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Dr. Uttam Kumar Kanp Dr. Uttam Kumar Kanp: Auxin
Dr. Uttam Kumar Kanp Dr. Uttam Kumar Kanp: Auxin
1. Discovery of Auxins:
Charles Darwin and his son Francis Darwin (1880) found tthat
hat the sensation of unilateral
illumination was picked up by the coleoptile tip of Canary Grass (Phalaris canarensis).
A decapitated coleoptile did not receive the sensation. Cole
Coleoptile
optile tip covered by an opaque
tin foil cap also could not perceive the stimulus of light. The sensat
sensation
ion picked up by the coleoptiles
tip is transmitted to the sub-apical
apical part which it bends in relation to the direction of light.
Boysen-Jensen (1910-1913)
1913) showed that the sensation of phototropism picked up by
coleoptile tip could be transmitted to sub-apical region through a block of gelatine but not
through a mica plate. Paal (1919) replaced the previously exposed excised tip eccentrically over
the stump of coleoptile. He observed greater growth on that side even in dark. Went (1928)
collected the growth stimulating substance in agar jelly.
2. Chemical Nature: Indole 3-Acetic Acid is the universal natural auxin. It was discovered
by Kogl (1934). Related chemicals are indole 3-acetaldehyde, indole 3-acetonitrile,
acetonitrile, indole 3-
butyric acid (IBA), phenyl acetic acid and 4-chloro indole acetic acid. All of them have auxin
like activity.
Auxin is synthesised in shoot apices, leaf primordia and developing seeds from amino acid
tryptophan. A tryptophan independent pathway has also been discovered recently. Auxin
passes from shoot tip to the region of elongation. Auxin movement is polar. It is basipetal in stem
but acropetal in the root. Auxin helps in the elongation of both roots and shoots. However, the
optimum for the two is quite different
different. It is 10 ppm for stem and 0.0001 ppm for the root. In
higher concentration auxin inhibits growth.
Synthetic Auxins:
Many synthetic auxins are also being manufactured. The important ones are 2: 4 D (2:
4-di chlorophenoxy acetic acid), 2 : 4 : 5-T (2 : 4 : 5-tri-chlorophenoxy acetic acid), IBA (indole
3- butyric acid), NAA (naphthalene acetic acid). MCPA (2
(2-methyl 4- chloro-phenoxyacetic
phenoxyacetic acid),
Dicamba (2-methoxy 3-, 6-di-chlorobenzoic
chlorobenzoic acid). IBA is both natural and synthetic. Synthetic
auxins move in all directions inside plants.
10. Inhibition of Abscission: Auxin delays abscission of young leaves and fruits. Its effect is
through non-formation
formation of abscission zone below a leaf or fruit. Abscission zone cuts off nutrients and water
supply. However, auxin
xin promotes the abscission of mature or older leaves and fruits.
11. Tropic Movements: Differential distribution of in
in-dole 3-acetic
acetic acid produces tropical plant
responses like phototropism and geotropism.
5. Uses of Auxins:
1. Rooting: Auxins stimulate root formation on the stem cutting, e.g., IBA, IBA-alanine, NAA.
2. Parthenocarpy: Application of auxins (e.g., IAA, IBA) and conjugate auxins (e.g., IBA-
alanine) to un-pollinated
pollinated pistils make them develop into seedless fruits or parthenocarps which carry a
better market price than the normal fruits having seeds.
3. Weedicides (= Herbicides): They are chemicals which kill weeds growing in the fields.
Application of 2: 4-D
D and 2:4: 55-T
T removes broad leaved weeds in cereal crops and lawns
because they do not affect mature monocotyledons while Dalapon (2-2 di-chloropropionic
chloropropionic acid) kills
grasses in broad leaved crops. Weedicides should be used very carefully and only occasionally
as they have wide spectrum and long lasting action. Thus weedicides or defoliants used in Vietnam
have exterminated the wild relatives of Citrus.
4. Flowering: NAA and 2, 4-D
D are often employed for inducing flowering in Litchi and Pineapple.
5. Storage: Methyl ester of NAA prevents the sprouting of Potato tubers kept in storage.
6. Pre-Harvest Fruit Drop:
In low concentration 2, 4-D
D is useful in preventing pre
pre-harvest
harvest fruit drop of Orange and Apple.
NAA is similarly useful for checking fruit drop of Tomato.
7. Vegetable Crops: Chlorophenoxy propionic acid enhances the quality of vegetable crops by
preventing flower formation.
8. Fruits: Auxins enhance sweetening of fruits, e.g., IBA.
9. Prevention of Lodging: Naphthalene acetamide (NAAM) prevents lodging or falling of crop
plants during windy season.
10. Dwarf Shoots: In Apple, flowers and fruits are formed on dwarf shoots. Application of
naphthalene acetic acid increases the number of dwarf shoots as well as the number of fruits.
This information, including the figures, are collected from the above references and will be used
solely for academic purpose.
of Gibberellins.
1. Discovery of Gibberellins:
The effect of gibberellins had been known in Japan since early 1800 where certain rice plants
were found to suffer from bakane or bakanae (foolish seedling) disease. Such rice plants were thin,
pale green, spindle shaped, longer by 50% than the healthy plants, and were sterile. The disease was
found by Hori (1918) and Kurosawa (1926) to be caused by a fungus, Gibberella fujikori.
fujikori The fungus
Kurosawa also found that the sterile filtrate of the fungus also caus
caused
ed appearance of disease
symptoms in uninfected rice seedlings. The active substance was separated and named gibberellin by
Yabuta (1935). Yabuta (1938) also prepared crystalline form of gibberellin (it actually consisted of
six gibberellins).
2. Chemical Nature:
Japanese work came to light only after World War II. Gibberellic acid or GA3 was isolated in
pure form by Brian et al in 1955. Cross (1961) worked out the structure of gibberellic acid, GA3
GA4 and GA7 is used commercially. Until now 125 different gibberellins have been identified. Many
of them occur naturally in plants and fungi. Gibberella fujikori has as many as 15 gibberellins.
A single plant also possesses a number of gibberellins. This is in contrast to auxin, where a
single natural hormone occurs. Gibberellins are synthesised in the apical shoot buds (young
leaves), root tips and developing seeds. The precursors for their synthesis is mevalonic acid (derived
conducting channels.
3. Bioassay of Gibberellins:
A. Dwarf Pea:
Seeds of dwarf pea are allowed to germinate till the formation of coleoptile. GA solution is
applied to some seedlings. Others are kept as control. After 5 days, epicotyl length is measured. GA
Endosperms are detached from embryos, sterilized and allowed to remain in 1 ml of test
solution for 1-22 days. There is a build-up of reducing sugars. The content of reducing sugar is
Gibberellins help in cell growth of stem, leaves and other aerial parts. Therefore, they increase the
size of stem, leaves, flowers and fruits. Gibberellins, however, do not seem to play any such part in
case of roots.
2. Dwarf Shoots:
Besides general increase in stem length, gibberellins specifically induce intermodal growth in some
genetically dwarf varieties of plants like Pea and Maize. It appears that dwarfness of such varieties is
3. Bolting:
Gibberellins induce sub-apical meristem to develop faster. This causes elongation of reduced stem or
bolting in case of rosette plants (e.g., Henbane, Cabbage, Fig. 15.25) and root crops [e.g., Radish). A
weekly doze of O.J mg gibberellic acid made cabbage plants to grow taller than 3.5 m. Normally
days.
4. Dormancy:
Gibberellins overcome the natural dormancy of buds, tubers, seeds, etc. and allow them to grow. In
5. Seed Germination:
some messenger RNAs and then hydrolytic enzymes like amylases, lipases,
ribonucleases and proteases. The enzymes solubilize the reserve food of the seed.
6. Fruit Development:
Along with auxin, gibberellins control fruit growth and development. They can be replaced by
7. Flowering:
8. Vernalization:
9. Sex Expression:
10. Curvatures:
In Sunflower, phototropic and geotropic responses of shoot tips are due to redistribution of
gibberellins.
5. Uses of Gibberellins:
1. Fruit Growth:
Application of gibberellins increases the number and size of several fruits, e.g., Grape,
Gr Tomato. The
hormone creates more room by increasing the size of stalks so that fruits can grow in size. Size and
2. Parthenocarpy:
3. Malt:
Gibberellins (e.g., GA3) increase the yield of malt from barley grains.
4. Overcoming Dormancy:
Gibberellins can be employed for breaking seed and bud dormancy. They induce germination of
5. Delayed Ripening:
GA7 delays senescence so that fruit can be left on the tree for longer period It extends period of
marketing. Ripening of Citrus fruits can be delayed with the help of gibber
gibberellins.
ellins. This is useful in
6. Flowering:
Gibberellins can be used in inducing offseason flowering in many long day plants as well as plants
7. Sugarcane:
Spraying of sugarcane crop with gibberellins increases length of stem and yield of sugarcane to as
much as 20 tonnes/acre.
8. Early Maturity:
Juvenile conifers sprayed with mixture of GA4 and GA7 reach maturity quite early resulting in early
seed production.
REFERENCES:
5. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/plant
//www.biologydiscussion.com/plant-physiology-2/plant-hormones/gibberellins
gibberellins
This information, including the figures, are collected from the above references and will be
TRANSPIRATION
Definition :
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from
aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a
small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism.
Types of Transpiration:
Depending on the organ that performs transpiration, the different types are:
specialized pores in the leaves. They account for around 80 to 90% of the total water loss
• Temperature
• humidity
• air movement
• light intensity
increases transpiration
Factor Explanation
rate
increased.
The opening and closing of stomata depend on the turgor pressure, caused by the osmotic flow
of water in the guard cells. When the guard cells are turgid, they expand resulting in
the opening of stomata. When the guard cells lose water, they become flaccid leading
to stomatal closure.
During day time: According to this theory, the CO2 released in respiration is utilized in the process
of photosynthesis, which makes the medium of the guard cell alkaline. Due to this high pH, the starch
produced in the night is converted into sugar in the presence of enzyme phosphorylase. Sugar is
soluble in water and consequently increases to the OP of the guard cells. Therefore, the cells become
turgid. In this state, the thin outer wall of guard cell stretches outward and opens the stomata.
During the night: During the night, the CO2 produced in respiration is not utilized and diffuses into
the cytoplasm of guard cells. It makes the medium of the guard cells acidic (low pH). At this low pH,
the sugar made during daytime is also converted into starch. Starch being insoluble in water reduces
the osmotic pressure of the guard cell. Consequently, water moves from guard cells to the attached
subsidiary cells. It makes the guard cells flaccid and therefore, stomata close.
Malate or K+ ion pump hypothesis was proposed by Levitt. According to this theory, the change that
takes place in the turgor pressure of the guard cells that open and close the stomata causes the
Starch in guard cells is metabolised into phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) and later converted into malic
acid by the enzyme PEP carboxylase. Malic acid dissociates into H+ and malate ions in the guard
cells. These H+ ions are transported to the epidermal cells and K+ ions moves from thee epidermal
cells to the guard cells through the hydrogen - potassium ion exchange pump in the plasma
membrane. It is an active process and requires ATP. In the guard cells, K+ ions are balanced by
malate ions and a small amount of Cl ions are also absorbed to neutralize a small percentage
of K+ ions. Increased K+ ions and anion concentration in the guard cells increases their osmotic
concentration and results in the water uptake by the guard cells. This osmosis process increases the
During night, CO2 is not utilized in photosynthesis, hence its concentration increases in the sub-
stomatal cavity. Organic acids are converted into starch. THe abscisic acid (ABA) hormone functions
in the presence ofCO2 and inhibits the uptake of K+ ions by changing the diffusion and permeability
of the guard cells. The K+ ions are transported back to the epidermal cells from the guard cells. Due
to this, the osmotic concentration of the guard cells decreases and results in the movement of water out
of the guard cells by exosmosis. The guard cells becomes flaccid and so the stoma closes.
Significance of Transpiration:
• Plants waste much of their energy in absorbing large quantities of water and most
• Transpiration is a unique feature in the plant system and referred as necessary evil
other situations.
• Transpiration is necessary
Water plays an important role in the upward movement of water i.e. Ascent of sap in
plants.
But, it does not mean that the translocation of water will be stopped without it.
• However, once mineral salts have been absorbed by the plants, their further
Some of the light energy absorbed by the leaves is utilized in photosynthesis, rest is
• Rapid evaporation of water from the aerial parts of the plant through
transpiration brings down the temperature and thus prevents them from excessive
heating.
• Transpiration is one of the chief ways for the dissipation of excess energy, which
• Shull (1930) estimated that approximately 0.8 cal of energy is received upon each
square cm of leaf surface per minute, of which about 10% is reflected and 25% is
transmitted.
• The remaining 65% (0.52 cal) will increase the temperature of the leaves very
rapidly.
• If the weight of the leaf tissue is 0.02g/cm2 with the specific heat of 0.879, then
• With this rate of increase in temperature, the plants will be killed in less than two
• It helps in dissipating this excess energy which will otherwise raise the
temperature.
• Winneberger (1958) has observed that the buds of hardy pear cease to grow under
conditions of high humidity and that under the same conditions growth of the
• So it is clear that transpiration necessary factor in the normal growth of these two
plants.
• Most important point is that cell growth depends on absorption of water which is
mechanical tissues. Transpiration also shows that plants showing high rate
• Increased sugar and mineral contents of fruits follows high rate of transpiration.
• It has been held that plants absorb far more amount of water than is actually used
PROBABLE QUESTIONS :
1. Define Transpiration.
3. What are the major factors which controlling Transpiration, explain in brief ?
REFERENCES:
1. Studies in Botany ( Vol.III) : D Mitra, J Guha and S K Chowdhury. Published by Moulik
Library (2006).
2. Plant physiology, A.K.Ghosh, New Central (2006)
3. Biology (Moderns ABC) Dr. B.B. Arora and A.K. Sabharwal (2016)