle Principal. The field’s struc-
tural relief is generated by normal and reverse motions
along faults internal to the field, having almost no
bending or flexure evident between the faults. The
fault pattern has been interpreted from formation tops
in nearly 200 wells and from 12 older vintage two-
dimensional seismic lines (Figure 4). Other fields in the
area, such as Mara field along strike to the north and
Block 1 and Lama fields along the Icotea fault in central
Lake Maracaibo, display similar geometries and tim-
ings as La Paz field (Stiteler et al., 1994).
Three major fault trends are interpreted (Figure 5).
on the map of the top Socuy structure (top of the car-
bonate sequence) (original map from Bueno and Avila,
1987). The three interpreted fault trends evident on
the map in Figure 5 have distinct azimuth/frequency
and azimuth/length populations (Figures 6, 7). In ad- Figure 5. Interpreted fault trace map from the top Socuy car-
dition, the fault trends are consistent with three of the bonate for the La Paz field. The faults are interpreted from well
four elements of a classic left-lateral simple shear tops in 200 wells and from 12 two-dimensional seismic lines.
(wrench) deformation model (Figure 8), assuming a Highlighted are the three predominant trends in the data and
component of left-lateral motion on the central Falle their correspondence to elements of a wrench fault model for
Principal in the central spine of the structure. Else- the field (see Figure 8).
where in the Maracaibo basin these north to northeast–
trending faults display left-lateral kinematic motion in-
dicators where exposed in outcrop. Missing in the La ness in the potential P-shear orientation related to the
Paz field fault data set is the R-shear trend of Figure 8. previous Eocene deformation. As we show in a follow-
This trend is perhaps missing here owing to the pres- ing section, this wrench-related fault assembly is im-
ence of a preexisting fault trend and direction of weak- portant to the story of drainage and fracture connect-

1796 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field


edness in the reservoir (secondary faults in
wrench-related structures intersect to form a network
of interconnected faults and intersecting fracture
swarms).
Although estimates of the strike-slip component of
motion at La Paz are at this point unquantifiable, these
fault trends (see Figures 6, 7) do depict mapped dif-
ferences in apparent vertical separation that are also
consistent with a wrench origin. Faults longitudinal or
parallel with the structural axis (N40⬚E) are consistent
with Y-shear trends in the wrench model and have the
largest apparent vertical separations, up to 1067 m
(3500 ft). Faults transverse to the structure (N60–
Figure 6. Fault azimuth vs.
frequency rose diagram for the
La Paz field based on a detailed
version of the map shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 7. Fault azimuth vs.
length rose diagram for the La
Paz field based on a detailed
version of the map shown in
Figure 5.
70⬚E) are similar to P-shear orientations in the model
and have mapped vertical separations of up to 395 m
(1300 ft ). Cross faults in the structure (30–50⬚W) are
similar to R⬘-shear trends in the model and have the
smallest overall mapped vertical separations, up to 310
m (1000 ft) but most less than 152 m (500 ft). This
distribution of fault size is consistent with similar ori-
entations elements in physical models of wrench
deformation.
In general a lack of folding is displayed on the in-
terpreted cross sections (see Figure 3), the seismic sec-
tions, and in the structural maps based on well control.
Relatively straight panels of dip exist between the
Nelson et al. 1797
Figure 8. Fault azimuth distri-
butions predicted for a left-
lateral simple shear wrench
model, assuming that the Falle
Principal in the center of the La
Paz field is the master oblique
fault (Y-shear orientation) creat-
ing the structure. Correspon-
dence to Figures 6 and 7 shows
that the Y-shear , P-shear, and
R⬘-shear elements of the
wrench model exist in the inter-
preted fault data set from La
Paz field.
faults within the La Paz field area. Because of these
observations, we must conclude that the majority of
the structural relief at the reservoir levels at La Paz was
accomplished by motion along the faults internal to the
field. Stated another way, these fault zones must have
accommodated most of the distortional strain during
deformation of the current structure. In these brittle
low porosity carbonates and granites, this distortional
strain manifested itself through swarms of brittle frac-
ture around the faults and lower fracture densities ex-
isting between fault zones.
FRACTURES
The various deformation periods described in the pre-
vious sections for the Maracaibo basin area from the
Jurassic through the Tertiary have left their mark on
the carbonate and basement reservoirs by imparting
distributed tectonic fracture patterns and faults having
associated fracture halos. Franssen et al. (1992) and
Nelson and Chacartegui (1994) have documented the
petrographically interpreted deformation sequence
from reservoir scale deformational features (fractures
and stylolites) in cores for the Cretaceous carbonates
in the deep-basin parts of Lake Maracaibo. These frac-
turing and compactive events also affected the reser-
voirs onshore at La Paz in a similar manner (little work
has been published on the paragenetic sequence in the
La Paz area itself). However, as in the fields in central
Lake Maracaibo, fracture intensity of the more distrib-
uted tectonic fracture sets is relatively low in La Paz,
and most of the fractures that occurred were associated
1798 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field
with the earlier phases of deformation and subse-
quently have been filled with calcite cement (Nelson
and Chacartegui, 1994). In some cases in the deeper
parts of the lake, mineralized fractures and stylolites
were reopened by late-stage fluid pressures related to
hydrocarbon generation (Willemse et al., 1990). How-
ever, based on limited observation of cores in La Paz
and by analogy to significant core observation in the
Lama and Block 1 fields in the lake, the fracture
swarms associated with late-stage wrench-related
faults appear to be substantially unmineralized and
flow oil, as evidenced on available production logs.
Observation of about 1818 m (6000 ft) of Creta-
ceous and basement core from Blocks 1 and 9 from
central Lake Maracaibo and 1000 ft (304 m) of core
from the La Paz field area (see Table 1) has led us to
conclude that the fracture systems of greatest fracture
intensity (closest spacing) and best permeability occur
in zones surrounding faults of discernible offset (Nel-
son and Chacartegui, 1994; Stiteler et al., 1994) (Fig-
ure 9). These higher intensity fracture zones surround
the fault planes and reflect early fracture process zones
or volumes of fractured rock that immediately predate
the creation of the through-going fault slip plane
(Stearns and Friedman, 1972; Nelson, 1985). The close
proximity and similar orientation of the fracture sets
indicates that they formed in the same state of stress
as the fault planes they surround (Shepherd et al.,
1982). The width and symmetry of these zones is vari-
able in core and on image logs and probably reflects
the mean stress state during deformation and the me-
chanical properties of the units being fractured. Re-
ported fracture zone widths associated with faults

Figure 9. A core photograph from Lake Maracaibo Block 9
well number SVS-225, 15, 161–163 ft, in the carbonate reservoir
in the Lama field in Lake Maracaibo depicting high fracture
density, dipping, parallel natural fractures. On the basis of ori-
entation, density, and slip indicators on the fracture planes,
these are interpreted to be shear fractures associated with an
obvious fault within the wellbore. Both fractures parallel and
conjugate to the fault surface are expected.
range from a few feet to about a thousand feet, having
many in the 61 to 305 m (100 to 500 foot) range
(Piske, 1981; Weber and Bakker, 1981; Shepherd et
al., 1982). For the faults we have observed in core and
in seismic amplitude extractions, in the Cretaceous
carbonates in the La Paz–Maracaibo area, fracture zone
widths range from 61 to 183 m (100 to 300 ft). A
schematic representation of the observed and inter-
preted fracture swarms related to the different fault
types seen in the La Paz field is shown in Figure 10.
We propose that the various wrench-related oblique
slip faults at La Paz field described in the tectonics part
of this article all possess these brittle fracture swarms
or halos surrounding them and, owing to the cross-
cutting nature of these intersecting secondary wrench-
related fault trends, these halos interconnect in the
highly faulted parts of the field.
Figure 10. A schematic diagram postulating optimum well-
bore approach angles to intersect normal and reverse faults and
maximize fracture intersections per foot of wellbore. For illus-
tration purposes, a 60⬚ dipping normal fault (A) and a 60⬚ dip-
ping reverse fault (B) are modeled. Shown are the stress states
responsible for those faults and the predicted fracture trends
associated with those stress states and fault planes. Well paths
are postulated that attempt to both maximize the number of
fractures intersected per foot and retain length of well in the
fractured zone. Note that optimum well paths enter the fracture
zone from the footwall in the normal fault and the hanging wall
in the reverse fault.
In addition to fractures developed around specific
fault zones related to local tectonic activity, regional
fracture systems are also present in parts of the Cre-
taceous carbonate reservoir in the Maracaibo area. Re-
gional fractures occur as two sets of fractures perpen-
dicular to bedding and at 90⬚ azimuth to each other
(Stearns and Friedman, 1972; Nelson, 1985). In out-
crops in the nearby Sierra Perija and in core in Block 1
and Lama fields in the lake, they are most evident in
the La Luna and the upper part of the Maraca forma-
tions. They predate major structural uplift, as evi-
denced by their rotation along with bedding locally
near some faults (Nelson and Chacartegui, 1994). A
few interpreted regional fractures are observed from
core locally in part of the Lisure but not to the degree
seen in the upper units. This regional fracture system
Nelson et al. 1799
is not as abundant or closely spaced as the tectonic
fracture sets; however, where the fractures occur they
can enhance the connectedness of all of the fractures
present. These regional fracture systems in the La Luna
and upper Maraca are ideal candidates for develop-
ment through horizontal wells. Horizontal wellbores
(parallel with bed dip) oriented perpendicular to the
systematic (first formed and most through-going) frac-
ture direction are a typical exploration and develop-
ment technique in fractured shales, chalks, and tight
gas sands in the United States (Nelson and Serra,
1995).
FORMATION WATER GEOCHEMISTRY
Based on analyses from 75 wells, formation waters in
the La Paz reservoirs can be differentiated by dis-
solved constituent content. On average, basement res-
ervoir waters have total dissolved solids (TDS) ranging
from 60,000 to 92,000 ppm, whereas the TDS of
Cretaceous reservoir waters is lower, generally aver-
aging approximately 50,000 ppm. Basement, Creta-
ceous, Paleocene, and Eocene formation waters can
also be segregated according to their major element
chemistry. Typically, relative to the Cretaceous res-
ervoir, basement reservoir waters are enriched in
Ca2Ⳮ (15,000–30,000 mg/L) and Clⳮ (40,000–
60,000 mg/L), and depleted in NaⳭ (5000–10,000
mg/L). In contrast, Cretaceous reservoir formation
waters are more heterogeneous in nature and typically
contain 2000–10,000 mg/L Ca2Ⳮ, 2000–35,000 mg/
L NaⳭ, and 7000–100,000 mg/L Clⳮ, whereas Pa-
leocene and Eocene waters are depleted in these three
chemical constituents. At present, Cretaceous forma-
tion waters are 1.5–2.0 times more saline than mod-
ern seawater (which has a TDS of 35,000 mg/L),
thereby suggesting that the waters have evolved be-
yond their original composition in response to geo-
chemical processes.
The spatial distribution of water chemistry shows
some interesting features between the most productive
part of the Cretaceous carbonate reservoir and the rest
of the field. The highly productive part of the Creta-
ceous reservoir is also that which experienced Eocene
uplift. This area of early uplift and high production
displays pore waters unique to the remainder of the
field. Overall a fieldwide increase in cumulative pro-
duction and increasing Na/Ca ratio exist in the car-
bonate reservoir, and the best area, coincident with the
paleohigh, has an average ratio (0.4804) distinctly
1800 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field
higher than the field average (0.3232). A similar rela-
tionship, but having decreasing trend with production,
occurs in the Ca/Cl ratio (0.1340 in the Eocene high
good production zone and 0.2515 for the fieldwide av-
erage). As we show in the production characteristics
section of this article, the area of previous Eocene up-
lift contains the highest cumulative production vol-
umes per well in the field. This may reflect an area of
greater matrix storage, perhaps owing to dissolution by
unique pore waters. Although at this time we do not
know the full explanation for this chemistry (and po-
tential diagenesis), the uniqueness of these pore waters
in the best productive zone and the coincident zone of
early uplift and subaerial exposure creates a plausible
explanation for greater than anticipated matrix storage
(microporosity) in this part of the field.
In contrast, these Na/Ca and Ca/Cl ratios show no
discernible relationship to production within the frac-
tured basement reservoir, which has no matrix storage
and was not exposed subaerially in the Eocene.
PRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS
Historical Production
The Cretaceous and basement reservoirs at La Paz field
have produced more than 800 million bbl of oil from
140 wells since 1945. We have mapped the perfor-
mance of these wells over the history of the field to
define potential fracture and matrix property varia-
tions. Two production parameters that commonly are
used to define these properties in fractured reservoirs
are initial potential (IP) and cumulative production
(Cum). For a fracture-only reservoir (type 1 fractured
reservoir of Nelson [1985]), both IP and Cum maps
should depict variations in fracture intensity, with the
most fractured areas having the highest IPs. In a frac-
ture plus matrix reservoir (type 2 of Nelson [1985]),
the IPs should relate to variations in fracture density,
whereas the Cum should reflect some variations in ma-
trix storage as well.
For a normal matrix-only reservoir, frequency di-
agrams of IP and Cum display bell-shaped curves.
However, in reservoirs where natural fractures either
dominate the porosity and permeability (type 1) or
dominate the permeability (type 2), these frequency
distributions are highly skewed. The result is frequency
distributions having many wells with relatively low IP
and Cum and a few wells with very large IP and Cum.
This is typical of fractured reservoirs worldwide (Nel-
son, in press). Figures 11 and 12 show these charac-
teristic frequency diagrams for type 1 (basement) and
type 2 (carbonate) reservoirs at La Paz field.
In map form, these IP and Cum distributions show
two things: (1) a relationship between the IP and Cum
contours and the position and intersection of inter-
preted faults, and (2) a relationship between the area
of high IP and Cum in the carbonate reservoir and the
area of the Eocene paleohigh (Figures 13–16). The
Cum map for the Cretaceous reservoir (Figure 14)
shows large production volumes, with individual wells
having produced 59 million bbl of oil. In this east cen-
tral part of the field that has the highest production,
contours show similar patterns to the IP and Cum
maps (Figures 13, 14), and the contours of both gen-
erally parallel the longitudinal (Y-shear) and transverse
(P-shear) faults, especially in the east central part of
the structure that experienced the Eocene erosion.
This Cum map (Figure 14) in particular reflects a pos-
sible area of locally enhanced matrix microporosity or
matrix storage formed by diagenetic dissolution due to
surface water influx during Eocene exposure in this
part of the reservoir only, whereas the IP map reflects
fault-related fracture intensity only. The possibility of
this paleostructure-related diagenesis is supported by
the relatively unique water chemistry within this
paleoblock.
The IP and Cum maps for the basement reservoir
(Figures 15 and 16, respectively) show a simpler pat-
tern than those of the Cretaceous reservoir. Although

30
Cretaceous

25

20
Frequency

15
Series 1

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
a)
Initial Production per well, MBOPD

16
Basement
14 Figure 11. Frequency dia-
12
grams for the IP (rate) of wells
in the La Paz field. Shown are
10 distributions for the Cretaceous
Frequency

8
(a) and basement (b) reser-
Series 1 voirs. Note that these are
6 skewed distributions having
many low value wells and a
4
few very large value wells.
2 These distributions are typical
for fracture-dominated reser-
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
voirs and contrast to matrix-
Initial Production per well, MBOPD
b) only reservoirs that have typi-
cally bell-shaped distributions.

Nelson et al. 1801

Figure 12. Frequency dia-
grams for the Cum (reserves)
of wells in the La Paz field. 35
Shown are distributions for the Cretaceous
Cretaceous (a) and basement 30
(b) reservoirs. Note that these
are skewed distributions having 25
many low value wells and a

Frequency
few very large value wells. 20

These distributions are typical

15 Series1
for fracture-dominated reser-
voirs and contrast with matrix- 10
only reservoirs that have typi-
cally bell-shaped distributions. 5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cummulative Production per well, MMBO a)

16
Basement
14

12

10
Frequency

8
Series1
6

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cummulative Production per well, MMBO b)

this fracture-only (type 1) reservoir displays some
alignment of IP and Cum with longitudinal fault traces
(Y-shear), they correspond more closely to the struc-
turally highest part of the field.
Another interesting feature of these fracture-
dominated reservoirs in La Paz is the relationship be-
tween IP and Cum for the wells (Figure 17). In a type
1 fractured reservoir (all porosity and permeability in
the fractures), the more fractures present, the more
permeability in the reservoir and the more fracture po-
rosity is present. The result is a strong correlation be-
tween IP and Cum in a type 1 fractured reservoir. The
cross plot of IP vs. Cum for the basement reservoir at
La Paz shown in Figure 17b has a correlation coeffi-
cient of 0.85. In a type 2 fractured reservoir (all per-
meability in the fractures and the majority of the po-
rosity in the matrix), a poorer correlation exists
between IP and Cum, because the rate is dictated by
fracture intensity and the volumes are influenced
strongly by the matrix. The cross plot of IP vs. Cum
for the carbonate reservoir at La Paz shown in Figure
17a has a correlation coefficient of 0.45.
For a historical perspective of the Cum distribu-
tions over time in these two reservoirs, Figure 18 shows
Cum addition histories for the carbonate and basement
reservoirs, with Cum additions ascribed to the date of
well completion. These distributions over time indi-
cate fairly efficient drilling, having many of the good

1802 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field

Figure 13. An IP map for wells in the carbonate reservoir in
the La Paz field overprinted on the interpreted fault trace map
from Figure 5. Maximum rates exceeded 16,000 BOPD and typ-
ical wells were around 2000 BOPD (see Figure 11a). Note that
the contours appear to be controlled by the longitudinal and
transverse fault orientations and their intersections.
rate and volume wells drilled early. As in many other
fractured reservoirs, later drilling tends to give rate ac-
celeration to the pipeline only, because no significant
new oil volumes are obtained, only oil that would have
been drained by older wells if given sufficient time.
Pressures
The La Paz reservoir exhibits excellent vertical and
horizontal communication despite the complex fault-
ing, a large gross pay interval of approximately 915 m
(3000 ft), and two distinct geologic packages (igneous/
metamorphic basement and Cretaceous carbonates).
This apparent single tank-type behavior of the field is
best illustrated by the pressure data. The pressure his-
tory in the field has undergone a generally uniform de-
cline from the initial pressure of 4400 psi to the current
pressure of 500–1000 psi. Indeed, after the first Cre-
taceous wells were drilled and produced in 1945, no
later wells ever again encountered virgin reservoir pres-
Figure 14. A Cum map for wells in the carbonate reservoir
in the La Paz field overprinted on the interpreted fault trace
map from Figure 5. Maximum production volumes exceeded 59
million bbl of oil and typical wells were around 5 million bbl of
oil (see Figure 12a). Note that the contours appear to be con-
trolled by the longitudinal and transverse faults orientations and
their intersections.
sure. The first basement reservoir wells drilled in 1953
encountered a pressure of approximately 3500 psi, in-
dicating a pressure depletion already of 900 psi,
thereby confirming the existence of vertical commu-
nication between the carbonate and basement reser-
voir levels. The only wells not following this general
pressure decline are wells located in the extreme flanks
of the field near the oil-water contact. These wells have
a very low cumulative production, most likely due to
lower effective porosity and/or to the absence of suf-
ficient natural fractures. Additional evidence for this
continuity is provided by observed fracture distribu-
tions in core and seismic data and production interfer-
ence between wells.
Inspection of fractures in core from the La Paz
field and in nearby other fields that produce from the
same reservoir intervals suggests that fault zones
bounding intervening reservoir blocks contain by far
the largest fracture intensity (3 to 10 fractures per ft)
Nelson et al. 1803
Figure 15. An IP map for wells in the basement reservoir in
Figure 16. A Cum map for wells in the basement reservoir in
the La Paz field overprinted on the interpreted fault trace map
the La Paz field overprinted on the interpreted fault trace map
from Figure 5. Maximum rates exceeded 14,000 BOPD and typ-
from Figure 5. Maximum production volumes exceeded 48 mil-
ical wells were around 2000 BOPD (see Figure 11b). Note that
lion bbl of oil and typical wells were around 5 million bbl of oil
the highest rates at the basement reservoir are offset from those
(see Figure 12a). Note that the contours appear to be controlled
of the carbonate reservoir and occur at the structural culmina-
by the longitudinal and transverse faults orientations and their
tion. Also, the contours seem to follow the longitudinal faults
intersections. Note that the highest Cums at the basement res-
only.
ervoir are offset from those of the carbonate reservoir and occur
at the structural culmination. Also, the contours seem to follow
the longitudinal and possibly cross-fault orientations and their
intersections.
and continuity within the field (Table 1). Although
fractures also exist within the blocks themselves, they
are of much lower intensity and continuity than those
associated with the bounding faults. Because of their interconnected and as fractured as they are inter-
wrench origin, the majority of these faults are preted to be. However, if relatively undrained, higher
basement-involved and have a high probability of in- pressure areas do occur in restricted parts of the field,
tersecting and are thus expected to have excellent they could best be developed using deviated holes
communication. Both shear fracture distributions in specifically designed to crosscut the maximum num-
core and production log response from one well in ber of natural fractures and maximize fracture per-
Block 1 field depict fractures associated with a fault meability and local secondary matrix porosity.
zone of up to 183 m (300 ft) in width that has 55%
of the oil flow in the 1000 open hole completion com-
ing from this zone. The result of this fracture swarm EXPLORATION CONCEPTS
surrounding the fault is increased reservoir perme-
ability parallel with the fault in both the strike and Highgrading Prospects or Areas
dip directions. Undrained parts of La Paz field that
have reservoir pressure higher than the fieldwide av- From the work presented in this article, we believe that
erage are unlikely to occur if the fault zones are as it is possible to find Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs

1804 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field

 Figure 17. Cross-plots of IP
(rate) vs. Cum (volumes) for
the fracture-dominated reser-
60 voirs in the La Paz field. The
y = 0.0023x + 1.1915 Cretaceous carbonate reservoir (a) re-
R2 = 0.4505
Cummulative Production, MMBO

50 sponds like a type 2 fractured

reservoir of Nelson (1985) hav-
40 ing a correlation coefficient of
0.45, whereas the basement
30 reservoir (b) responds like a
type 1 fractured reservoir hav-
20
ing a correlation coefficient of
0.85. Note that in a type 1 res-
10
ervoir all of the permeability
and storage resides in the frac-
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 a) ture system, whereas in a type
Initial Production, BOD 2 reservoir all of the permeabil-
ity resides in the fracture sys-
tem and the majority of storage
resides in the rock matrix.
50

45 y = 0.0036x - 0.9382
R2 = 0.8478
Cummulative Production, MMBO

40

35

30

25

20 Basement
15

10

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 b)
Initial Production, BOD

(La Luna and Cogollo) in Venezuela and Colombia Paz field (10 to 60 million bbl of oil/well) than the
(Nelson et al., 1998) that locally have properties more poorer parts of La Paz field and those of other typical
like the best parts of the giant La Paz field than like the Cretaceous carbonate field wells in the basin (1 to 10
average Cretaceous fields discovered in the area to date million bbl of oil/well).
(Lama, Rosario, Tutumos, Block 1, etc.). The key is to
find (1) large hydrocarbon columns, (2) areas in which Directional Drilling Approaches
the carbonate reservoir section has experienced sub-
aerial exposure and subsequent elevated diagenetic po- If we were to continue to drill a mature fractured field
rosity in the carbonate matrix due to leaching by sur- like La Paz, we would consider two potential devel-
face pore waters that entered the formation during opment approaches. The first approach involves drill-
subaerial exposure during Eocene erosion, and ing deviated wells to crosscut fault zones and their as-
(3) fault-related fracture swarms that can be drilled sociated fracture halos and encounter as many zones of
using directional wells to maximize fracture intersec- potential secondary matrix microporosity as possible
tion per foot of wellbore. (Figure 19). In addition, four intervals of enhanced
These areas should have a greater likelihood of macroporosity exist sporadically in wells throughout
having reserves more like wells in the best part of La the area, one in the upper Maraca Formation just

Nelson et al. 1805

Figure 18. Plots of cumula-
tive oil additions over time for
the carbonate (a) and base-
ment (b) fractured reservoirs in
La Paz field. In constructing 600
these plots, all of a well’s cu-
mulative production is ascribed 500
to its completion date.
400

300 Series1

200

100

0
Jan-41 Oct-43 Jul-46 Apr-49 Jan-52 Oct-54 Jun-57 Mar-60

a)

250

200

150

Series1
100

50

0
Jan-41 Jul-46 Jan-52 Jun-57 Dec-62 Jun-68 Dec-73 May-79 Nov-84

b)

below the La Luna/Maraca contact and three in parts
of the Lisure and Apon formations. In sequence strati-
graphic terms, these intervals are interpreted to be
highstand facies of three systems tracts. Because of
their depositional fabric, the four horizons are prone
to dissolution and secondary porosity development,
where external pore waters are brought into the for-
mation along nearby deep-seated faults. Such second-
ary porosity distributions have been previously ob-
served for this section at 9000 m (15,000 ft) below
parts of Lake Maracaibo (Nelson and Chacartegui,
1994). However, all but the upper Maraca interval ap-
pear laterally discontinuous. Any of these or equivalent
horizons would make attractive local targets for direc-
tional drilling, especially where combined with the
presence of local natural fractures.

1806 Fractured Reservoirs of the La Paz Field


Block 1
Cretaceous
To be truly successful, the directional drilling ap-
proach would necessitate wellbores placed into fault
and/or fracture zones that have not been drilled or se-
verely depleted below virgin pressure. Therefore, the
next best location for this option might be near cross
faults (R⬘-shears or faults having an N30–50⬚W ori-
entation). To date, this orientation has not been seen
to control the production contours shown in Figures
13–16. In theory, if oriented to crosscut as many frac-
tures per foot of wellbore, such a well would provide
a completion having enhanced productivity. Moreover,
Figure 19. A schematic dia-
gram (T. C. Stiteler and F. J.
Chacartequi, 1994, personal
communication) derived for de-
picting possible drilling direc-
tions in the Block 1 field car-
bonate reservoir in Lake
Structure Maracaibo. As in La Paz field
we propose that optimum rate
and reserve wells be placed to
maximize intersecting fault-
related fracture swarms, as well
as any potential secondary po-
rosity layers generated by pore
waters entering the formation
from nearby faults.
the well would be expected to have as high a fracture
intensity and continuity as that believed to be respon-
sible for the best producers at La Paz. However, at less
than original reservoir pressure, such a well would not
have an initial production or accumulate as much total
production as wells at virgin pressures.
Another natural fracture-related drilling approach
in La Paz and other similar reservoirs involves drilling
a horizontal to near horizontal wellbore in the La Luna
Formation or in the La Luna and uppermost Maraca
formations. In this approach, wells take advantage of
Nelson et al. 1807
the regional fracture pattern mapped onshore in the
Sierra Perijas in this part of the section. The well would
drill perpendicular to the strike of the dominant (sys-
tematic) regional fracture trend. Besides communicat-
ing regional fractures near the La Luna/Maraca con-
tact, this approach may also expose poorly or
undrained pore volume. To be successful it is necessary
to identify poorly communicating areas having higher
reservoir pressure and to document the regional frac-
ture trends in the field area.
Although areas having higher pressure may exist,
they are not likely to have a sufficient interconnected
natural fracture system for adequate drainage by a ver-
tical well. Otherwise, the areas would already have
been drained or depleted during the 55 years of pro-
duction. Provided that higher pressure is indicative of
lower permeability areas, it is possible that a horizontal
wellbore may enhance productivity, although the over-
all rate may not increase enough to justify the expen-
diture. If this pressure-permeability premise is incor-
rect, results of horizontal drilling will depend on the
drainage area and reservoir pressure encountered.
SUMMARY
La Paz field is typical of Cretaceous carbonate reser-
voirs of the Maracaibo basin in terms of its basic rock
properties but atypical owing to its larger reserves and
higher flow rates per well. High flow rates seem to be
related to fracture swarms surrounding numerous
faults within the field that were developed during the
strike-slip origin of the current structure.
Large reserves appear to be localized in parts of
the field that have experienced prior uplift and erosion
down to the carbonate reservoir level. We infer that
this exposure altered the pore water chemistry of these
parts of the formation and allowed for the creation of
secondary microporosity and greater storage than other
parts of the reservoir. These conclusions are supported
by map patterns of IP and Cum, as well as their rela-
tionship to mapped fault traces and vertical separa-
tions. We anticipate that seeking La Paz–type proper-
ties and histories will lead to additional La Paz–type
reserves and rates in the area if the exploration prin-
ciples described in this article are followed.
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