Investigation of the mechanical

properties of Napier-grass- 14
reinforced composites for the
aerospace industry: a review
Norrahim Abu Bakar 1 , M.T.H. Sultan 1,2, 3 , Mohd Edyazuan Azni 4 ,
Ahmad Hamdan Ariffin 1
1
Aerospace Manufacturing Research Centre (AMRC), Faculty of Engineering, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology
(BIOCOMPOSITE), Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia; 3Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 4Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of
Chemical and Bioengineering, Alor Gajah, Malaysia

14.1 Introduction
Fiber-reinforced polymer composite materials are currently popular and increasingly
selected as materials for aircraft and spacecraft construction. A series of high-impact
technological frontline projects incorporating fiber-reinforced polymers has caused a
revolution in aircraft construction worldwide, bringing these materials to the forefront
of structural design [1]. Fiber-reinforced polymers have also been used in many other
technical practices that require lightweight components with high strength and stiff-
ness [2]. The advantage of excellent specific properties related to the low density of
the applied matrix system (unsaturated polyester, phenolic or epoxy resin, polyure-
thanes) with the embedded fibers results in high strength and stiffness, lending these
materials to usage in glass and carbon fibers and aramid.
Most material used in aircraft structures is fiber polymer composites and
aluminum alloys. Since the 1990s composites have been increasingly used in the
structures of civil aircraft, military fighters, and helicopters, and they are currently
a favored choice of material in many airframe structures as an alternative to aluminum
[3]. High-performance products need to be lightweight, strong, and capable of taking
high loads for applications in aerospace structures (tails, wings, and fuselages), boat
construction, bicycle frames, racing car bodies, storage tanks, and fishing rods.
Natural composites such as wood and fabric have been used in aircraft manufacture
from the very earliest days of flight, so it is unsurprising that composite materials
continue to be applied in military and civil aircraft, as well as in uses like unmanned
aerial vehicles, space launchers, and satellites [4]. Exploration of carbon fiber by the
Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, UK, in the 1960s led to this new

Durability and Life Prediction in Biocomposites, Fibre-Reinforced Composites and Hybrid Composites
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102290-0.00014-3
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
322 Durability and Life Prediction in Bio-, Fibre-Reinforced, and Hybrid Composites

material composite being used in military aircraft as trim tabs, spoilers, rudders, and
door components [5].
Fiber composites are made by combining typical polymers in a matrix phase. Poly-
mers are important, as they act as a glue that holds the material together and produces
high-stiffness, high-strength fibers inside. In addition, synthetic fiber such as glass or
carbon has a disadvantage when used in composite making as it is nonrenewable, nonre-
cyclable, and nonbiodegradable, which causes serious impacts on the environment [6].
Natural fiber-reinforced composite materials are generally low cost, have high specific
strength and low density, and are recyclable and biodegradable. These characteristics
are the main advantages when replacing glass or carbon fibers. These green composites,
made from natural fibers or agro wastes, have great potential to be used as reinforce-
ments in making the structural components of aircraft interior parts and exterior body
panels. Natural fibers like kenaf, coir, and bamboo have well-known high-strength
properties that make them suitable for use in the aerospace and automotive industries.
A few studies have been conducted on the characteristics and mechanical properties
of Napier grass fiber. Reddy et al. [7,8] studied the thermal properties of Napier grass
fiber, as well as its structural and chemical characterization. They looked at the effect
of alkaline pretreatment on the thermal stability and mechanical properties, and found
that alkaline-pretreated Napier grass fiber was suitable for use as reinforcement mate-
rial in polymer composites. Other studies by Strezov et al. [9] and Lee et al. [10] on the
thermochemical properties of Napier grass showed that it can be converted to pyrolysis
oil. Hameen et al. [11] investigated the mechanical properties of Napier grass fiber-
reinforced composites, and characterized their tensile properties and morphology.

14.2 Napier grass fiber

Napier grass goes by the scientific name of Pennisetum purpureum and the common
name of elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach), and belongs to the Poa-
ceae family. The plant was first introduced as forage into most tropical and subtropical
regions, beginning in tropical subSaharan Africa before spreading to the Americas and
the West Indies, and then being introduced into Australia in the 1960s [12].
The plant was brought to Malaysia in the 1920s, and introduced as a fodder grass in
dairy and feedlot production systems. Several types of Napier grass have been planted,
such as Taiwan Napier, dwarf Napier, king grass, red Napier, and Indian Napier [13].
In Malaysia, Napier grass has been coded as IKN091, which is Indian Napier, and it is
most popular in west Malaysia (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2).

14.2.1 Composition of raw material

The chemical composition of Napier grass shows its high potential as a fiber for use in
structural applications. The presence of various chemical, metallic, and mineral com-
ponents in the plant gives it great advantages in fiber composition [7]. The moisture
Investigation of the mechanical properties 323

Figure 14.1 Indian Napier grass plant.

Figure 14.2 Pictures of grass and stem of Indian Napier grass.

content is low, suggesting that the effect on mechanical and surface properties will be a
good dimensional stability against the grain [14]. This will give good structure and
strength to the fibers (Table 14.1).
The relative content of cellulose fiber can dictate changes in dimensional stability,
because it swells by 15%e20% from dry conditions to saturation [15]. This change in
dimension decreases the dimensional stability and affects the shape in fiber-reinforced
composites. Holocellulose is a mixture of cellulose and hemicellulose; the greater the
percentage content of holocellulose in a material, the higher the quality of the fiber-
board produced. The function of cellulose is to strengthen the fibers inside a nonwoody
plant [16].
324 Durability and Life Prediction in Bio-, Fibre-Reinforced, and Hybrid Composites

Table 14.1 Chemical composition of Napier grass

(Pennisetum purpureum)

Constituents/composition (%) Napier grass

Ash content 14.6

Cellulose content 12.3
Holocellulose content 80.4
Hemicellulose content 68.2
1% NaOH solubility 52.0
Lignin content 10.7
Hot-water solubility 84.4
Moisture content 11.7

The high relative contents of cellulose, hemicellulose, and holocellulose inside

nonwoody Napier grass affect the quality of the fiber produced. This composition
gives stronger fiber quality and thus lends itself to fabrication as reinforced fiberboard
[17]. The lignin content functions as a glue to bind and hold the cellulose within the
fiber. Typically, nonwoody fibers have lower lignin content. This lower lignin content
increases the fiber strength, thereby making it easier to extract the fiber from the pulp
[18]. High hot-water solubility implies that Napier grass has high sugar content, which
may lengthen the pulping process of the plant.

14.3 Methodology
In this review, Napier grass is used as a natural fiber in the fabrication of reinforced
polymer composites. Raw material was extracted as a single fiber strand using a water
retting process. Previous studies used this single fiber strand in fabricated with epoxy
resin or hybridization with other polymers. Many tests have been performed to char-
acterize the properties of the fiber itself, including its chemical composition and phys-
ical and mechanical properties, and it has also been subjected to scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). This review focuses on the investigations into the mechanical
properties of the fiber.

14.3.1 Mechanical properties of Napier grass single fibers

The majority components of the natural fibers are cellulose and lignin. The cellulose
portions contribute mechanical properties such as fiber length, fiber loading, volume
fraction of fiber, fiber aspect ratio, fiber orientation, and interfacial adhesion between
fiber matrices [19]. The mechanical properties of natural fiber-reinforced composites
are dictated by matrixefiber adhesion between the polymer and fibers. This has
Investigation of the mechanical properties 325

been widely reported by many researchers [20,21]. It has also been reported that early
pretreatment stages are very important to improve mechanical and tensile properties
for better interfacial linkages between the fibers and the matrix.
Studies have been conducted with natural fiber that has been treated using alkaline.
This treatment was intended to improve the adherence between the fiber surface and
the polymer matrix, not only purposely to modify the fiber surface, but also to increase
the fiber strength [22]. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is the most common alkaline solu-
tion for natural fiber treatment. It improves the fiber surface properties and indirectly
improves the mechanical properties, impact fatigue, and dynamic mechanical behav-
iors of the fiber-reinforced composites [23]. Comprehensive reviews conducted by
numerous researchers have highlighted the relative characteristics of natural fibers
with respect to their mechanical properties and applications [24]. Reddy et al. tested
alkaline treatment of Napier grass fiber (Rumput gajah), and recorded a composition
of 46% cellulose, 34% hemicellulose, and 20% lignin [7].
The objective of alkaline treatment is to discard the hemicellulose, causing the fiber
to split into fibrils and release the internal strain of the firmly packed cellulose chain,
which improves the mechanical properties of the fiber [15]. Alkaline treatment addi-
tionally increases the ability of the fiber surface area to be wetted by the resin. This
technique enhances the bonding within the fiberematrix interface in composite poly-
mers. It also breaks chemical hydrogen bonds and extracts free hydroxyl groups in
smaller sections of the fiber, which increases the reactivity of the fiber [25]. Natural
fibers, in general, have tremendous potential to be used as an alternative to other rein-
forced materials, such as artificial glass fiber and carbon fiber, in composite polymer
manufacturing [26,27] (Fig. 14.3).

Figure 14.3 Single fibers produced from Napier grass stems.

326 Durability and Life Prediction in Bio-, Fibre-Reinforced, and Hybrid Composites

14.3.2 Effect of treated fiber diameter sizing and surface

structure
Previous research found that the fiber size and roughness of surface affected the adhe-
sion within the fiberematrix composite. Ridhuan et al. reported that alkaline treatment
reduced the fiber diameter and density, and also resulted in a good fiber surface. This
led to better adhesion between the fiber and the matrix to give better mechanical inter-
locking within the fiber-reinforced composites [28]. Mechanical strength is reliant on
stress transfer. It is driven by adhesion between the filler and the matrix, and provides a
more efficient effect for brittleness/toughness [29].
Additionally, aspect ratio plays an important role in the effect of mechanical prop-
erties of hybrid composites. A higher aspect ratio gives more effective stress transfer to
the matrix [30].
The intention of pretreatment and chemical treatment is to modify and clean the sur-
face of the fiber. This also helps to reduce the moisture absorption of the fiber and
recover unevenness of the fiber. The validity of natural fiber composite-reinforced
polymers is governed by the fiberepolymer matrix interface and its probability of
stress transfer from the matrix. Primary interruption, leading to the failure of good
interfacial adhesion, will lead to high moisture absorption and poor resistance to mois-
ture absorption. Low melting points contribute to microcracks in the polymer compos-
ites. These weak mechanical properties are disadvantages to using a natural fiber as a
reinforcement material in composite making [31] (Figs. 14.4 and 14.5).
The SEM image shows the cross-section of Napier grass fiber. It shows a single
fibrillation where the removal of lignin has occurred, leaving the cross-section of
the fiber smooth, and with a gap between the fiber and the cell wall. The morphology

Figure 14.4 Cross-section image of treated Napier grass using SEM.

Investigation of the mechanical properties 327

Figure 14.5 Surface of treated Napier grass fiber using SEM.

showed the presence of lumen surrounding the cell wall of the fiber [16]. This analysis
explains the shape and structure of the fiber bundles inside the material.
Using SEM as a characterization technique exposes the arrangement and packing of
the fiber matrix, thereby indicating the strength of this material. The compressed fiber
has a similar structure to a particle board produced from nonwoody material [14]
(Tables 14.2 and 14.3).
Table 14.4 summarizes the tensile properties of the untreated and alkaline-treated
fibers. The data shows increases in maximum stress (Mpa), Young’s modulus
(Gpa), and elongation at break (%) for fibers that have been alkaline treated. Table 14.2
supports the idea that changes in the diameter of the fibers is also due to the alkaline
treatment. The removal of hemicellulose after alkaline treatment can therefore be
measured by diameter losses. Internal constraint removal gives fibrils the ability to
arrange in a more compact manner. This contributes to a closer packing of the cellulose
chains, enhancing fiber strength and tensile properties.

Table 14.2 Physical properties of Napier grass fiber

Average Average Aspect
Fiber length (mm) L diameter (mm) D ratio L/D

Untreated 142 0.255 556.8

2% alkali treated 142 0.193 735.7
5% alkali treated 142 0.158 898.7
328 Durability and Life Prediction in Bio-, Fibre-Reinforced, and Hybrid Composites

Table 14.3 Chemical composition of Napier grass fiber

Fiber a e Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%)

Untreated 45.66 33.67 20.60

2% alkali treated 54.66 24.34 21.00
5% alkali treated 55.99 20.01 24.00

Table 14.4 Tensile properties of Napier grass fiber

Maximum Young’s Elongation

Fiber stress (MPa) modulus (GPa) at break (%)

Untreated 75 6.8 2.8

2% alkali treated 111 8.0 3.1
5% alkali treated 136 10.5 3.2

14.4 Mechanical properties of Napier grass

fiber-reinforced composites
Napier grass fiber has not been researched to the same extent as some of the more pop-
ular natural fibers such as kenaf, hemp, and jute. These fibers are more obvious ana-
logues to synthetic fibers currently in use in composite materials and other
applications. However, there is little research so far on the use of Napier grass in poly-
meric composites.
Kommula V.P et al. investigated the water absorption, chemical resistance, and me-
chanical properties of Napier grass fiber strand reinforced epoxy resin composites and
found that a composite with 20% wt. fiber strands yielded an outstanding result in
terms of mechanical properties and chemical resistance. They therefore concluded
that the composite had good bonding and adhesion [32].
Hameem et al. reported that 25% wt. fiber loading in composites yielded the
maximum tensile and flexural strength [11]. This suggests that increasing the fiber
load of a composite also increases its tensile and flexural strength. Further improve-
ments to these characteristics were reported by Fatinah T.S. et al., who demonstrated
that the tensile performance of untreated Napier fiber composites was significantly
improved by both alkali treatment and glass fiber hybridization. Napier grass fiber
demonstrated potential for use as reinforcement in polymer-based composites [33].
Bakar et al. reported that 20% fiber loading, with alkaline solution treatment at 10%
concentration, yielded good mechanical properties for modulus of rupture and
modulus of elasticity [34]. The purpose of the treatment was to remove hemicellulose,
split the fiber into fibrils, and produce a closely packed cellulose chain by releasing
internal strain. It also improved the bonding at the fiberematrix interfaces. Encourag-
ingly, previous work has shown that the results produced by different researchers show
Investigation of the mechanical properties 329

similar trends, which is useful for guidance in future research. This can be demon-
strated using SEM, thermogravimetric analysis, or Fourier transform infrared spec-
trometry to verify the value of the mechanical properties measured by each
experiment.

14.4.1 Properties of tensile and flexural analysis of Napier grass

fiber-reinforced composite
One study found that a fiber loading of 20% wt. yielded the optimum result, with
degradation of the measured properties discovered if more fiber was used. At 20%
the fiber strand can act as a stress transfer agent for the epoxy matrix. It was proven
that fiber pretreated with NaOH reacted better with the epoxy compared with untreated
fiber during fabrication. The treated fiber promoted better bonding at the fiberematrix
interface because the removal of impurities and hemicellulose from the fiber
surface, which gave it a rougher profile, helped to create better mechanical interlock-
ing. This is likely to have led to better stress transfer, thereby improving the mechan-
ical properties due to the improved interfacial adhesion in the polymer composite [35]
(Figs. 14.6e14.9).
Tables 14.5e14.8 show the tensile strength and modulus and flexural strength and
modulus of Napier grass fiber composites when exposed to different concentrations of
NaOH pretreatment (untreated, 5%, 10%, and 15%), and at different fiber loadings
(10%, 20%, and 30%). These measures all show the same general increases with fiber
loading up to 20% and pretreatment concentration up to 10%, after which decreases are
observed. This allows the maximum useful level of fiber loading and concentration of
pretreatment to be determined for use in composite production, where further increase
would result in material failures. However, with regard to engineering applications,

40 Untreated

35 5% NaOH2
10% NaOH2
30
Tensile strength (MPa)

15% NaOH2
25

20

15

10

0
0 10% 20% 30%
Fiber loading wt%
Figure 14.6 Graph illustration of tensile strength (MPa) of Napier grass-reinforced composite.
330 Durability and Life Prediction in Bio-, Fibre-Reinforced, and Hybrid Composites

3 Untreated
5% NaOH2
2.5 10% NaOH2
Tensile modulus (Gpa)

15% NaOH2
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 10% 20% 30%
Fiber loading wt%
Figure 14.7 Graph illustration of tensile modulus (GPa) of Napier grass-reinforced composite.

80 Untreated

70 5% NaOH
10% NaOH
Flexural strength (MPa)

60
15% NaOH
50

40

30

20

10

0
0* 10% 20% 30%
Fiber loading wt%
Figure 14.8 Graph illustration of flexural strength (MPa) of Napier grass-reinforced composite.

there are still serious concerns regarding the compatibility of the natural fiber and poly-
mer matrix, owing to a lack of interfacial bonding within the matrix [36].

14.5 Conclusion
Napier grass fiber has potential for use in composite materials for industrial applica-
tions, including automotives, lightweight buildings, packaging, and aerospace struc-
tures. From this review we can summarize that the optimum fiber loading for
Investigation of the mechanical properties 331

4 Untreated
5% NaOH
3.5
10% NaOH
Flexural modulus (Gpa)

3
15% NaOH
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0* 10% 20% 30%
Fiber loading wt%
Figure 14.9 Graph illustration of flexural modulus (GPa) of Napier grass-reinforced composite.

Table 14.5 Tensile strength (MPa) of Napier grass fiber/epoxy composite

Tensile strength (MPa)

NaOH concentration (%)
Fiber loading (wt%) 0 5 10 15
0 21 e e e
10 62.81 77.04 98.33 69.91
20 101.02 120.87 142.14 128.33
30 87.47 100.8 114.1 94.09

Table 14.6 Tensile modulus (MPa) of Napier grass fiber/epoxy composite

Tensile modulus (GPa)

NaOH concentration (%)
Fiber loading (wt%) 0 5 10 15
0 2.0 e e e
10 7.00 7.93 8.74 7.39
20 8.94 9.98 10.90 9.50
30 8.21 9.02 9.19 8.94
332 Durability and Life Prediction in Bio-, Fibre-Reinforced, and Hybrid Composites

Table 14.7 Flexural strength (MPa) of Napier grass fiber/epoxy composite

Flexural strength (MPa)
NaOH concentration (%)
Fiber loading (wt%) 0 5 10 15
0 45 e e e
10 85.49 94.07 98.41 81.75
20 103.25 105.50 111.33 92.52
30 84.99 95.73 106.57 86.31

Table 14.8 Flexural modulus (MPa) of Napier grass fiber/epoxy composite

Flexural modulus (GPa)

NaOH concentration (%)
Fiber loading (wt%) 0 5 10 15
0 2.5 e e e
10 3.6 3.98 4.24 2.99
20 6.05 6.11 6.78 5.88
30 5.26 5.45 5.71 5.40

Napier grass is in the range of 20%e25%. There is still no standard fiber content in
composites, but many researchers have reported that up to 40% fiber loading is consid-
ered optimum in polymer composites that give better mechanical properties. Further-
more, Napier grass is reasonably analogous to other natural fibers that are already
used for industrial applications. Natural fiber composites have been developed for
different industrial products due to their mechanical properties, biodegradability,
and environmental sustainability. The main goals in the aerospace industry are to
reduce cost, carbon dioxide emissions, and fuel consumption, thus the application
of natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer composites has attracted broad attention
in this industry.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by UPM under GP-IPS/2018/9647100. The authors would like to
express their gratitude and sincere appreciation to the Aerospace Manufacturing Research
Centre (AMRC), Laboratory of Biocomposite Technology, Institute of Tropical Forestry and
Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia UPM (HiCOE) and Laboratory of
Polymer, Universiti Kuala Lumpur (UniKL).
Investigation of the mechanical properties 333

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