Week 11: Vitamins

Lesson Proper:
Kindly click the link for the lecture discussion.
Vitamins
 Vitamins are essential organic compounds/ substances occurring in natural foods which
are required in minute amounts for growth, maintenance of life, and reproduction
 Vitamins are different from organic food carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
 Vitamins are different from hormones
 Vitamins are organic compounds/ substances that the body cannot synthesize
 Functions:       (1) Antioxidants
(2) Enzyme cofactors
(3) Important in blood cell maturation and hormones
(4) Bone formation and metabolism
 Vitamins are classified according to the solvent in which they are dissolved:
 Fat Soluble Vitamins (ADEK):    (found in the cells associated with fats and they are
transported with protein carriers) (not secreted because they tend to remain in the fat
storage sites and they do not function as conenzymes)
Vitamin A (Retinol)
-or retinoic acid, its function is to maintain good vision and to resist infection.
Deficiency can lead to night blindness, growth retardation, abnormal taste response, and
dermatitis.
Vitamin D (Calciferol)

-naturally present in our body but they can only be activated through the sun
rays. They make the bones stronger so deficiency can lead to rickets (softening and weakening
of bones) for children and osteomalacia( disease that weakens bones and can cause them to
break more easily) for adults.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

-serve as antioxidant for cellular respiration. Deficiency can lead to mild

hemolytic anemia and ataxia (disorder of the nervous system which can lead to leack of
muscle coordination that can make speech and movement difficult)

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
 -its function is for coagulation and deficiency can lead to bleeding disorders
and hemorrhage
 Water Soluble Vitamins:  (circulate in the water, transported without protein carriers,
excreted by the kidneys through the urine so vitamin B and C which functions as
coenzymes are excreted through the urine)              
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
-function is for enzyme cofactor and deficiency can lead to diarrhea, vomiting, and
cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the skin especially for babies/infants) and deficiency for
adults can lead to beriberi (characterized by impairment of the nerves and heart)(2 types:
wet beriberi- can cause a heart failure; dry beriberi- damages the nerves and can lead to
decreased muscle strength and eventually muscle paralysis) and Wernicke-Korsakoff’s
syndrome (characterized by neurological disorders, psychosis and loss of memory).

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
-the function of it is for enzyme cofactor also deficiency of this vitamin can lead to
dermatitis and photophobia

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
-deficiency of it can result to pellagra which can cause dermatitis, disorientation, and
weight loss

Vitamin B4 (Choline)

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

-it is an enzyme cofactorof transaminase and deficiency of it can result to irritability,

seizures, and anemia

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
-it serves as an enzyme cofactor and deficiency of it can result to dermatitis, hair loss,
and depression lastly

Vitamin B8 (Inositol)

Vitamin B9 (Folic acid)

-the function is for the synthesis of amino acids and dna deficiency can result to
megaloblastic anemia

Vitamin B10 (Para-amino benzoic acid)

Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
 -the function of it is for synthesis of dna and folate. Deficiency of vitamin b12 can
result to megaloblastic anemia and neurologic abnormalities

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

-the function of it is to increase the immune system and for collagen synthesis.
Deficiency can lead to scurvy (is the tenderness and bleeding of gums leading to secondary
infection and it can also result to losing and falling off the teeth)
 

  WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS

First enter into the lymph

Absorption Directly into the blood
system

Transport Travel without carriers Require protein carriers

Found in the cells associated

Storage Circulate in the water
with fat

Tend to remain in fat – storage

Excretion Kidneys remove excess in urine
sites

Not likely to reach toxic levels Likely to reach toxic levels

Toxicity when consumed from when consumed from
supplements supplements

Requirements Needed in frequent doses Needed in periodic doses

Relationship to
Functions as coenzymes Do not function as coenzymes
coenzymes

Year of Discovery Vitamin

1910 Thiamine

1913 Vitamin A

1920 Vitamin C
 1920 Vitamin D

1920 Riboflavin

1922 Vitamin E

1926 Vitamin B12

1929 Vitamin K

1931 Pantothenic acid

1931 Biotin

1934 Vitamin B6

1936 Niacin

1941 Folate/ Folic acid

Fat Soluble Vitamins

A. Vitamin A/ Retinol
 Vitamin A aldehyde (retinal) is the active component of rhodopsin (visual purple)
 They are found only in animal products; Vitamin A is found in fish liver oils, milk, butter
and egg yolk
 Provitamin A – available in many plant products which are rich in carotenoid pigments
 Provitamin A is found in such plant products as green leafy vegetables, carrots, camote,
papaya, squash
 Functions: (1) It is essential for growth, reproduction and longevity; (2) Excessive intake of
vitamin A is toxic and leads to fragile easily fractured bone in children as well as abnormal
development of fetus; (3) It is needed by the young for maintenance of growth and by the
adult for reproduction and lactation. In both, for the maintenance of resistance to bacterial
invasion; (4) Thyroxine seems to accelerate the mobilization of vitamin A from the liver
and vitamin A influences thyroid function; (5)  Plays a role in the synthesis of normal
protoplasm of the cells, especially those of the epithelial system
 Vitamin A belongs to the group of higher alcohols. It undergoes esterification with fatty
acids, bile acids and proteins
 It is derived from α, β and γ carotenes 2 - 4 which contain in their molecules β – ionone
ring
 The conversion of β – carotene to vitamin A takes place mostly in the intestinal mucosa and
partially in the liver. This conversion is catalyzed by an enzyme carotenase and hastened
by thyroxine
 Retinol is then esterified to long chain fatty acids and the retinyl esters are then
transported via lymphatics in association with chylomicron and stored in the Kupffer cells
 Vitamin A and carotene are absorbed from the intestines, bile salts being necessary for the
absorption of the latter
 Carotene is apparently absorbed largely into the thoracic duct
 Absorption of vitamin A is impaired in the absence of pancreatic enzyme and in other
conditions where there is impaired absorption of dietary fat
 Liver is the chief site of storage of Vitamin A
 Under normal conditions, the levels of both substances in the blood are maintained by the
transformation of carotene to vitamin A in the intestinal mucosa and the liver and
mobilization from the hepatic stores
 The urine contains no Vitamin A or carotene; Under normal conditions only very small
quantities are excreted in the feces
 One of the earliest symptoms of vitamin A deficiency is an impairment of the eye’s ability to
adapt itself to vision in dim light after exposure to bright light.

 Due to keratinization of the mucosal lining of the urinary tract, followed by bacterial
invasion and alkalinuria, there is predisposition to the precipitation of calcium phosphate
leading to the formation of urinary calculi
 The skin develops acne – like eruptions of the hair follicles giving a goose – flesh like
appearance
 In males, there is atrophy of the germinal epithelium of the testes leading to sterility
 In females, the vaginal smear shows cornification of cells but normal ovulation and
implantation occur
 There is an early cessation of growth of bones due to defective synthesis of chondroitin
sulfate
 The failure in the growth of the endochondrial bone results in lesion of the soft nervous
tissues which develop normally producing overcrowding and distortion of the brain
substance
B. Vitamin D/ Calciferol
 It is the precursor of a hormone which regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism
 The most abundant sources of vitamin D in nature is cod liver oil
 The anti – rachitic vitamin is relatively scarce among the common foodstuffs. However, a
few which contain appreciable amounts are egg yolk, butter fat and milk
 Vitamin D is concerned with the regulation of calcium and phosphorus metabolism
 The 1,25 – dihydroxycholecalciferol generated by the kidneys is transmitted to the small
intestines and bones where it regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism
 There is also increased tubular reabsorption of the phosphate by the kidneys
 Vitamin D has some specific action on the site of deposition
 Functions: (1) The renal effect of vitamin D can only be demonstrated in hypoparathyroid
individuals. In the presence of normally functioning parathyroid glands, vitamin D, after
causing an initial rise in serum calcium and phosphorus concentration, diminishes renal
phosphate excretion; (2) Exerts also an influence upon the general metabolic condition of
the body and promotes growth, similar to vitamin A; (3) Stimulates formation of mRNA in
intestinal tissues
 Vitamin D is stored in the animal body and the amount of storage depends upon the dietary
supply and the extent of exposure to the synthesizing influence of the UV rays
 Vitamin D3 deficiency here in the Philippines is rare due to abundant sunshine throughout
the year
 Vitamin D deficiency results in the poor retention of calcium and phosphorus which causes
retarded skeletal growth in the young
 More serious deficiency causes rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults

C. Vitamin E/ Tocopherol/ Vitamin X

 Protect the lipids of the cell membrane from the destructive effect of oxygen
 Widely distributed in nature and is associated with unsaturated lipids in the germ oils and
with carotene in leafy and yellow plants
 All the different forms (α -, β -, γ -, δ – tocopherols) possess antioxidant properties
 The α – tocopherol is the most potent and is available in synthetic form, so that vitamin E
is usually referred to as α – tocopherol
 Functions: (1) Play an indirect role in the conservation of iron stored in the body by
increasing the resistance of RBC membrane to hemolysis; (2) It is involved in vitamin A
metabolism
D. Vitamin K/ Phylloquinone
 Is a component of a carboxylating enzyme
 Is obtained from alfa – alfa, spinach and other green leafy vegetables
 It is found in cheese, egg yolk and liver
 Human requirement is adequately supplied both by assimilation of dietary vitamin K as
well as absorption of that vitamin by the growth of microorganisms in the intestines
 Functions: (1) It is necessary for the information of prothrombin in the liver. However, it
does not form part of the prothrombin molecule but it maintains the plasma prothrombin
level; (2) It is involved in electron transport mechanism of mitochondria which is required
for tissue respiration; (3) Except in the liver probably, the organs and tissues of the do not
store vitamin K to any significant degree
 Deficiency of vitamin K is rare in man and is not likely to occur, unless there is an abnormal
condition which prevents its absorption from the intestine or causes the destruction of
intestinal microorganisms which elaborate it
 Prolonged use of sulfa drugs especially those intended for intestinal infections
(sulfasuxidine, sulfaguanidine) prevents vitamin K formation by exerting bacteriostatic
effect
 The only known result of vitamin K deficiency is a failure in the biosynthesis of the enzyme
proconvertin in the liver
 Deficiency is manifested clinically as a tendency to bleed profusely from minor wounds and
cuts
 
Water Soluble Vitamins
A. Vitamin C/ Ascorbic Acid/ Cevitamic Acid/ Antiscorbutic acid
 Found in fresh fruits and vegetables; meat, eggs and fish are relatively poor sources of
ascorbic acid
 The exact role of ascorbic acid in metabolic process is not known. However, since it is
sensitive to reversible oxidation, it is possible that it may serve as a hydrogen carrier in the
oxidation – reduction processes occurring in the tissues
 It is involved in the development and maintenance of the intercellular substances,
including the fibrils and collagen of CTs, osteoid tissues, dentin and the cement substance
of the capillaries
 Many foods are low in vitamin C, so diet should be rich in fresh fruits and vegetables.
Symptoms of deficiency (scurvy) becomes manifested after about 4 – 5 months of
deprivation
 There is hyperemia, swelling, sponginess, tenderness and bleeding of gums, leading to
secondary infection, loosening and falling of the teeth
 There are petechial, subcutaneous, subperiosteal and internal hemorrhages
 There is edema, pallor, anemia and delayed healing of wounds
 In severe and prolonged deficiency, there is swelling at the end of the long bones producing
painful movements
 Except for the anemia, impaired formation of collagen and chondroitin sulfate is the basis
of all these changes
 In severe scurvy, there is failure of formation of new ground substance and extensive
depolymerization and solution of existing cement materials, leading to breakdown of
healed wounds
 The anemia of scurvy may relate to impaired ability to utilize stored iron as well as to
secondary impairment in folic acid metabolism
B. Vitamin B Complex
 The following has been found to comprise the vitamin B complex up to the present date:
 Thiamine/ Aneurine or vitamin B1 (antineuritic factor)
 Riboflavin, vitamin B2 or vitamin G (growth factor)
 Niacin or nicotinic acid or nicotinamide (pellagra preventive factor) or vitamin B 3
 Pyridoxine or vitamin B6 (anti – dermatitis factor)
 Pantothenic acid (filtrate factor or chick anti – dermatitis, necessary for the growth of rats)
or vitamin B5
 Biotin or vitamin H or coenzyme R (anti – egg white injury factor, necessary for the growth
of yeast, mold and bacteria), vitamin B7
 Para – amino benzoic acid (anti – gray hair factor)
 Inositol (mouse anti – alopecia factor, promotes growth in chicks and cures spectacle eye in
rats) vitamin B8
 Choline (growth factor, prevents perosis or shortening and thickening of bones in chicks,
required for methylation in the body) or vitamin B4
 Folic acid (promotes growth in chicks and bacteria, anti – anemic factor for man) or
vitamin M, vitamin Bc, vitamin B9
 Vitamin B12 is also called the anti – anemic vitamin
*** Vitamin B1/ Thiamine
 It is the thermolabile member of the B complex vitamins
 It is used as thiamine pyrophosphate or thiamine cocarboxylase
 Among the rich sources are cereal grains, peas, beans, egg yolk, nuts, avocado, etc.
 Only free thiamine is absorbed from the intestines
 Plasma thiamine derived from dietary sources or from diffusion from the cells is in the free
form
 Thiamine is not stored to any large extent in the body and excess amount are excreted
rapidly
 Thiamine deficiency is still a nutritional problem in the Philippines
 In thiamine deficiency, pyruvic acid and lactic acid accumulate in the tissues and in the
blood
 This brings about lack of energy for body activities especially of the nervous tissues causing
symptoms such as mental depression, poor memory, irritability and easy fatigability
 As deficiency advances, there is hyperesthesia, loss of strength of quadriceps muscles, later
paralysis and muscle wasting (Polyneuritis of Beriberi)
 In adults, the signs which are suggestive of thiamine deficiency are loss of appetite and
fatigue, with a sense of heaviness and weakness of the legs
 Burning and numbness in the lower extremities and cramps in the calf muscles are
indicative of early peripheral neuritis
 Ascending, symmetrical peripheral type of neuritis – muscular weakness gradually
extends upward, involving extensors of the foot and the calf muscles, and finally the
extensors and flexors of the thigh, accompanied by pain and tenderness especially of the
calf muscles. The reflexes (ankle and knee jerks) are diminished and later are lost. At this
time, foot drop is manifested and position sense of the toes are impaired
 Peripheral Neuropathy is ultimately followed by degeneration and atrophy of the muscles
supplied by the affected nerve
 In severe deficiency, cardio – respiratory disturbances develop which may be preceded,
accompanied or followed by serous effusions and edema. There is enlargement and failure
especially of the right heart (Typical Beriberi)
 Infants nursed by mothers suffering from beriberi show also symptoms of Infantile
Beriberi, such as rigidity of the body, constipation, oliguria, peculiar whining and attacks
of cyanosis
 Together with other vitamins, thiamine deficiency causes stunted growth
 Severe thiamine deficiency occurs among alcoholics
 Wernicke – Korsakoff syndrome – characterized by neurological disorders, psychosis
and loss of memory
 Some of the biochemical findings in thiamine deficiency are:

1. Low thiamine and co – carboxylase level in blood and in the urine

2. Increased concentration of pyruvic and lactic acids in the blood
3. Decreased uptake of oxygen by the thiamine deficient brain tissue reversed by the addition
of thiamine (Catatorulin Effect). The decreased oxygen uptake is probably due to the lack
of conversion of pyruvate into acetate due to deficient co – carboxylase

*** Vitamin B2/ Riboflavin/ Vitamin G/ Lactoflavin/ Heat Stable Vitamin B2 Complex
 Riboflavin forms part of coenzymes Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and Flavin adenine
nucleotide (FAD)
 Yeast, liver, wheat germ, eggs, cheese, green leafy vegetables, peas, lima beans, organs and
muscles of animals are good sources of riboflavin
 Milk is an important source where it is available and consumed in significant quantities
 Riboflavin is found in the tissues mainly as adenine dinucleotide
 Riboflavin is also involved in the degradation of fatty acids and the oxidation of pyruvic
acid in the nervous tissues
 Riboflavin is not stored to a considerable extent in animal organs, although higher
concentrations are found in the liver and kidneys than in other tissues
 Riboflavin deficiency is common, particularly among pregnant women and growing
children
 Deficiency consist of symptoms: cheilosis, stomatitis, seborrheic dermatitis and glossitis
 The lesion begins as a pallor and maceration of the mucosa of the lips in the angles of the
mouth. Within a few days, superficial transverse fissures appear extending outward from
the angles of the mouth. The lips become red along the line of closure as a result of
superficial denudation of the mucosa
 Besides the characteristic lesions of the lips, there is a fine, scaly, lightly greasy
desquamation on a mildly erythematous base in the nasolabial folds, on the alae nasae, in
the vestibule of the nose and on the ears
 This seborrheic dermatitis may progress to inspissated comedons which develop over the
forehead, molar eminences, alae nasae and circumoral region
 The tongue acquires a magenta – like color, becomes painful and assumes a finely pebbled
appearance
 The eye is one of the first organs to exhibit a change, varying from light to extensive
vascular proliferation of the cornea. This is accompanied by itching, burning, lacrimation
and mild photophobia

*** Vitamin B3/ Niacin/ Nicotinic acid/ P-P factor (Pellagra-preventive factor)
 Nicotinic acid and its amide are found in large amount of dried yeast, liver, germs of cereal
grains, green peas, lean meat, rice polishings, milk, eggs and vegetables like potatoes and
carrots
 Niacin or its amide is also specific for pellagra, but it is not certain whether its function as a
part of the DPN or TPN is directly related to its action in curing or preventing pellagra
 It is not stored in the body to a significant amount
 Higher concentrations are found in liver, muscle and kidney for the performance of the
metabolic functions
 Deficiency of niacin leads to the manifestation of: Diarrhea, Dermatitis, Dementia
 The alimentary tract is the first to give rise to symptoms such as glossitis and stomatitis
 The tips and the lateral margins of the tongue become reddened and swollen
 In the more advanced cases, there is severe involvement of the alimentary tract
characterized by anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and persistent diarrhea
 Characteristic dermatitis develops in which bilateral exposed areas are involved, the back
of the hands, the elbows, knees and cheeks
 The skin is rough erythematous and scaly and the affected areas sharply demarcated from
the healthy areas
 Early non – specific mental symptoms include headache, confusion, vertigo, poor memory
and mental depression
 In the classic pellagra, the mental symptoms may assume a paranoid type in the late stage,
accompanied by visual hallucination, delusions of persecution, depression and
recessiveness
 The general effects are loss of weight and strength, anemia and dehydration due to
diarrhea
 Diet consisting largely of corn produces pellagra: (1) Corn is a poor source of niacin; (2)
Corn is also deficient in tryptophan which is believed to be the precursor of niacin; (3) Corn
probably contains anti – vitamins, such as 3 – acetyl pyridine and 3 – pyridine sulfonic acid
 *** Vitamin B4/ Choline
 Choline is a lipotropic substance
 It is found in the egg yolk, liver, brain, nervous tissues, kidneys, heart, cereals, potatoes and
green leafy vegetables
 Choline is present in the animal tissues in the form of phospholipids, lecithin’s and
sphingomyelins, which are especially abundant in the brain and nervous tissues, liver and
kidney
 The daily requirement of choline is not established, however, widely distributed and is
adequate for human need
*** Vitamin B5/ Pantothenic acid (Greek meaning, everywhere)
 It is widely distributed in nature so that even in restricted diet no actual deficiency occurs
 Found in liver, kidney, rice bran, molasses, meat, eggs, peanuts, sweet potatoes, tomatoes
and milk
 There is no reported case of pantothenic acid deficiency in man, but symptoms may
include: vomiting, fatigue, stomach pain, irritability
*** Vitamin B6/ Pyridoxine/ Amino acid metabolism vitamin
 Pyridoxine was first isolated from yeast and liver, and subsequently synthesized in 1938 –
1939
 Pyridoxine is found in natural products associated with other members of the B complex
vitamins (rice polishings, germ of seeds and cereals, egg yolk, meat, milk, and fish)
 Pyridoxine is a substituted pyridine compound, synthesized by plants and many
microorganisms including the intestinal bacteria
 The derivatives of pyridoxine:

1. Pyridoxine
2. Pyridoxal
3. Pyridoxamine
4. And their phosphorylated derivatives: pyridoxine-5-phosphatase, pyridoxal-5-phosphatase,
and pyridoxamine-5-phosphatase
 The vitamin B6 activity of these 3 forms resides in the phosphorylated derivatives
 Pyridoxal phosphates make up the prosthetic group of transaminase and functions as a
coenzyme
 Pyridoxal – 5 – phosphate is the coenzyme for so many reactions involving amino acids:

1. Transamination
2. Decarboxylation of amino acids to form special amines
3. Formation of melanin
4. Formation and metabolism of tryptophan
5. Prevention of the formation of xanthurenic acid in the metabolism of tryptophan
6. Transmethylation by methionine
7. Incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin
8. Metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids
 Pyridoxine is present in most animal tissues and in high concentration in the liver
 Deficiency in infants fed of milk formula enriched with a number of vitamins, but with no
added pyridoxine manifests irritability and convulsions
 Vitamin B6 deficiency has been observed among patients being treated with isoniazid
*** Vitamin B7/ Biotin
 Biotin is widely distributed in nature (liver, pancreas, kidney, milk, egg yolk, poultry, fresh
vegetables and fruits, sea foods and molasses
 There are 2 forms with identical biological activities:

1. α – biotin from the egg yolk

2. β – biotin from the liver
 They differ chemically with regards to the nature of the side chain
 Biotin deficiency results following sterilization of the intestinal tract, the feeding of raw egg
white and the administration of biotin antimetabolite
 The role of biotin in the enzyme mechanisms occurring in the bacterial system has been
demonstrated in the following processes:

1. In the synthesis of oleic acid, aspartic acid and citrulline

2. In the deamination of aspartic acid, serine and threonine
3. In the reversible β – decarboxylation of oxaloacetate to pyruvate, oxalosuccinate to α –
ketoglutarate, and succinate to propionate
4. In the dehydrogenation of succinate
5. In the incorporation of CO2 into carboxyl group of aceto – acetate from pyruvate and certain
fatty acids
 Tumor tissues and embryonic tissues contain high concentration of biotin
 Biotin may be stored in the liver and kidneys
 Biotin supply in the body is obtained from the products of bacterial synthesis in the
intestines
 Deficiency in man is rare but symptoms include marked pallor, desquamation, dermatitis,
anorexia susceptibility to fatigue, muscular pain, hyperesthesia and heart distress
*** Vitamin B8/ Inositol
 Inositol is synergistic to the lipotropic effect of choline
 It is found widespread in the animal tissues like the liver, kidney, heart, brain, thyroid
muscles, etc.
 It is also present in rice bran, soy beans, milk, yeast, oranges and other fruits and
vegetables
 Inositol exists in nature in 4 forms:

1. As free inositol
2. As phytin (mixed calcium and magnesium salt of inositol hexaphosphate)
3. As phosphotidyl inositol
4. As water soluble non – dialyzable complex
 Lipositol – inositol containing phosphatide; has been isolated in pure form from soy beans
and is present in the brain and spinal cord
 Inositol is synthesized by intestinal bacteria, a process stimulated by pantothenic acid
 There is no reported case of inositol deficiency in man
 The daily requirement of inositol is not established
 Inositol has been used with some success in fibrositis
*** Vitamin B9/ Folate/ Folic acid/ Pteroylglutamic acid (PGA)
 It is contained mostly in the liver, kidney, mushroom, yeast and green leaves
 Folate used for medicinal purposes is produced synthetically
 Some intestinal bacteria synthesize it and this partly supplies the body’s need
 It is a growth factor regulating the metabolism of formate and formaldehyde which are the
building stones in the formation of certain purines, pyrimidines and amino acids
 It is potent in inducing megaloblastic maturation resulting in an increase of normoblasts
 Folic acid is essential for the synthesis of thymine and adenine by Streptococcus faecalis
 Large doses of thymine have a hematopoietic effect in human macrocytic anemia
 Citrovorum Factor/ Leucovin/ Folinic acid – naturally occurring derivative of folic acid
that is concerned in the production of an agent which stimulates the formation of normal
blood cells
 Deficiency of PGA causes growth failure, hyperchromic macrocytic anemia and leucopenia
 There is failure in the synthesis of purines and thymine required for DNA synthesis
 Folic acid deficiency can be readily produced by incorporation of sulfanilamide into the diet
 Folic acid is most useful in the treatment of Addisonian pernicious anemia, nutritional
macrocytic anemia, megaloblastic anemia of pregnancy and infancy, sprue, and pellagra
 Patients with tropical sprue, in which there is deficiency of absorption of nutrients from the
small intestines, generally show a striking remission of all symptoms, including steatorrhea
and reticulocytosis
 Megaloblastic anemia due to failure of DNA synthesis
*** Vitamin B10/ Para-amino benzoic acid
 It occurs in natural products both as free and in combination with such carriers as amino
acids and polypeptides
 It is found in rice bran and polishings, dried yeast, wheat germ, liver, meat, eggs, milk and
spinach
 The specific effects of PABA deficiency in man is not known
 However, in some cases of nutritional achromotrichia, PABA therapy has been successful
*** Vitamin B12/ Cyanocobalamin/ Cobalamin
 Is the precursor of Coenzyme B12
 Beef and chicken livers and fish solubles contain the highest levels of vitamin B 12
 Other good sources are milk, meat, eggs, oysters and clams
 It is not found in plant materials
 The vitamin B12 used for therapy is obtained either from the liver or as by – product in the
production of streptomycin by Streptomyces griseus
 It is believed to be identical with the erythrocyte maturing factor
 Vitamin B12 deficiency leads to deficient production of both RNA and DNA, while folic acid
deficiency leads to diminished DNA
 Deficiency occurs among individuals who abstain from all animal products and have blood
levels of 40 to 200 to 350 µg per mL
 Pernicious anemia results not from inadequate intake of the vitamin but from defective
secretion of the IF needed for its absorption
 Vitamin B12 given orally to such individuals may be recovered quantitatively from the
feces (this is the basis of the diagnostic test for pernicious anemia)
 Cobalamin is the most effective therapeutic agent in pernicious anemia and for other types
of anemia
 It is also effective in sprue and pellagra
 It is also used to increase the growth of physically retarded children
*** Vitamin B13
 Is the term applied by Novac and Hauge to the principle prepared in concentrated form
from several sources, including liver extract, yeast, and rice polishings, which stimulate
growth in rats, pigs and chicks, given purified diets supplemented with sulfonamides
 It is found to be chemically related to orotic acid (4 – carboxyuracil)
*** Vitamin B14
 Was isolated from urine in crystalline form
 It is involved in some of the chemical mechanisms required for the completion of
hematopoietic processes
 It is very potent, increasing RBC production around 6 to 7 times
*** Vitamin B15/ Pangamic Acid
 Krebs in 1950 first isolated this vitamin from rice bran brewer’s yeast and liver.
 It is an amino derivative of glucuronic acid
 No deficiency symptoms have been found in man
 It is believed to exert the following effects:

1. Increases oxygen uptake of cells and synthesis of creatine in muscles

2. It exerts a lipotropic effect