Welding Processes

Welding Processes Contained Electrodes As Consumables

SMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding

GMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding

SAW – Submerged Arc Welding

Welding Processes Not Contained

Electrodes As Consumables
GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
PAW – Plasma Arc Welding

High Energy Beam

Electron Beam Welding
Laser Beam Welding
SMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding (USA )
MMAW – Manual Metal Arc Welding (UK )

• Consumable electrode
• Flux coated rod which is of low quality
• Flux contains alloying element which is
Protected by protective gas during welding
• Slag keeps oxygen off weld bead during cooling

• High level of skill required

• Flux produces protective gas around weld pool

• General purpose welding—widely used

Power... Current I (50 - 300 amps)
• Thicknesses 3-25MM” Voltage V (15 - 45 volts)
• Portable Power = VI  10 kW
• Surfacing Operation with Dc -Ve
 Welding Processes

SMAW - DC Polarity

Straight Polarity Reverse Polarity

(–) (+)

(+) (–)
Shallow penetration Deeper weld penetration
(thin metal/Surfacing operation)

AC - Gives pulsing arc

- used for welding thick sections
GMAW – Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG)

• DC reverse polarity - hottest arc

• AC - unstable arc

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Torch

• MIG - Metal Inert Gas
• Consumable wire electrode
• Shielding provided by gas
• Double productivity of SMAW
• Semi automatic process

Groover, M., Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing,, p. 734, 1996

SAW – Submerged Arc Welding

• 100 – 2000 amps (440 V)

• Consumable wire electrode

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Torch
• Shielding provided by flux granules
• Low UV radiation & fumes
• Flux acts as thermal insulator

• Automated process (for flat /Horizontal)

• High speed & quality (4 – 10x SMAW)
• Suitable for thick plates and Big dia
http://www.twi.co.uk
meter pipes
GTAW – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)

Current I (200 A DC)

(500 A AC)
Power  8-20 kW

• . TIG - Tungsten Inert Gas

• Non-consumable electrode
• With or without filler metal
• Shield gas usually argon
• Used for thin sections of SS,CS,AS, Mg, Ti.
• Most expensive, highest quality
Defects and Discontinuities
 Discontinuity

• An interruption of the typical structure of a

material, such as a lack of homogeneity in
its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristics. A discontinuity is not
necessarily a defect.
 Defect

• A flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated

effect render a part or product unable to meet
minimum applicable acceptance standards of
specifications. The term designates rejectability.
Weld Joint Discontinuities

• Misalignment (hi-lo) • Inclusions • Porosity

• Undercut – Slag – Uniformly Scattered
• Underfill – Tungsten – Cluster
– Linear
• Concavity or Convexity • Spatter
• Excessive reinforcement • Arc Craters
• Improper reinforcement • Cracks
• Overlap – Longitudinal
– Transverse
• Burn-through
– Crater
• Incomplete or Insufficient
– Throat
Penetration
– Toe
• Incomplete Fusion
– Root
• Surface irregularity – Under bead and
– Overlap Heat-affected
• Arc Strikes zone
– Hot
– Cold or delayed
Misalignment (Hi-Lo)

• Definition: Amount a joint is

out of alignment at the root
• Causes: Carelessness. Also due to joining different
thicknesses (transition thickness),Distortion, irregular
thickness.
• Prevention: Workmanship. ID matching
• Effect /Repair:- Joint under Stress / Grinding. Careful on
surface finish and direction of grind marks. Inside of Pipe
/Tube difficult.
Undercut
• Definition: A groove cut at the
toe of the weld and left unfilled.
• Cause: High amperage, electrode
angle, long arc length, rust, slow
welding speed, welder tries to high
deposit of weld metal in single run.
• Prevention: Weld with appropriate electrode, Correct weld
parameters, short arc length.
• Effect: High Stress Concentration.
 Insufficient Fill

• Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent

surfaces of the base metal.
• Cause: Improper welding techniques.

• Prevention: Apply proper welding techniques for the weld

type and position. Use stringer beads before the cover pass.
• Effect:- High Stress Concentration, poor Aesthetic
appearance.
Insufficient Fill on the Root Side
(suck back OR root concavity)

• Definition: The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces

of the base metal at the weld root.
• Cause: Typically improper joint preparation OR Excessive
purging flow rate OR welding with too large a root gap and
depositing too thin layer OR Too large a hot pass which
suck back the root layer. .
• Prevention: Follow the WPS.
• Repair: Back weld to fill. May required removal of weld
section by grinding for access to the joint root.
Excessive Concavity or Convexity

• Definition: Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld

which exceeds the specified allowable limits
• Cause: Improper Amperage and travel speed

• Prevention: Observe proper parameters and techniques.

• Repair: Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the
base metal.
Concavity
Convexity
Reinforcement

The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the surface

of the plate. Face
Reinforcement
• Excessive
• Insufficient
• Improper contour

Root Reinforcement
Excessive Reinforcement

• Definition: Specifically defined by the standard.

Typically, Reinforcement should be flush to 1.6 mm
(pipe) or flush to 3 mm (plate or structural shapes).
• Cause: Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

• Prevention: Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.

• Repair: Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the

weld toes to a smooth transition to the base plate.
Improper Weld Contour

• Definition: When the weld exhibits less than a 1350

transition angle at the weld toe. 1350

• Cause: Poor welding technique

• Prevention: Use proper techniques. A weave or whip motion

can often eliminate the problem.
• Repair: The weld face must be feathered into the base plate.
 Overlap

• Definition: When the face of the weld extends beyond the

toe of the weld
• Cause: Improper welding technique. Typically, electrode
angles and travel speed.
• Prevention: Overlap is a contour problem. Proper welding
technique will prevent this problem.
• Repair: Overlap must be removed to blend smoothly into
the base metal. Be careful of deep grind marks that run
transverse to the load. Also be careful of fusion
discontinuities hidden by grinding. Use NDT to be sure.
SMAW – Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Overlap
Overlap is measured with
a square edge such as a
6” rule. No amount of
overlap is typically
allowed.
 Burn-through (non-standard)

• Definition: When an undesirable open hole has been

completely melted through the base metal. The hole may or
may not be left open.
• Cause: Excessive heat input.

• Prevention: Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed,

or by reducing welding parameters.
• Repair: Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice.
Otherwise, removal and rewelding may be required.
 Incomplete or Insufficient
Penetration

• Definition: When the weld metal does not extend to the

required depth into the joint root
• Cause: Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast
travel speed, short arc length.
• Prevention: Correct the contributing factor(s).

• Repair: Back gouge and back weld or remove and reweld.

Incomplete Fusion& burn Through
 Incomplete Fusion/
Lack Of Fusion

• Definition: Where weld metal does not form a cohesive

bond with the base metal.
• Causes: Lack of welder skill, incorrect welding parameters
like amperage, voltage ,speed. steep electrode angles, short
arc gap, lack of preheat, electrode too small, unclean base
metal, insufficient inter-run cleaning.
• Prevention/Effects:- Eliminate the potential causes/areas of
high stress concentration ,lower weld strength.
• Repair: remove and reweld, being careful to completely
remove the defective area. This is sometimes extremely
difficult to find.
Incomplete Fusion
 Inclusions

1] Slag Inclusion
Definition: Slag entrapped within the weld
Causes: Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld in an area that is
too tight.
Prevention: Increase amperage or preheat, grind out tight areas to gain access
to bottom of joint.

2] Tungsten Inclusion
Definition: A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically GTAW only)
Cause: Tungsten electrode too small, Too fine Tungsten angle, amperage too
high, electrode tip not snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched
with the fill rod.
Prevention: Eliminate the above causes.
Inclusions

• Slag Inclusion

• Tungsten Inclusion
 Spatter

• Definition: Small particles of weld metal expelled from the welding operation
which adhere to the base metal surface.
• Cause: Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high amperages.
• Prevention: Correct the cause. Base metal can be protected with coverings or hi-
temp paints.
• Effect :-lowering the weldment strength because of localized heating and quenching
effect. May be sometimes responsible for micro cracking OR hard spots
 Cracks
• Longitudinal
• Transverse
• Crater
• Throat
• Toe
• Root
• Underbead and Heat-affected zone
• Hot
• Cold or delayed
 Crack Types
• Hydrogen Induced Cracking
• Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking
• Solidification Cracking ( Hot Cracking )
• Lamellar Tearing
Hydrogen Induced Cracking ( HAZ )

• Four Critical factors

• Hydrogen content more than 15 ml/100 gms of deposited weld metal
• Hardness more than 350 HV
• Stress if more than 50 % of yield stress
• Temperature less than 300 Deg C
 Hydrogen Induced Cracking ( HAZ )

Phenomenon /Causes
• Temperature less than 300 Deg C
• Absorption of H2 molecules during welding through moisture ,air ,contamination.
• H2 remain in weld during solidification of phase delta ferrite /Austenite.
• weld start cooling below LCT ( less than 720 Deg ).
• Weldment phase transfer to alpha ferrite & pearlite.
• Less solubility of H2 molecules.
• H2 molecules diffuse to HAZ which still at austenite and low hardenability.
• Diffuse to atmosphere easily.
• If HAZ is cooled rapidly then phase become martensite from austenite.
• High hardness /zero solubility of H2.
• High level of stresses / H2 tries to expelled leaves a crack.
• High stress concentration area
 Hydrogen Induced Cracking ( HAZ )

Prevention
• Preheat or post heat of joints.
• Reduce rate of cooling.
• Prevent formation of martensite.
• Low hydrogen process.
• Maintained interpass temperature.
• Controlled consumables.
• Proper baking and holding of electrodes.
• Proper joint fit up ( reduce stress / restraint)
 Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking

Factors
• HSLA ( High strength low alloy steel ) ( SA 737 Gr B etc. )
• Micro alloyed elements ( Titanium , vanadium ,niobium).
• Higher carbon content in weld metal.
• Higher tensile strength.
• Higher Hardness.
• Temperature less than 300 Deg C
 Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking

Phenomenon /Causes
• Temperature less than 300 Deg C
• Absorption of H2 molecules during welding through moisture ,air ,contamination
• H2 remain in weld during solidification of phase delta ferrite /Austenite.
• To match strength of weld metal to base material carbon content increases in
consumables
• Increase of carbon , increase hardness value ,less ductility.
• Due to micro allying element hardness get increases.
• weld start cooling below LCT ( less than 720 Deg )
• Weldment phase transfer to martensite from Austenite.
• High hardness /zero solubility of H2
• High level of contractional forces due to temperature
• H2 tries to expelled leaves a crack in weld.
Hydrogen Induced Weld Metal Cracking

Prevention
• Preheat or post heat of joints.
• Reduce rate of cooling
• Prevent formation of martensite.
• Low hydrogen process
• Maintained interpass temperature
• Controlled consumables
• Proper baking and holding of electrodes

• Proper joint fit up ( reduce stress / restraint )

Solidification Cracking (Hot Cracking)

Phenomenon/Causes
• Higher Sulphur Content.
• Paint film / Rusted surface
• High Depth / Low width joint.
• During welding sulphur remelts ,reacted with iron / Formation of iron
sulphides
• low melting point compound ( 1194 Deg ).
• Start concentrating in center line of weld.
• Last point of solidification ( weld centerline ).
• Stress and contractional forces.
• Longuitudinal shape compound.
• Not adjusted between grains of weld metal
• Cohesive forces between grains failed to maintained bond.
• Centerline crack appears.
 Solidification Cracking (Hot Cracking)

Prevention
• Reduce sulphur level in materials.
• Proper cleaning of weld joint.
• Additional Mn.
• Additional Mn in consumables
• Formation of MnS.
• Mns compound solidify at Higher Temperature ( 1610 Deg C ) / so proper mixed
with weld metal.
• Spherical in shape , adjusted better within grains .
• Good cohesive bonding.
• Mn/S Ratio 40 :1
• Reduce Carbon content.
Solidification Cracking (Hot Cracking)

Figures
Lamellar Tearing

Phenomenon / Causes
• Cold Rolled Plates.
• Micro Inclusions.
• Sulphides and silicates
• Low through thk ductility. ( Z direction )
Lamellar Tearing

Prevention
• Through thk tensile test.
• Minimum percentage reduction area. ( 20% ).
• Reduce sulphur / Phosphorus in materials.
• UT of Plates with Zero Degree probe.
• DPT / MPT of Edge of plates.
• Buttering of high ductile weld metal.
• Redesign of welds.
• Preformed Pieces.
Porosity

• Single Pore
• Uniformly Scattered
• Cluster
• Linear
Remedy for Porosity

• Baking of electrode will help to eliminate

• may need an electrode with more
deoxidizers
• Use run-on/run-off taps
• restart on top of previous weld and grind
off lump
Conclusion

• To avoid weld repair Selection of proper Electrode by

Qualifying the PQR is Important.
• Strong Quality Monitoring System to be Implemented for
stage wise inspection.
• Lesson learnt program to be conducted to avoid the
repetition of mistakes.
• Quality awareness program and Quality motivational
program to be conducted among the staff and workers
THANK YOU