A+ Certification Core Exam Memory Tutorial

The first type of memory is ROM. ROM is Read-Only Memory which is a form of non-volatile memory, meaning
it keeps its information even when there is no power. It is also read only, so you cannot write to it. It contains the
setup program and POST (Power On Self Test) software.

RAM, or Random Access Memory, is a volatile type of memory which loses its information when power is not
present. RAM is where your software and data is stored when your computer is on.

SRAM is an older type of memory, it stands for Static Random Access Memory. It is an older type of RAM and
stores information using transistors.

DRAM, or Dynamic Random Access Information, stores information using capacitors.

PROM, Programmable Read Only Memory, this is a programmable type of ROM. It cannot be erased or
changed once it is recorded.

EPROM, Erasable PROM, data can be erased using a UV light on a special window on the chip. This chip can
be reprogrammed.

EEPROM, Electronically Erased PROM, can be erased using a special electrical charge. Chips can then be
reprogrammed after erased. Most modern day BIOS's are stored in EEPROM.

VRAM is video RAM and is used on video cards.

Cache memory is memory used to cache CPU instructions. L1 is cache memory that is located on the CPU, L2
is cache memory outside of the CPU.

DIP, or Dual Inline Package, is an older type of RAM used mainly in older systems.

A+ Certification Core Exam Buses Tutorial

The expansion bus allows the computer to be upgraded using different modules. Expansion buses are made up
with copper slots where a circuit board can plug into it. The motherboard contains a bus clock which controls
how fast information flows to the expansion boards and back.

8-bit

The 8-bit expansion bus operates at a maximum of 4.77 MHz (approximately 5), has eight interrupts, four DMA
Channels, and one large 62 slot card.

ISA Bus

The ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) bus is a 16-bit bus with a card slightly larger than the 8-bit. The 16-bit
cards have an extra piece extending beyond the 8-bit card length. This bus has 16 interrupts and 8 DMA
channels. ISA also runs at 8 MHz. ISA buses are also backwards compatible, allowing an 8-bit card to fit into it.

MCA Bus

The MCA (Micro Channel Architecture) bus was a proprietary bus designed by IBM. It is a 16-bit or 32-bit bus
and it's clock speed is 10 MHz. It also offered software configuration instead of dip switches and jumper
settings.

EISA

EISA (Extended ISA) bus borrowed a lot of features from the MCA bus and expanded on them. It has a 32-bit
bus and it has more I/O addresses with no need for interrupts or DMAs. It also still uses the 8 MHz of the ISA
card bus to allow for backwards compatibility
VESA Local Bus (VL Bus)

The VESA Local Bus is a local bus type, meaning it is a bus that runs at the same speed as the processor.
Typically, its used for video to take advantage of the high speed of transfer to the processor. It is backwards
compatible with the ISA, but has an extra slot to make it 32-bits.

PCI Bus

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Bus is the newest and most advantageous types of all of the buses. It
supports both 32-bit and 64-bit data paths to be compatible with 486 and pentium class processors. PCI is also
processor independent, allowing it to be on Macintosh, PC, and RISC computers. PCI runs at 33 MHz and has a
maximum throughput of 256 megabytes per second.

PCMCIA

PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card Association) is the last type of bus. It is mainly used in laptops and
other small computers and in some digital cameras. PCMCIA come in three types, Type I, Type II, and Type III.

Type I cards are 3.3 mm thick. Type II cards are the most common and are 5 mm thick. Type III are mainly used
for hard disks and are 10.5 mm thick.

Summary

Below is a chart summarizing the different buses:

Bus Type Bus Size
8-bit 8-bit
ISA 16-bit
MCA 16-bit or 32-bit
EISA 32-bit
VESA Local 32-bit
PCI 32-bit
PCMCIA Card 16-bit
A+ Certification Core Exam Networks Tutorial

Networks are broken down into two categories, Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN).
Another type of network that may appear on the exam is the Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

At the core of the network is the Server. The Server centralizes the control of resources, account management,
and routes information to all of the workstations on the network.

Peer-Peer Networks

Peer to Peer networks uses the computers in the network as both workstations and servers. This type of
network does not have centralized authentication, but relies on each PC to interact with another.

Server Based Networks

Server based networks uses a computer as a server to have a central place for account management and
resource management.

Network Topology

Networks are laid out in many different fashions. It is important to know the difference between the ways
networks can be created.

The first way a network can be created is using the Bus Topology. This consists of a single cable to run to all of
the workstations. Another way is a Star Topology. Each workstation connecting comes off of a hub. A third
topology is the Ring type of network. A Ring connects each workstation to each other forming a ring through
which messages pass to every workstation. Most networks today are actually a Hybrid, or combination of one or
more of the other types.

Networks communicate using Protocols. A protocol is simply a method for the network to communicate.

Ethernet

Ethernet is a network architecture. It has several different flavors, with the original Ethernet designed with
10base5. The "10" stands for 10 megabytes per second. Base is the Baseband communications is uses. The "5"
stands for a maximum distance of 500 meters to communicate with. Original Ethernet used coaxial wiring, while
newer versions use twisted-pair cabling.

There are several flavors of Ethernet, including 10Base2 (10 Mbps, 200 meters), 10BaseT (10 Mbps, 100
meters, twisted-pair), and 100BaseT (100 Mbps, 100 meter, twisted-pair).

Token-Ring

Token-ring is the foundation for IEEE 802.5 specification networks. It uses a star, logical ring type of network. All
of the workstations are cabled to a Multistation Access Unit, a MAU. The ring is created using this MAU.

Cabling

There are four main types of network cabling: twisted-pair, coaxial, fiber optic, wireless.

Twisted-pair is the least expensive and most popular type of network cabling. It is several pairs of wires twisted
around each other in an insulated covering. It is used a lot in 10BaseT networks.

Coaxial cabling consists of a copper wire surrounded by insulation and a foil shield. It is often used for 10Base2
cabling.

Fiber optic cabling is designed to transfer data at very high rates and over large distances. It carries a light pulse
through a glass core at speeds of 100 Mbps - 1 Gbps.

Wireless networks consist of several different types of transmission medium. It can use microwave, radio,
infrared light, or lasers.

Network Interface Card

Each workstation on the network has a Network Interface Card (NIC) and special software to allow it to
communicate with the network.

Laser Printers

Laser printers, also referred to as page printers, receive their information one page at a time and print using
electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light.

The laser printer has several Field Replaceable Modules, including the Toner Cartridge, the Laser Scanning
Assembly, High Voltage Power Supply, DC Power Supply, Paper Transport Assembly, Transfer Corona
Assembly, Fusing Assembly, and the Formatter Board.

The EP Toner Cartridge holds the toner which is eventually what is printed onto the page. Toner is sensitive to
the electrostatic charges. The Toner Cartridge also contains the print drum, charge corona wire, and the
cleaning blade. The print drum is has a photosensitive material on it which holds static charge when it is not
exposed to light. The charge corona wire charges the drum, while the cleaning blade does exactly what its name
suggests, it cleans the used toner off the drum.

The Laser Scanning Assembly holds the laser which shines its light on certain parts of the printer drum. The
electrical charge is reduced and the toner attaches itself to the drum where the laser has shined.
The High Voltage Power Supply takes 120 V AC and converts it to higher voltages for the charge corona wire
and transfer corona wire. The DC Power Supply produces +5 Volt DC, -5 Volt DC, and +24 Volt DC from
household current.

The paper transport assembly moves the paper through the printer. It is a series of motors and rollers to move
the paper.

The Transfer Corona Assembly charges the paper with a positive charge as it moves through the printer. Once
charged, it picks up the toner from the photosensitive drum.

The Fusing Assembly (also known as the fuser) applies pressure and heat to the paper to seal the toner
particles to the paper. In the process of fusing, there is a halogen lamp which heats up to about 350 degrees F.

The Formatter Board is the circuit board that controls everything that is going on in the printer. It formats the
information then tells the different modules to function together to get the printed page across.

Order of Processes

The following is the order of processes that occur in a laser printer. It is an important part to memorize as there
will be questions with this on it:

1. Cleaning
2. Conditioning
3. Writing
4. Developing
5. Transferring
6. Fusing

Cleaning - the EP Drum is cleaned with a rubber blade.

Conditioning - the EP drum is given a negative charge of about -600 Volts by the primary corona wire

Writing - A laser beam writes to the EP Drum, this laser causes portions of the drum to become almost positively
charged

Developing - Toner is applied to the drum by the particles being transferred to the areas of positive charge

Transferring - The Transfer Corona wire charges the paper with a positive charge, the EP drum turns as the
paper runs beneath it

Fusing - the paper runs through the Fusing Assembly which is heated to 350 degrees F, the toner is fused onto
the paper

Other Notes

The ozone filter should be replaced during maintenance.

Dark spots on paper could indicate loose toner particles, run a few pages through to clear it up.

The primary corona has the highest negative charge in a printer.

Always check the leading edge of paper when there is a paper jam, it can indicate what part of the printer is
causing the jam.

The drum is photoconductive and loses its charge when light hits it. It is normally negatively charged during the
print process.

The transfer corona can cause the print to be too light.