NERVOUS SYSTEM

AIPMT Syllabus

1. Control and co-ordination

2. Central and peripheral nervous system

Total No. of questions in Nervous System are:

Exercise # 1 …….……………………………….168
Exercise # 2 …….…………………………………97
Exercise # 3 …….…………………………………29

Total No. of questions…..………..294

*** Students are advised to solve the questions of exercises in the same sequence or as
directed by the faculty members.

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 Index : Preparing your own list of Important/Difficult Questions

Instruction to fill

(A) Write down the Question Number you are unable to solve in column A below, by Pen.
(B) After discussing the Questions written in column A with faculties, strike off them in the
manner so that you can see at the time of Revision also, to solve these questions again.
(C) Write down the Question Number you feel are important or good in the column B.

COLUMN :A COLUMN :B
EXERCISE
NO. Questions I am unable
Good/Important questions
to solve in first attempt

Exercise # 1

Exercise # 2

Exercise # 3

Exercise # 4

Advantages

1. It is advised to the students that they should prepare a question bank for the revision as it is
very difficult to solve all the questions at the time of revision.

2. Using above index you can prepare and maintain the questions for your revision.

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 NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVE IMPULSE INDUCTION : 
DEPOLARIZATION
+
(Na IONS IN)

MEMBRANE POTENTIAL IN
ACTION
+30 POTENTIAL
REVERSAL OF POLARIZATION
0

MILLI VOLTS (mV)

REPOLARIZATION
(K+ IONS OUT)
HYPERPOLARIZATION
(REFRACTORY PERIOD)
-70 RESTING
POTENTIAL
(POLARIZED STATE)
- 70 mV
0 1 2 3 4 5
TIME IN MILLISECONDS (mSEC)

Na+ channel Channel

+
Na flows inward

(a) Resting Potential (b) Depolarisation begins

K+ flows
outward

(d) Repolarisation (c) Action Potential

completes peaks


The resting membrane potential in resting phase :
 The potential difference (a charge) which exists across the cell surface membrane of nerve cells is always,
negative inside the cell with respect to the outside. The membrane is said to be polarised.
 The potential difference across the membrane at rest is called the resting membrane potential and this
is about – 70mV (the negative sign indicates that inside the cell is negative with respect to the outside).
(Range  – 60 to – 85 mV)
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 The resting potential is maintained by active transport and passive diffusion of ions.
 Resting membrane potential is maintained by the active transport of ions against their electrochemical
gradient by sodium potassium pump.
There are carrier protein located in the cell surface membrance. They are driven by energy supplied by
ATP and couple the removal of three sodium ions from the axon with the uptake of two potassium ions.
The rate of diffusion is determined by the permeability of the axon membrane to the ion.
Potassium ions have a membrane permeability greater than that of sodium ions. Therefore potassium
ions loss from the axon is greater than sodium ion gain. This leads to a net loss of potassium ions from
the axon, and the production of negative charge within the axon (organic anions).
Due to active transport (mainly) and diffusion process, positive charge is more outside and negative
charge is more inside.
Outer covering of axolemma is positively charged and inner membrane of axolemma is negatively charged.

+ +
Sodium Na and K ion
Voltage gated channels closed channels
Potassium pump

+ + +
2K 3Na K Na

Depolarisation and Action potential :

Once the event of depolarization has occured, a nerve impulse or spike is initiated.
Action potential is another name of nerve impulse.
This is generated by a change in the sodium ion channels. These channels, and some of the potassium
ion channels, are known as voltage gated channel, meaning they can be opened or closed with change in
voltage.
In resting state these channels are closed due to binding of Ca++.
An action potential is generated by sudden opening of the sodium gates. Opening of gates increases the
permeability of the axon membrane to sodium ions which enter by diffusion.
This increases the number of positive ions inside the axon.
A change of –10mV in potential difference from RMP through influx is sufficiently significant to
trigger a rapid influx of Na+ ions leading to generation of action potential.
This change of –10 mV is called as threshold stimulus.
At the point where membrane (Axolemma) is completely depolarised due to rapid influx of Na+ ions, the
negative potential is first cancelled out and becomes 0 (Depolarisation). This axolemma is called as excited
membrane or depolarised membrane.
Due to further entry of Na+, the membrane potential "over shoots" beyond the zero and becomes positive
upto + 30 to + 45mV.

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 This "over shoot" peak corresponds to maximum concentration of sodium inside the axon. This potential is
called as action potential or spike potential. In this state, the inner surface of axolemma becomes positively
charged and outer surface becomes negatively charged.

+
Voltage gated Na channel opens
+
Na floods into neuron + +
Na and K ion
+ channels
Na

+ +
K Na

Repolarisation :
 After a fraction of second i.e., 0.5 m.sec, the sodium gates closed, Depolarisation of the axon membrane
causes potassium gates to open, potassium therefore diffuse out of cell.
 Since potassium is positively charged, this makes the inside of cell less positive, or more negative and
the process of repolarization or return to the original resting potential begins.
 The repolarization period returns the cell to its resting potential (–70 mV). The neuron is now prepared
to receive another stimulus and conduct it in the same manner.
 At this point membrane show hyper polarization.
 Sodium pump starts working to maintain the normal resting membrane potential by expelling Na + and
in take of K+.
The time taken for restoration of resting potential is caled refractory period, because during this
periods the membrane is incapable of receiving & conduicting another impulse.
 Nerve impulse travels as action potential which passes along axon as a wave of depolarization.
 The whole process of depolarisation and repolarisation is very fast. It takes only about 1 to 5 milli
second (ms).

+
Voltage gated K channel opens
+
K exists neuron + +
Sodium Sodium voltage gated Na and K ion
potassium pump Channel closed channels

+ + + + +
2K 3Na K K Na

203
 Physiology of Nerve

Process Na+- Passaive Na+ K+ Potential with value Inside

K+ diffusion VGC VGC Charge
pump
Polarisation   × × RMP (–60 to –85 mv) Negative
Depolarisation AP (overshoot value) Positive
×   ×
(+ 30 to + 45 mv)
–
 


Repolarisation   ×  Negative
– 90 mV
  

Hyperpolarisation   ×  Negative

Open/Operating   Closed  ×

Saltatory conduction of nerve impuse :

 This type of conduction occur in myelinated fibre. Myelin is fatty material with a high electrical
resistance and act as electrical insulator in the same way as the rubber and plastic covering of electrical
wiring.

– The combined resistance of the axon membrane and myelin sheath is very high, but where breaks in the
myelin sheath occur known as nodes of Ranvier, the resistance to current flow between the axoplasm
and the fluid outside the cell is low. It is only at these nodes local circuits are setup.
– This means, in effect that the action potential jump from node to node and passes along the myelinated
axon faster as compared to the series of small local circuits in a non-myelinated axon. This type of
conduction is called saltatory conduction.
– Leakage of ions takes place only in nodes of Ranvier and less energy is required for saltatory
conduction.

Synaptic Transmission

Telodenria of one neutron form synapse with dendron of next neuron.

It is the junction between two neurons where information is transferred from one neutron to another
neuron but no protoplasmic connection.
Synapse = Pre synaptic knob + synaptic cleft + post synaptic membrane
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– Telodendria membrane is called pre synaptic membrane & membrane of dendron of other neuron
called as post synaptic membrane. Space between pre and post synaptic membranes is called synaptic
cleft.
– When the AP develop in pre synaptic membrane. it becomes permeable for Ca++.
– Ca++ enter in pre synaptic membrane & vesicles burst due to the stimulation by Ca++ and causes release
of neurotransmitters (Ach) in synaptic cleft.
– Ach reaches the post synaptic membrane via synaptic cleft & bind to receptors. It develops excitatory
post synaptic potential (EPSP). EPSP develop due to opening of Na+ gatted channnels.

– Cholinesterase enzyme is found in the synaptic fluid of synapse.

– This enzyme decomposes the Ach into choline & Acetate.
– Neuro inhibitory transmitter (GABA) binds with post synaptic membrane to open the Cl– gated channels
and hyperpolarization of neuron occurs. Now the potential is called inhibitory post synaptic potential
(IPSP) & further nerve conduction is blocked.
Physiological properties of nerve fibre are detected by cathode ray oscilloscope :
Type of synapse :
(i) Axodendritic – b/w axon & dendron
(ii) Axosomatic – b/w axon & cyton
(iii) Axoaxonic – b/w axon & axon
SYNAPSE :
Electrical Chemical
Conduction Fast Slow
Synaptic cleft Upto 0.2 nm Upto 20 nm
Neutrotransmitter Absent Present
Synaptic delay Absent Present
Blocking Can not be controlled Controlled by neutrotransmitter
Name synapse was proposed by Charles Sherrington

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 Neuron conducts the impulse in the form of electro chemical wave.
– Conduction of nerve impulse is unidirectional.
It follow all or none law. Magnitude of response will always be same irrespective of strength
of stimulus above threshold stimulus.
– Velocity of nerve impuse  Diameterof neuron.
– In mammals, the velocity of nerve impulse is 100 to 130 meter/sec.
– This velocity is affected by physical & chemical factor, such as pressure, cold, heat,
chloroform and ether etc.

NERVOUS SYSTEM :
– System which regulate the various activities of the body through nerve. impulses is called the nervous
system. Through this system the messages are transmitted at a faster rate.
 – The nervous – system controls and also co-ordinates the various activities of the organs of the animals.
– Whole nervous – system of human being is derived from embryonic Ectoderm.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM :

– It includes the brain and the spinal-cord. These are formed from the neural-tube which develops from
the ectoderm after the gastrula stage of embryo.
Development of CNS :
It develops from neural tube in intrauterine life (I.U.L.). Anterior part of neural tube develops into brain
while caudal part of neutral tube develops into spinal cord.
Approximately 70-80% part of brain develops by 2 year of age & complete development is achieved in
6 years of age & spinal cord develops completely in 4 to 5 years of age.

BRAIN :
It is situated in cranial box which is made up of 1 frontal bone, 2 parietal bone, 2 temporal bone, 1
occipital bone. The weight of brain of an adult man is 1400 gm and of female is 1250 gm.
BRAIN MENINGES :
Brain is covered by three membrances of connective tissue termed as meninges or menix.

Cranial venous sinus

Endosteal
Duramater
Arachnoid villi
Meningeal
Subdural space
Arachnoid
Subarachnoid
Plamater
space
Cerebral cortex

Meningeal layer

(1) Duramater :
This is the first and the outermost membrane which is thick, very strong and non-elastic. It is made up
of collagen fibres. This membrane is attached with the innermost surface of the cranium.
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– It is double layer – outer Endosteal layer which is closely attached with inner most surface of carnium
& no space is found between skull & Duramater (No Epidural space).
Inner meningeal layer which is related with other meninges of brain.
Both are vascular.
Generally both layers are fused with each other, but at some places these are separated from one another
& from a sinus called cranial venous sinus. These sinuses are filled with venous blood.
(2) Arachnoid :
It is middle, thin and delicate membrane, made up of connective tissue.
It is found only in mammals.
It is non vascular layer.
Infront of cranial venous sinus, it becomes folded, these folds called Arachnoid villi.
These villi reabsorb the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from sub arachnoid space & pour it into cranial
venous sinuses.
(3) Piamater :
It is Innermost, thin and transparent membrane, made up of connective tissue.
Dense network of blood capillaries are found in it, so it is highly vascular.
It is firmly adhere to the brain.
Piamater & arachnoid layer at some places fuse together to form leptomeninges.
Piamater merges into sulci of brain & densely adhere to it.
At some places it directly merges in the brain and called telachoroidea.
Telachoroidea form the choroid plexus in the ventricles of brain.
Sub Dural Space :
Space between duramater & arachnoid. It is filled with serous fluid.
Sub Arachnoid Space :
Space between Arachanoid & Piamater is filled with C.S.F.
Cranial nerves also pass through this space.
Menigitis : any inflammation of menix is called as meningitis. It may be caused by viruses, bacteria or
protozoa.

DIVISIONS OF HUMAN BRAIN : Human brain divided into three parts -

 Fore brain – Cerebrum, Diencephalon.
 Mid brain – Consist of many groups of nerve cells called "Nuclei".
 Hind Brain – Pons. Cerebellum, Medulla.
During embryonic stage, brain develops from three hollow vesicles -
Telencephalon [Cerebrum]
Forebrain develops from prosencephalon.
Diencephalon
Mid brain develops from mesencephalon.
Metencephalon
Hind brain develops from rhombencephalon (Pons, Cerebellum)
Myelencephalon
(Medulla oblongata (M.O.))
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 Central sulcus or rolandic sulcus

Lateral sulcus (sylvian sulcus)

Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe

Parietooccipital sulcus

Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe

DORSAL SURFACE OF CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE

Human brain inside view showing location of certain functions

One pair of olfactory lobes are small spherical & solid in human brain.
No ventricle is found in it.
Both olfactory lobe are separate with each other & are embedded into ventral surface of the both Frontal
lobe of cerebral Hemisphere.
Olfactory centre is situated in temporal lobe.
Functions : It is supposed to be centre of smelling power.
Its size is small in mammals comparatively because most of its parts becomes a part of cerebrum some
animals like sharks and dogs have well developd olfactory lobes.

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CEREBRUM :
– It is first & most developed part of brain.
– It makes 2/3 part of total brain.
– Cerebrum consist of two cerebral hemispheres, on the dorsal surface. G longitudinal groove is present
between two cerebral hemispheres called as median fissure. Both the cerebral hemispheres partially
connected with each other by curvede thick nerve fibres called corpus callosum.
– Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes – Anterior, middle, posterior and lateral.
Anterior lobe is also called frontal lobe (largest lobe). Middle lobe is also called parietal lobe.

S.No. Name of Area Location Relation or Analysis

1. Prefrontal cortex Frontal lobe Seat of intelligence, knowledge, creative
ideas, ability to abstract, memory.
(organ of mind).
2. Premotor area Frontal lobe – Written centre
– Associated Movement of eye. head &
body
– Control complex movement of jaw,
tongue, pharynx, larynx
3. Motor area Frontal lobe Analysis of all type of voluntary muscle
4. Frontal Eye field Frontal lobe Responsible for conjugate movement of
eye. Opening & closing of eye lid
5. Broca's Area Frontal lobe Analysis for speak if injury to this region
In Rt handed person present of Lt. side inability to speak
In Lt handed person present of Rt. side (aphasia) even though muscle concerned
(Motor speech area) are no paralysed
6. Auditory area Temporal Analysis for sound.
7. Olfactory Temporal or Analysis for smell.
Hippocampal gyrus
8. Wernicke's area Temporal Analysis for language
(Sensory area of speech) Sensory analysis for speech
9. Gustatory area Parietal Analysis for Taste
10. Somesthestic area Parietal Analysis for touch, pressure, pain,
knowledge about position in space taking
in information from environment etc.
11. Angular gyrus Parietal Sansory analysis for writing
12. Occipital area Occipital Analysis for vision

Central sulcus separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe. Lateral lobe or temporal lobe is separated from
frontal lobe & parietal lobe by incomplete sulcus called lateral sulcus.

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 Posterior lobe is also called occipital lobe, it is separated from parietal lobe by a sulcus called parieto
occiptal sulcus.
In right handed person, left hemisphere is dominant while in left handed person right hemisphere is
dominant.

Many ridges & grooves are found on dorsal surface of cerebral hemisphere. Ridges are known as gyri
while grooves are called sulci. These cover the 2/3 part of cerebrum.

 Gyri & sulci are more developed in human heing so human being are most intelligent living beings.
mental age
Intelligency quotienent (I.Q) = × 100
chrono log ical age

Idiot – 0–24 %

imbecile – 25–49 %

Moron – 50–69 %
Borderline – 70–79 %
Low normal – 80–89 %
Normal – 90–109 %
Superior – 110–119 %
Very superior – 120–139 %
Genius – 140–More

Corpus callosum :
It is largest commissure of Brain.
Exclusive feature of mammals.
Curved thick band of white nerve fibre situated between two cerebral hemispehre in the median fissure.
Anterior truncated part of corpus callosum is called Genu while posterior truncated part is called
splenium.
An oblique band is formed by body of corpus callosum & it goes towards Genu called fornix.
A small cavity is developed enclosed by callosum, Genu & fornix called as Vth ventricle or
pseudocoel. This ventricle is covered by a thin membrane called as septum lucidum.
Functions : It is the most developed part in mammals.
It is the most important part of brain because it controls and regulates different parts of brain.
This is the centre of conscious senses, will power, voluntary movements, knowledge, memory, speech
and thinking, reasoning etc.
Different sense organs send impulses here, and in this part of brain analysis and coordination of
impulses is done then messages are transferred according to the reactions through voluntary muscles.
All the voluntary actions are controlled by cerebral hemispheres.

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Diencephalon :
It is small and posterior part of fore brain. It is covered by cerebrum. It consists of Thalamus,
hypothalamus, Epithalamus.
(i) Thalamus : It forms upper lateral walls of Diencephalon.
It forms 80 % part of Diencephalon.
It acts as a relay centre.
Except olfactory sense. It receives all sensory impulses from all part of body & these impulses are send
to the cerebral cortex.
(ii) Hypothalamus : It forms lower lateral wall of Diencephalon.
A cross like structure is found on anterior surface of hypothalamus called as optic chiasma.
Pituitary body is attachd to middle part of hypothalamus by infundibulum.
(iii) Corpus mammillare or Corpus albicans or mammilary body.
It is found on the posterior part of hypothalamus.
It is a character of mammalian brain.
It integrates and controls the visceral activities.
The hypothalamus, through its connection with brain stem, maintains homeostasis and the body's
internal equilibrium, specialising in involuntary behaviour control.
The nuclei in it signal the body to eat, drink, get angry, keep cool, and make love and so on.
Hyothalamus organises behaviour related to survival of species : fighting, feeding, feeling and mating.
It keeps body temperature of roughtly 37ºC by means of a complex thermostat system.
It also influences respiration and heartbeat and sends out signals to correct them when they are wrong.
Through connections with the pituitary glans, the hypothalamus controls growth and sexual behaviour.
Epithalamus :
It forms the roof of diencephalon. Pineal body is found in epithalamus.
Functions : Its dorsal side is called epithalamus in which pineal bod is situated, that controls the sexual
maturity of animal.
– Thalamus : Act as relay centre for sensory stimulation.
In lower animal, Cerebral cortex is not developed then Thalamus act as sensory centre.
It is related with RAS. (Reticulate Activating system)
It is also act as limbic part.
– Functions of Hypothalamus :
(1) Thermoregulation
(2) Behaviour and emotion
(3) Endocrine control
(4) Biological clock system
(5) ANS control.
(6) Function or working daily rutein eg. Hungar, thirst, sleep, a wake. Defaecation, micturition, Love,
Hate sexual intercousse, entertainment, sportsek.
These are found centres of animal feelings/Emotions like sleep, anger, intercourse, hate, love, affection,
and temperature control emotional, pain, hunger, thirst and satisfaction in the hypothalamus.
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– The regulatory hormones of hypothalamus control the acitivty of endocrine glands.
– Modern scientists suppose that hypothalamus is the "master gland" not the pituitary.
– Optic chiasma found in the hypothalamus carry optic impulses received from eyes to the cerebral
hemispheres.
– Animal becomes blind if this part is destroyed by chance.
Basal Nuclei :
Situated in the wall of cerebral hemisphere.
Corpus striatum (Caudate nucleus + lentiform nucleus) + Amygdaloid body + claustrum.

Caudate nucleus Claustrum

Lentiform nuclei
Amygdaloid body
(Complex)
BASAL NUCLEI

Function :

(1) It maintains muscle tone.

(2) It regulates automatic associated movement like swinging of arms during walking.

(3) In lower animals, when cerebral cortex is not developed basal nuclei acts as motor centre
Lesion in basal nuclei leads to a disease called as parkinsonism (Rigidity, Tremor at rest, mask like
face).
Reticular activating system :
It is special sensory fibre which is situated in Brain stem & further go into Thalamus. It is related with
consiousness, alertness & awakening. Therefore it is also called gate keeper of consiousness.

Limbic system : It is visible like a wish bone. tuning fork or liplike.

Limbic lobe (area of temporal Lobe)
+
Hippocampus + Hypothalamus including septum + Part of Thalamus + Amygdaloid complex.

Function of Limbic system :

(1) Behaviour, Emotion, rage and anger (Hypthalamus, amygdaloid body)

(2) Recent memory & short term memory converts into long term memory (Hipopocampal lobe)
(3) Food habit (4) Sexual Behaviour (5) Olfaction
(Hypothalamus) (Hypothalamus) (Hippocampal lobe and Limbic lobe)
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Mid brain :
It is small & contracted part of brain.
Anterior part of mid brain contains two longitudinal myelinated nerve fibres peduncles called Cerebral
peduncles or crus cerebri or crura cerebri.
On the posterior part of mid brain are found four spherical projection called colliculi or optic lobes.
Four colliculi are collectively called as corpora quadrigemina (2 upper & 2 lower).

Only 2 colliculi or optic lobes are found in mid brain of frog called as corpora bigemina.

Functions :
– Four optic lobes or colliculus present, superior optic lobes are the main centres of pupillary light
reflexes. Inferior optic lobes are related accoustic (sound) reflex action.
– Crura cerebri controls the muscles of limbs.
Hind Brain :

3 Parts – (1) Pons (2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla Oblongata (M.O.)

(1) Pons or Pons varolli :
It is small spherical projection, which is situated below the midbrain & upper side of the M.O.
It consists of many transverse & longitudinal nerve fibres.
Transverse nerve fibres connect with cerebellum.
Longitudinal fibres connect cerebrum to M.O.
Functions : It regulates the breathing reation through pneumotaxic centre.

(2) Cerebellum :
Made up of 5 lobe [2 lateral lobe, 1 vermis and 2 floccular lobes.
Both lateral lobes becomes enlarged & spherical in shape, so lateral lobe of cerebellum are also called as
cerebellar heimisphere.

213
 Due to this reason, regulation & Coordination of voluntary muscle is more developed as compared to
other animals.
In terminal part of vermis, one pair of floccular lobes are found.
Three cerebellar peduncle are formed.
Superior cerebellar peduncle attach with mid brain.
Middle cerebellar peduncle attach with pons.
Inferior cerebellar peduncle attach with M.O.
Functions : Impulses are received from different voluntary muscles and joints and then controlling of
the their movements and their regulation and coordination accordingly.
Maintains the body balance.
Persons which take alcohol in excess, their cerebellum gets affected, as a result of that they can not
maintain their balance and their walking is disturbed.

Thus It is related with fine & skillful voluntary movement & also related with body balance.
equillibrium, posture & tone.

(3) Medulla Oblongata (M.O.) :

Posterior part of brain is conical in shape.

– In this respiratory, cardiovascular and vomiting centres are present
– Vagus nerve originates from here.
– Roof is thin, non-nervous and forms posterior choroid plexus.
– There are present three pores below plexus.
– One pair of posterior pere called foramen of lushka and a single median formen of megendie
– These poses join external and internal parts of brain.
– Most of the sensory and motor nerves cross at medulla, and therefore right cerebral hemisphere
controls left half of body and left cerebral hemisphere controls body's right half.

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 Functions : It is the most important part of brain which controls all the involuntary activities of the
body e.g. heart beats, respiration, metabolism, secretory actions of different cells rate of engulfing food
etc.
It acts as conduction path for all impulses between spinal cord and remaining portions of brain.
– It is also concerned with Reflex-Sneezing reflex, salivation reflex, coughing reflex, swallowing
reflex, vomiting reflex, yawning reflex.

Mid brain, pons &medulla are situated in one axis and called as Brain stem.

Internal Structure of Brain

L.S. OF BRAIN

– Except Midbrain, Cerebellum, Pons & olfactory lobe complete brain is internally hollow. Its cavity
is lined by ependymal epithelium. (Ciliated Columnar Epithelium)
– Cavities of brain are known as ventricles, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (C.S.F.).
– In Rabbit, Cavity of olfactory lobe is hollow called as 1st ventricle or Rhinocoel. Both Rhinocoel
continue in cavity of cerbral hemisphere, know as 2nd ventricle or paracoel or latealventricle.
– On the posterior side, both paracoel combine with each other & open into cavity of Diencephalon
through an aperture known as Foramen of Monro.
– Cavity of diencephalon is known as 3rd ventricle or Diocoel.

– A tent shape space or cavity present between anterior pons, medulla & posterior cerebellum called IV th
ventricle.
– 3rd and 4th ventricle are connected with each other through a hollow tube known as Iter or Aqueduct of
sylvius. IVth ventricle continues in the metacoel and metacoel continues in the cavity of spinal cord
called neurocoel or central canal.
– One aperture is found on dorsal surface of metacoel known as foramen of Magendie. Two apertures
are found on lateral sides of metacoel know as Formen of Luschka [1–1].

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 HISTOLOGY OF BRAIN :

G - Gray matter
G W W- White matter
1 W Cerebrum 2 G
Diencephalon Spinal cord
Cerebellum Brain stem

– On dorsal surface of cerebral hemisphere, gray matter becomes more thick, this thick layer of gray
matter is known as Cerebral cortex/Neopallium/Pallium.
– Outer part of cerebellum is made up of gray matter while inner part is white matter.
– White matter projects outside & forms a branched tree like structure known as Arbor Vitae.

Choroid plexus : Tela choroidea (Part of Piamater)

+
Blood capillaries + Ependymal Epithelium
Site : Two major plexuses in Lateral ventricles.
2 minor plexuses in IIIrd ventricle
1 minor plexus in IVth ventricle

Function : Formation of CSF by secretion of plasma

Sometime (Congenitally or infection) Iter or aqueduct become blocked therefore improper circulation of
CSF or blockage of CSF circulation occur and Intracranial pressure increases, head becomes enlarged,
this condition called Hydrocephalus.
Cerebrospinal-fluid (CSF) :
This fluid is clear and alkaline in nature just like lymph.
It has protein (Albumin, globluin), glucose, cholesterol, urea, bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of
Na, K. Protein & cholesterol concentration is lesser than plasma & Cl– conc. is higher than
plasma.
– In a healthy man, in 24 hrs, 500 ml of C.S.F. is formed & absorbed by arachnoid villi. At a time total
volume of C.S.F. is 150 ml.
– CSF is present in ventricle of brain, subarachnoid space of brain & spinal cord.
Formation : Mainly in choroid plexus of lateral ventricles, minor quantity is formed in IIIrd ventricle &
IVth ventricle.
Collection of CSF for any investigation is done by lumbar puncture (L.P.). It is done at L3–L4 region.
Spinal anaesthesia is also given by L.P.
Functions of C.S.F. :
– Protection of Brain : It act as shock absorbing medium and work as cushion.
– It provides buoyancy to the brain, so net weight of the brain is reduced from about 1.4 kg to about
0.18 kg.
– Excretion of waste products.
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– Endocrine medium for the brain to transport hormones to different areas of the brain.

Circulation : From the ventricles CSF comes into subarachnoid space through foramen of Magendie
& foramen of Luschka.
In subarachnoid space, CSF is absorbed by arachnoid villi which pour it into cranial venous sinus. From
venous sinus CSF enters in blood circulation.

Choroid plexus  Lateral ventricle  Foramen of Monro

Diocoel

Iter

C.S.F. Circulation
IVth ventricle

Metacoel

Blood Cranial  Arachnoid  Arachnoid  Foramen of Magendie

circulation venous villi space and Foramen of Luschka
sinus

SPINAL CORD :
– Medulla oblongata comes out from foramen of magnum & continues in neural canal of vertebral

column, the continued part of MO is known as Spinal cord.

It extends from base of skull to lower vertebra of lumbar. (L1)

– Its upper part is wide while lower most part is narrow known as conus-medullaris.

Conus medullaris present upto L1 vertebra.

Terminal part of conus medullaris extend in the form of thread like structure made up of fibrous
connective tissue caled filum terminale.

– Filum terminale is non-nervous part

Metacoel also continues in spinal cord where it is known as neurocoel or central canal.

– Spinal cord is also covered by Duramater, Arachnoid & piamater.

A narrow space is found between vertebra & duramater known as Epidural space.
Length of spinal cord is 45 cm.
Length of filum terminale is 20 cm.
Weight of spinal cord is approximately 35 gm.
217
Transverse section of spinal cord

218
– The outer-part of spinal cord is of white matter while inner-part contain gray matter.
– On the dorso-lateral & ventro-lateral surface of spnal cord, the gray matter projects outside & forms the
one pair dorsal & ventral horn.
– Due to formation of dorsal & ventral horn white matter is divided in 4 segments & each segment is
known as Funiculus of white column.
– Dorsal & ventral horn continue in a tube like (bundle of never fibres) structure known as root of Dorsal
& Ventral Horn. In root of dorsal horn, ganglia is present called Dorsal root ganglia.
– Both roots are combined with each other at the place of intervertebral foramen.
– Sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglia which is pseudounipolar in nature.
– Motor neurons are found in the ventral roots. Cyton is found in ventral horn while its dendrons are
embedded into gray matter of spinal cord where they make synapse with axon of sensory neuron.
– Axon of motor neuron extends upto interverbral foramen.
– Both sensory & motor nerve fibers combindly come out from intervertebral foramen & form spinal
nerve.
– In some part of spinal cord on both side.
– Lateral horns are also found & lateral horn cell, are found in these horn, there nerve fibre come through
ventral root & futher come into intervertebral foramen. These fibre called Ramus communicans.
– The group of spinal nerve at the terminal end (L1) of spnial cord form tail like structure called cauda
equina (horse tail).
– Ramus communicans foms ANS.
– Spnial nerve & its branches are mixed type except Ramus communicans.
FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD :
(1) It acts as bridge between brain & organs of the body.
(2) It also provides relay path for the impulses coming from brain.
(3) Spinal cord regulates and conducts the reflex action.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM :

– All the nerves arising from brain and spinal cord are included in peripheral nervous system.
– Nerves arising from brain are called cranial nerves, and nerves coming out of spinal cord are called
spnial nerves.
– 12-paris of cranial nerves are found in reptlies, birds and mammals but amphibians and fishes have only
10 – pairs of cranial nerves.
– In human, I, II and VIII cranial nerves out of 12-paris of total cranial nervges are pure sensory in nature.
– III, IV, VI, XI and XII cranial nerves are motor nerves and V, VII, IX & X cranial nerves mixed type of
nerves.
– Fibres of autonomous nervous system are found in III, VII, IX & X cranial nerves.
– Longest cranial nerve is Vagus nerve.
– Largest cranial nerve is Trigeminal nerve.
– Smallest cranial nerve is Abducens cranial nerve.

219
 Table : Summary of the Human Cranial Nerves
No. Name Origin Distribution Nature Function
I. Olfactory Olfactory Enters Olfactory lobe, Sensory Small
Epithelum Extends to temporal lobe
II. Optic Retina Leads to occipital lobe Sensory Sight
III. Oculomotor Midbrain Four eye muscles Motor Movement
of eyeball
IV. Trochlear Midbrain Superior oblique eye Motor Movement of
(Pathetic) muscle eyeball
V. Trigeminal Pons – Mixed
(Dentist nerve)
(i) Opthalmic – Skin of nose, upper eyelids, Sensory Sensory supply to
forehead, scalp, conjunctiva, concerning part
larchymal gland.
Mucous membrane of cheeks –
(ii) Maxillary – and upper lip and lower eyelid. Senory Muscle of
Lower jaw, lower lip, pinna Mastication

(iii) Mandibular – Mixed

VI. Abduce Ventral side Lateral ractur Mixed Movement of eye
of m.o. ball
VII. Facial Pons Face, neck, taste buds, salivary Mixed Taste (ant' 2/3 part
gland of Tongue) Facial
expression saliva
secretion.
VIII. Auditory Pons Internal ear Sensory Hearing and
(i) Cochlear equilibrium.
(ii) Vestibular
IX. Glossopharyngeal Medulla Muscles and mucous Mixed Taste (postr 1/3
Membrane o pharynx part of Tongue)
and tongue. Facial expression
saliva secretion.
X. Vagus Medulla Larynx, lungs, heart, stomach, Mixed Visceral
(Pneumogastric) intestine Sensations and
movements.
XI. Accessory spnial Medulla Muscles of pharynx, Motor Movement of
larynx pharynx, larynx.
XII. Hypoglossal Meduula uscles of tongue Motor Movement of
tongue

220
 SPINAL NERVES :
– In rabbit, there are 37 pairs of spinal nerves, while in frog there are 9 or 10 pairs of spinal-nerves.
– In Human only 31 pairs of spinal-nerves are found.
– Each spinal nerve is mixed type and arises from the roots of the horns of gray matter of the spinalcord.
In dorsal root only afferent or sensory fibres and in ventral root efferent or motor fibres are found.
– Both the roots after moving for distance in the spinalcord of vertebrates combine with each other and
come out from the inter verterbal foramen in the form of spinal nerves.
– As soon as the spinal nerves come out of the inter vertebral foramen they divide into 3 branches :
(i) Ramus - dorsalis

Somatic nerve

(ii) Ramus - ventralis

Sympathetic nervous system
(iii) Ramus Communicans  A.N.S.
Parasympathetic nervous system
There are 37 pairs of spinal nerves in rabbit. These are divided into 5 groups according to place -
Rabbit
1. Cervical spinal nerves – 8 pairs 1 to –VIII

2. Thoracic spinal nerves – 12 pairs IX to –XX

3. Lumbar spinal nerves – 7 pairs XXI to –XXVII

[In human  21 to 25 (5 pair)]

4. Sacral spinal nerves – 4 pairs XXVIII to –XXXI

[In human  26 to 30 [5 pair]]

5. Caudal spinal nerves – 6 pairs XXXII to –XXXVII

(In human-1 pair coccygeal
nerve)

– Caudal spinal nerves are absent because human is a tailless animal and only 1 pair coccygeal nerve are
present.
REFLEX ACTION :
– "Marshal Hall" first observed the reflex actions.
– Reflex actions are spontaneous, automatic, involuntay, mechanical responses produced by specific
stimulating receptors.
– Reflex actions are involuntary actions. Reflex actions are completed very quickly as comapred to
normal actions. No adverse effect.
– It is form of animal behaviour in which the stimulation of sensory organ (receptor) result in the activity
of some organ without the intervention of will.
Reflex actions are of 2 types :

221
(A) Cranial reflex :
These actions are completed by brain (m.o.). No urgency is required for these actions. These are slow
actions e.g. watering of mouth to see good food.
(B) Spinal reflex :
These actions are completed by spinal cord. Urgency is required for these actions. These are very fast
actions e.g. Displacement of the leg at the time of pinching by any needle.
Classification of reflex actions on the basis of previous experiences :
(A) Conditioned reflex :
Previous experience is required to complete these actions e.g. swimming, cycling, dancing, singing etc.
These actions were actions were studied first by Evan Pavlov on dog.

Initially these actions are voluntary at the time learning and after perfection, these becomes involuntary.
(B) Unconditioned reflex :
These actions do not require previous experience e.g. sneezing, coughing, yawning, sexual behaviour
for opposite sex partner, migration in birds etc.

REFLEX ARCH :
– The path of completion of reflex action is called reflex arch.
– Sensory fibres carry sensory impulses in the gray matter.
These sensory impulses are converted now into motor impulses and reach up to muscles.
These muscles show reflex actions for motor impulses obtained from motor neurons.
Reflex arch is of two types.
(1) Monosynaptic :
In this type of reflex arch, there occurs direct synapse (relation) between sensory and motor neurons,
thus nerve impuse travels through only one synapse. eg.- Stretch reflex.

Diagrammatic representation of reflex

A = Bicepse tendon reflex, B = Knee jerk, C = Triceps tendon reflex

222
 Afferent Sensory Dosal
White
pathway neuron root
ganglon matter
Muscle spindle
(Receptor)

Motor Gray
neuron matter

Stimulus Efferent pathway

Response

Knee jerk reflex (Monosynaptic reflex arch)

(2) Polysynaptic :
In this type of reflex arch, there are found one or more small neurons in between the sensory and motor
neurons.
These small neurons are called connector neuroun or inter neurons or internuncial neurons e.g.
withdrawal reflex.
Nerve impulse will have to travel through more than one synapses in this reflex arch.

Withdrawal Reflex – Sensory neuron supplied the sensation through dorsal root ganglia & terminal
branches of Axon divide in the gray matter & one is supplied agonist muscle & other is supplied
antagonist muscle. ]
EPSP develop in synapse between motor fibre of agonist mucle sensory fibre & due to interconnection
of interneuron with antagonist muscle neuron,
IPSP develop in synapse between colateral branch of sensory fibre and antagonist muscle.
Therefore, contraction of agonist muscle and relax the fibre of antagonist muscle.

Knee jerk reflex Withdrawl reflex

1. No any involvement of interneuron. Role of interneuron is important.

2. It is an example of monosynaptic reflex. It is an example of polysynaptic reflex.

223
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

(1) The autonomic nervous system is that part of the peripheral nevous system which controls acivities
inside the body that are normally involuntary, such as heart beat, peristalsis, sweating etc.
(2) It consists of motor neuron passing to the smooth muscle of internal organs.
Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles.
Most of the activties of the autonomic nervous system is controlled within the spinal cord or brain by
rreflexes known as visceral reflexes and does not involve the conscious control of higher centres of the
brain.
– Overall control of the autonomic nervous system is maintained, however, by centres in the medulla
(a part of the hind brain) and hypothalamus.
– These receive and integrate sensory information and coordinate this with information from other parts of
the nervous system to produce the appropriate response.
– ANS plays an important role in maintaining the constant internal evironment (homeostasis).
– The autonomic nervous system is composed of two type of neurons, a preganglionic neuron
(myelinated) which leaves the central nervous systm in the venteral root before synapsing several
postganglionic neurons (nonmyelinated) leading to effector (concerning organs).
– Sites of ANS –

Involuntary muscles, Exocrine glands, Blood vessels, skin (Pilomotor muscles, Blood vessels, Sweat
glands)
There are the two division of the autonomic nervous system the sympathetic (SNS) and the
parasympathetic (PNS).
(i) Sympathetic system is related with such visceral reactons. Which increase the protection of body in
adverse atmospheric condictions along with calorie consumption.
(ii) Parasympathetic system is relsated with those reactions in which energy is conserved.
In this way, autonomic nervous system controls the activites of visceral organs double sided i.e.
antagonistic to each other.
(a) Sympathetic Nervous system. It is represented by a chain of 21 sympathetic ganglia on either side of
spinal cord.
It receives preganglionic sympathetic fibres from the spinal cord which make their exit alongwith
thoracic and lumbar nerves and constitue thoraco-lumbar outflow.
These fibres synapse with the neurons present in sympathetic ganglia.
From the sympathetic gangila arise post ganglionic fibres which terminate on the viscera.
Each sympathetic ganglion is connected to the spinal cord by a white communicans and the spinal nerve
by a gray communicans.
224
 Some preganglionic fibres pass through the sympathetic chain without synapsing and then join to from
splanchnic nerves eminating in some collateral ganglia which include a coeliac ganglion, an anterior
mesenteric ganglion and a posterior mesenteric ganglion.
The post ganglionic fibres arising from collateral ganglia supply digestive system and urinogential
system.

(b) Parasympathetic Nervous system. It consists of preganglionic parasympathetic fibres, parasympathetic

ganglia and distganglionic parasympathetic fibres.

Preganglionic parasympathetic fibres make their exit along with the III, VII, IX and X cranial nerves,
and II, III, IV scaral nerves.
They together form cranio-sacral outflow.
The parasympathetic ganglia do not form any chains and instead lie on or near the viscera.
The post ganglionic parasympathetic fibres aires from these ganglia and supply the viscera.

The neurotransmitter within the ganglion is acetylcholine for both sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerves.
However, the neurotransmitter between the terminal autonomic neuronic axon and the target organ is
different in the two antagonistic autonomic nervous system.
In the parasympathetic system, the neurotransmitter at the terminal synapse is acetylchloine, just as it is
in the ganglion.
In the sympathetic system, the neurotransmitter at the terminal synapse is either adrenaline or
noradrenaline, both of which have an effect oppsoite to that of acetylcholine.
There is one exception : the sympathetic postanglionic neuron that terminates on the sweat glands, uses
acetylcholine.
Thus, depnding on which of the two paths is selected by the CNS, an arriving signal will either stimulate
or inhibit the organ.
Thus an organ receiving nerves from both nervous system is subjected to the effects of two opposing
neurotransmitters.
If the sympathetic nerve ending excites a particular organ, the parasympathetic usualy inhibits it.
With few exception, organs of the body are innervated by "dual innervations", and each has a different
effect.

Functon of autonomic nervous system is to control and coordinate the activities of visceral organs. The
two components work against one another.

225
 Preganglionic
fibres through Postganglionic
cranial nerves fibres

Eye
III (Oculomotor)
Lacrimal gland

VII (Facial) Submandibular gland

Midbrain
Pons IX (Glossopharyngeal) Sublingual gland EYE

X (Vagus) Parotid gland LACRIMAL GLAND

Medulla
SUBMANDIBULAR

Oblongata
C-1 Heart

MIDBRAIN
GLAND
2 Larynx SUBLINGUAL GLAND
Trachea CAROTID
3
and ARTERY AND PAROTID GLAND
4 bronchi PLEXUS
SUPERIOR
HEART

MEDULLA
5 C-1 CERVICAL

OBLONGATA
Lung GANGLION
6 2 LLARYNX
7 3 TRACHEA
MIDDLE
4 AND
8 Stomach CERVICAL
5 BRONCHI
GANGLION
T-1 Small intestine LING
6
INFERIOR
2 7
CERVICAL
3 8 GANGLION
Abdominal blood T-1 SMALL
4
vessels 2 COELIAC INTESTINE
5 GANGLION
3
6 ABDOMINAL
Liver 4
7
BLOOD
Gall bladder 5 VESSELS
8

Spinal cord
6
Bile duct
9
SPINAL CORD 7 LIVER
10 Pancreas 8 GALL BLADDER
9 BILE DUCT
11 Adrenal medulla
10 SUPERIOR PANCREAS
12 11
Kidney MESENTERIC ADRENAL MEDULLA
L-1 12 GANGLION
2 L-1 KIDNEY
Colon 2
3
3
COLON
4
4
5 SYMPATHETIC
Rectum 5 RECTUM
CHIAN
S-1 S-1
URINARY
2 2 BLADDER
3 3
4 SEX ORGANS
4
5
AND
5
EXTERNAL
GENITALIA
(2, 3, 4 Sacral spinal nerves) Urinary Sympathetic trunk
bladder
External
genitals Uterus

Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System

226
 Sympathetic NS
1. Thoracico lumbar outflow (T1 to L3)
(Ramus communicans of T1 to L3)
2. Just lateral to vertebral column sympathetic
trunks are there on both sides (each made
up of 22 ganglia)
3. Preganglionic nerve fibres (Ramus
communicans of spinal nerves) are smaller
than post ganglionic nerve fibres (arises from
sympathetic trunk or ganglia to organs)
4. Preganglionic nerve fibres ar cholinergic
(filled with acetylcholine). and post
ganglionic nerve fibres are adrenergic (filled
with noradrenaline) except sweat gland
which have cholinergic postganglionic
nerve fibres.
5. Supply
(a) Cervical ganglia  Head, face
(b) Cervical and thoracic ganglia 
Heart
Parasympathetic NS
1. Cranio sacral outflow (cranial nerves) 3, 7, 9,
10 and sacral's ramus communication 2, 3, 4)
2. Ganglia are situated separately either near the
organ or surface of organ.
3. Preganglionic nerve fibres are longer than
postganglionic nerve fibres.
4. Both pre and post ganglionic nerve fiber are
cholinergic.
5. Supply
(a) Cranial nerve
iii – iris. ciliary muscles
vii – Tear glands, palate, pharynx,
submandibular and sublingual glands.
ix – Parotid gland, buccal cavity
x – Neck to proximal colon.
(b) Sacral 2, 3, 4
distal colon, rectum, anal canal and
urinogenital organ.

(c) Throacic ganglia  Trachea, bronchi

and lungs

(d) Preganglionic nerve fibres of abdominal

part do not form synapse in sympathetic
trunk. They form synapse in
prevertebral ganglia (coeliac, superior
mesenteric and inferior mesenteric).
Coeliac and superior mesenteric
supply – stomach to proximal colon
Inferior mesenteric asupply  distal
colon, urinogenital organ, rectum and
anal canal.

Exception
adrenal medulla receive preganglionic
nerve directly. (No any postanglionic
fibres)
6. Preganglionic nerve fibres are made up of
white ramus communicans and
postaganglionic nerve fibres are made up
of gray ramus communicans.

227
 Table of Nervous Control of Visceral Organs
Name of Visceral Affect of sympathetic nervous Affect of parasympathetic
Organs system nervous system
1. Secreton Acetyl chloine + sympathetin Only acetylcholine
2. Iris of eye Dilates pupils Constricts pupils
3. Tear glands or Stimulates secretion of lachrymal Inhibits secretion of lachrymal
lachymal glands glands glands.
4. Heart Increases the rate of cardiac contraction Inhabits the rate of cardiac
i.e. accelrates heart beat contrction i.e. retards heart beat.
5. Secretion of adrenal Stimulates adrenal secretion Inhibits adrenal secretion.
gland
6. Salivary secretion Inhibits the secretion of salivary and Stimulates the secretion of
digestive glands salivary and digestive glands
7. Blood vessels Constricts cutaneous blood vessels, Dialte all blood vessels
which causes increased blood (except coronary vessels)
pressure but dilates blood vessels of decreasing blood pressure
brain lungs, heart, striated muscles.
Incrases RBC count in blood.
8. Lungs, trachea and Dilates trachea bronchi & lungs for Constricts these organs during
bronchi easy breathing normal breathing.
9. Alimentary canal Inhibits peristalsis of alimentary Stimulates the secretion of the
canal. glands
10. Digestive glands Inhibits the secretion of these Stimulates the secretion of the
glands glands
11. Sweat glands Stimulates secretion of sweat Inhibits secretion of sweat.
12. Arrector pilli Stimulates contraction of these Relaxes Arrector pilli muclses
muscles muscles of skin, causing goose flesh
13. Urinary bladder Relaxes the muscles of urnary Contracts the muscles for
bladder. ejaculation of urine
(Micturition).
14. Anal sphincter Closes anus by contracting and Relaxes anal sphincter and
sphincters. opens the anuns (Defaecation)
15. External genitalia Ejaculation Erection
16. Basal metabolic rate Accelrates BMR Retards BMR.

228
 Special Points
1. In the brain of frog only 2 shkull meninges are presnt. The middle meninge that is the Archnoid is
absent.
2. In rabbit, man and mammals-3 skull menninges are present.
3. Increase in the amount of cerebro-spinal fluid is diseased condition termed as the Hydrocephalus.
4. "Meningitis". It arises due to infection or inflamation on injury in the meninges. Infection may be due
to virus or bacteria or both.
5. Piamater is the most vascular and conducting and provides nutrition.
6. The power of regeneration is very less in a neuron.
7. The optic lobes of frog are hollow and in them optocoel cavity is found.
8. In frog, 2 optic-lobes are present. These are hollow and termed as Corpora-bigemina. In mammals, 4
solid optic-lobes are present.
9. Around the brain of fishes, only one menix is found called : Menix-primitiva".
10. The vlave of vieussens joins the optic-lobes with the cerebellum.

11. Cerebral-cortex is made up of gray – matter and is divided into 3 area -

(i) Sensory area (ii) Motor area (iii) Associated area
12. The sensory and associated areas determine the shape, colour, sound, taste and smell of any object.
13. Motor area regulaters muscular-contraction.
14. Broca's area : It is known as motor speech area.
15. Broca's area is present in the lateral part of the frontal-lobe of the cerebrum. This area makes aware of
language; and translates the written words into speed.
16. If Broca's area are gets destroyed the animal beecomes unable to speak.
17. The temporal-lobes of cerebrum regulates the mechanism of hearing.
18. Cerebrum is the centre of following :
(1) Intelligence (2) Emotion (3) Will-power (4) Memory
(5) Consciousness (6) Experience (7) Knowledge
(8) Voluntary control (9) Laughing and weeping (10) Defaecation and micturition.
19. Diencephalon is the centre of carbohydrate – metabolism and fat-metabolism.
20. In rabbit, "Swammerdam's gland" are absent. These glands are presenet at the origin place of spinal
nerves in vertebrates & present in frog. It provide extra supply of Ca++ for synaptic transmission.
21. Cerebellum made up of three layers and in the middle of cerebellum of brain lobes of flask-shaped cells
are found called the "Purkinje-cells".
22. In the nerve-cells, "centrosome" are absent so once formed in developement, the nerve-cells do not divide
and remain in Inter-phase stage throughout their life : and grow in size with the growth of the body.

229
23. The velocity of nerve-impulse is 5 to 50 times more faster in Myelinatd nerve-fibres than in Non-
myelinated nerve-fibres.
24. In mammals the speed of nerve impuse is 100-130 m/sec (maximum). In frog, the speed of nerve
impulse is 30 m/sec. In reptiles the speed is 15 to 35 m/sec.
25. Acetylcholinesterase enzyme helps in the dissociation of Acetylcholine.
26. In the form of inhibitory neuro-hormons, - GABA are present.
GABA – gamma amino butyric – acid.
27. Acetylcholine is synthesized by the Mitochondria.
28. For the conduction of nerve-impulses, Na+ is necessary.
29. The marking of brain waves is donie through E, E, G i.e. Electro-encephalo gram.
30. In embryonic – stages inside the brain the layer of grey-matter is towards inside and that of white-matter
is towards outside.
In adults, this arrangement continues in the spinal-cord but during the development of the wall of the
brain the gray-matter is transferred outside.
31. In 1 minute 750 ml of blood is conducted to the human-brain.
32. Corpus callosum is the largest commissure of the brain.
33. Largest cranial venous sinus is cavernous venous sinus which is situated in the middle cranial fossa.
34. All preganlionic-sympathetic nerve fibre are myelinated while post ganglionic nerve fibre are non
myelinated.
35. In PNS myelinogenesis process is occurs by neurilemma (Schwan cells) while in CNS myelinogenesis
process is occurs by oligodendrocytes (Neugroglia).
36. Alzheimer's disease – In this disease, the cerebral cortex is atrophied and ultimately the ventricle
enlarges. Symptoms consist of memory particulary recent memory. Alzheimer disease is more common
in down syndrome.
Treatment – No effective treatement.
37. Stroke – May be caused by haemorhage into the brain.
Symptoms – Unconsiousness.
Treatment – Intra venous tissue plasminogen activator.
38. Epilepsy – Epilepsy is characterized by short, recurrent periodic attack of motor, sensory or
pshychological malfunction.
Cause – due to abnormal discharge of cerebral neurons.
Symptons – seizures, unconsiousness, Involuntary contraction of muscle.
Treatment – Anti epileptic drugs.
39. In human brain more than 100 billion neurons are present.
40. Each neuron cell connect with 25,000 other cell.
41. Phrenic nerve is branch of cervical plexues which supply diaphragm.
230
42. Malathione : This substance is used as insecticide and it destroy the acetyl cholinesterease in synapse
area.
43. Botulism : It is food poisoning disease and it produces by Clostridium botulinum bacteria. This bacteria
release neurotoxin.
44. Curare : is drug blocks acetylcholine receptor on skeletan muscle, so that it can be used by surgeon for
keeping a muscle relaxes during operation.
45. Corpus striatum regulates planning and execution of stereotyped movement.
46. The region between the thalamus and spinal cord is referred to as brain stem.
47. All impulse traversing a given neuron have the same amplitude, differing only in the frequency of
impulse.
48. Glycine is neuro inhibitory hormone present in spinal cord.
49. Glutamate is excitatory amino acid.
50. Trigeminal nerve is also called " the dentists nerve" because the denstists desensitizes this nerve with
some anaesthetic before pulling out the troubling tooth.
51. O3 TTAFAGVAH
1 - olfactory
2 - optic
oppti Cholear - Hearing
8 - Auditory <
Vestibular - Balance
i
ax Eye ball musele
m
di
n
ma

Ractrs Oblique
i - Sup. Ract Sup. obli
ii - Inf. ract Inf. olbi
iii- Medial ract
iv- Lat ract occulomotor (4)

6 - Abduce Trachlear
Tongue

Taste Muscle

Ant Post
2/3 1/3
(7) (IX) |ANS
Para.

231