I

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!
I
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i. I

i SolutionsManualfor
Nuclear andparticle physics
W. S. C. Williams
gf physics, [Jniversity of Oxford
Department_
and St Edmund Hall, Oifora

F
cLARENDoN
pREss.oxFoRD n
t994

til
H
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t
O{od ltntvcnttypttrr,C,tat
ClanndonSnea,O{od
On 6Dp
NcwYork
Notes
r,#
^ Athcns
AucHand
,oiord

In general,no answeris giventhat may

be found
addition,referralsto chapers,sections,'tablef in the parenttext. In
lna soon imptythattext.
Most numericalanswersare given'to
ttr"" significantfigureseven
is a tradena* ol Ogord r probtemmayeithergivJth;;"i;";;;re
,,.Ogod Univatity pnst ,,l.o.lqh
Iesser precisionor askonly foi an estimate. initiatquantitywith a
publishcd
ln.thc (lnltcd The varuesof constants
byoxlord(lnivcni,yrrui States usedhaveur"oir,otr foundby the
t:lvJ.,,li"h
r*t givenin AppendixB of thep.t nt t"rt. directions
eufgiir"t numberis missins: rhc
'"ff:::::!"aY
@l{J. C.Wiiliaw, 19% internationa'y agreedvatue-to- fourstc"ifi;;;ft;r"rl; ;-d;;;n,ri#i:
The 'mol' is the srammore.Normafit;.-il'ilft
systemof unitsis used
which-mearS trralthisn*u".r,.r'io6;;;;
donefrequi|.ndy ffi:or, x 1d6;thishasbcen
andwitnoutcomment.

W#
I ne valueof e is themagnitude of theelectronic charge.In someplaces
tsed.energy r"i"*i""e""'iiy, used massnC and
::l:I:
rnomentum ili _.is
pc insteadof m.andp, or giveni"ro.i1ig,
io unit :omi*Xil"^. .o,,,."
r$ ^_1_1":f.UJems
are
require the atomic ,fi"rr.,
notgivenin theorincipaltextsoin each "ip"rticular isotopes. These
;;;; havetakenthemassto
bez{ unifiedatomicmassunits.
The definitivequestions are those.of the reprintingof the fint edition.

re:$f
Fourmisprintshavebeencorrectedin
tt ueriionsgivenhere.one omis-

*,r*,-,,.*rffirW
sionis.also-corrected: "
the wavefunctt"";""#bt probrem3.gisnowthe
normalized wavefu nction

A catologuc
Oxford
rccotdlor thl,s
bok b avallabtcfun thcgrltlsh January1994
Ubraryo! CongrutCr
Ltbnry
w,s.c.w.
,";;";':,fi#tf:!,!!.:fiw:ti".nDatu
antc!ePhY
ttc'lt '4'ls'c'
' xP
:^rl;;gffi
rf'*r;#"!tr#:,r:$y::|
,rrr.f
printed
in Greu grirt
* b,
R,d";; ; ; ;: #l b\i)t:,;i,?
 Solutionsto exercisesin Chapter 1

Exercises
Trythe followingproblems, keepingan eyeon Sections- ,|.2and ,|.3,in orderto rakerhe
unfamiliarity
out of tho Rurherford
scattering
forrnrl..
1'1 Csrcurate
thocross-section
for thescattering
of a 10 MeVc.particro
(Z-79, A-197) rhroughan angtagreater by a gordnucreus
thania) io:, iif zo., (c) 30.. Negte* nucrear

1.2 Forthesamecircumstance asin probrem t ,i carcurate

thedifferentiar
scanering
cross-
sectionda/do fmt sr-r for scatteringat I 0.,

1,'3, Rutherford scattering

formura
hasths properrytharas the angreof scatter,
.lr d-0..
dold0-q' Thopracticar circumstances
arethatthe incidentparricro
ths whol6.a^rom. wiil be scanered
by
Suggesrwhathappens to ddldOa; i_dln ,n,, ..rr.
1'4 show thatthe distanceof crosest
approach
d, in Rutherford
scattering
leadingto an
angleof deflection
4 is givenby

d =t0 +cosec012).

whorop is dofined
in Fig.1.6.
IUsetheconsorvation of energyandangula,momentum.l

Solutions
1.1 Usethe formulain Table1.2for a(d
> O):

oQ> a)' =tz!,22

r+)', (*\'
4 \atr€o/tc/ \fi "oeep .
Now Z - 79,z = 2, ?,= 10 MeV. For =
O l0o:

o(d>lo') - -l--
1792'22 |
1- \2 /197.3\2
(tm,i/ (fr/. cot,s"f.,,

rF
= 5.31x l0{ fm2.
sinilarly for g = 20o,o = r.3r x l0r frn2,
and for o = 30",o = b.66x r03fmz .
tl3 of.4 for gold (u9) is not requiredbut iudicates
latue that the target nucreusis heavy
and the recoil efects, which havebeeo
oeglect.d,Jiil. ,*"rr.
1.2 Use the formula for (da/d0) from
Table 1,2:

h
 2 Chapter I

Chapter t 3
do(O)
_2r", I lgz.3r2
d=T(#ii#)-.**.f. '
Exercler
*i;"
1.5 DEfinethedifferentiar
cross-section
daldein a scanering
Z = 79,2 = 2,7 = l0 MeV, d =
10. gives formuta.
for thescanering
cross-section
ot c-parrictes fuess, oeriveRutherford.s
iiliJi 'nt whh kineticenergvr on a
treavy
riucteuswil;ilJ;
do
(10")= 5.60x 105fm2sr-r
.'
;5
('n;Hi'eo';'
#F=
. $ :,
r.3 As d approaches
lt:, where e is the erectronicchargeand.dis the scatterrng
angre..iindarwhat conditionsdo
r.i?^r:jll]iryt deviarionsfromlhis formutaoccur?lilusrratoy"ul;ffi;;y.discu;in;
for collisionsexpectedto give
pa.rimeter,
varies
asd_r.Thisimpliesl,ihat 15MeV c'partrciesbv rhin targs* of atuminrrr iil;.r"..rrg ;t
decreasiog,.r^dr ol scatter, f.io.i. numberz-13, atomrcweight
thenucreaicharge;;;* the distanceof crolest (z-79,
n.to A-197).Assume
thenucrr;;rbJ;;Bissiven
"ogl;
rel gnecqive ffilf;.0 approximatory
bythe
:i,::::f;Tffijil,:':,::9 asit rsin*easirigry
cross_secti
onismuch,
""ii:i'ji:i,lT[I*,;;; l"Jjnl,
eppearselectricallyneutral ro *il"lll;i# lfr.X
e passing;;rr"
etrd rhereis !o scatcerlog.
R - l . 2 l r l r xl 0 - r r m .
fiomthc1988cxomlnltlon
InrhcHonourr
schootoiiNrrurrtsctrno,phyrlc|,unlvcrltyo,
1.4 In Fig, L5, Chodistnnco nifiit
ofclocortnppronclr lo 't
d. dccurtlng
o
Boforotho colllslontbo lnclclont nt polnt D. wo hovol
d,il.j;],* 1,0 show thotthc Ruthcdord
klnotlconcrgy dlttofontral
,olttorrngcrorr,rootron
-!- tormsof theaquared tormurroenbc wrlttcnrn
mechaaicaliotentiatenergr tr*o', momontum transfer
f as
- 0,
angularoroa.otunr about
O = mub.
At D it has: o !a.-4xZ'z'a'(hc)z
kinetic energy oQ. ft.tt
= t
mechanicaliotentiat energy *-*y'., whore4 is the fine'structur€constantand u is
augutar = Zze2.f4nesd', the verocityof the dofroctedparticre.
, momentum about o I:
Coaservationof -or.ot-u. giuo 1.7..1frhe,rarge-ans.re
mab =X!, scattersobssrvedby Rutherfordhad not beenthe effectof singre
's1,
"ogul".
Conservationof totl scatteringbut or murripre
scaneringlseep. tro* *oufiine yiordat fixedanlre *" *i,r,
Erimiaating
r andusinsrr. ;I1;;:" I maz = ! iu' + (zze2
/ nesd)
. ths.thicknossof ths target materiai?In the formei
iise, negrectingattenuarionof rhe
incidentbeam,tho yierdwiil increaserinearry*if,
rntrir*. what wourd be the depen.
doncefor multiplescattering?
d 2- p d - b 2 = 0 , fconsidera randomwsrkprobrem: eachsmalscattorisrikea hopon thesurface of a spher,.
startingat a pore,n randomrydirectedsmarrrr"p, *iri iri, you a disrance
Thatdistancewi[ varywith eachtrialof n hops fromthe pore.
but it trasan avorsgeovo,msnysuchtrials.
How is the msgnitudeof that averagedistanco
expecred io dependon n?The connectsd
ideasarethoseot diffusionandBrointian^oiiii.i--'--
a=)er*1@+76,1.

But d can only be positive,

therefore

o' l=/ -r, P ( l + y ' I + b r l p r.) Solutions

1'5 see page35 for a definition of the differential
UsingEq. 1.4gives angurarscatteriugcross-section.Flom
pages6 to 8 aud Thble 1.2 we have

r P ('*..*.
do(0) | zze2 \2
-an- , 0
I
= cose,'i'
o=
f) Fora-particles,
z = 2, eothat
\iGA/
 4 Chapter1
Chapter1 5

DeviatioaswiUoccur.if,I..d:*Tt
#=(#*"'f)' Now

-do = _da_ _
dq'
dO dd
of_closest
approach
is lessthau the nuctear dn d0 dq2
,:1,: !X:f
f,k-,T-t,
i f.Ti
,:L.l
Rutherford
g":l
fououla
ttiq.l.q.
fortle scatteriui.rorr
r,.,.pJiir,J .rosest
l*:t:*k* ir*llp . n;.;1;'rJ;::"Hil:T.TT: possibre
approach
r..,ioo,;.;r;;"fi;;:'fi'::.lt:T':ff
occurs
=(#)'""",
orznrior
r#ffi
will
will lead
lead to
to deriatiqps
deriatiqps ffon
ffon the
the iou.i..qu*.
inveie souaret"*'f-
t"*'f* C^,,,^-h
il;#fi:'-:;rnra^. rrr^-.
:i-
., p Zze2/4reoT= Zzahc/T
.=
- v-l -1
L.i t
97.3\
-fh
L
1.7^ Tbe motion of a singlega.smoleculeis an exampleof a random
\ t 3 2 . 0 4 l? M e V l - . walk. The rengthol
AIso,ueglectingthe radiusof tbe o-particle,the efiective eachstep is determiaedin a randomway by the morecurarspeed
R is givenby and by the time io the
next collision,Neglectingpersistanceof velocities,tbe direction
of eachstep is raudomly
.R=1.2/lfm. I orientedwith respectto the directionof the previousstep. In these
circumstances,over
many tri{s of a walk lastiug a total fixed time r, the meansquare
displacementof tbe
moleculeDT is proportional to the time l, multiplied by the ,o.uo
,qu"r. of the distance
betweencollisionF. If thereis a meanvelocitythen the numberofcollisions
is proportional
R to t and hencethe root meansquare(r.m.s.)displacementis
Potentlalenergyof a-perticle
at uucleareurface (D')tt' x @P)l.
Thus the r.m.s. displacemeDt over many trials is proportionarto the squareroot of the
'slncsp < ,? for alumlnrum
lut not for 6ord,dovratoas
- -t fromRutherford,e numbcrofcollisionsinthcwotk.(Joos,G.(l99l). Thiotvticu!l,hysict(2it<Jodn),
will be expected fromtheformerbut not thoiatter. formuta llluckic,
Londoo,)

l|131,.r.i,* llu:t*T,?f ln tboiiocrrocrottc

j:pnrrtctor 0oldofrhonuclouaortra Multlplo rcottorlngbohovcsltr tho somcwnyrlnccsucccr.rcivc collisionshovcuncor-
:l*:,.y_qlf lljy
aluainiumnucleus
r!!p.
but not that"rJ.ry
ii il.v;:ilffi;;'';T il::ili::::l lT
.
rclotedanglceof ecotter.Thc r.m.s,uglc of scaitc, aftc* collisious proportional
is to
ofa jold ou.irurl 1np-2)lwhered-2is thc mean'quare of the scatteringauglein a singlecollision.since
:P3:*:,.": -"-:,rl.ijiyg,...."rlC1. conect
Jalculation
musrbedone
in the n is proportional to the thicknessof materiartraversJdby the particle,
the r.m.s. angre
(seesection ?.3). F;;;:;il;-;;;ilr;ffi;:'.:,".:;; increasesas the squareroot of the thickness.
:fi1,:iij-ilT^:j,r,Tocouisiou
in tbet frameia Rutherfordwasableto ehowcxperimentally that thc ,urnbcroflurgcanglcsc&tters
for a-particlesincreascdas thc lhickncssand could not thcrcforc
27 bc due to the ellectof
MeV= 12'14
Mev' roultiplescattering.
frAts
conclusionremainsthat the o-particles
caa reachthe aucrearsurface.
Flom Table 1.2

from Fig. l.Z

#=(ffi)'.o.,.'f,'
q = 2 P s i n f* , U .pr u= f f i , T=f,mvr.

{ 2 = 8 m ? e i n 2afu, ac o s e c ,
i=ry

dq2 = 8m?sin d dd ,
dQ = 21sin0dd.

.4
I
 --:' Chaptet2 7

(a,)21= /, = 1, d = I fm: U,= 1.44MeV,

Solutionsto exercises
in Chapter 2 '
(b\4=2,22=lS, d=10fm: U=22.7MeY,
(c) 21- 22 = lg, il = 2 x 1.2(115)l fn: U = 261MeV.

Exerclses 2.2 Thebest estimate of the mean life is to take the averageof the 20 observedlives:
this gives 9,9 ns. In practice the equipmentmay, for example,be uaable to measurevery
2.1 calculat€thepotontialenergyin MeVdueto the courombrepursion short lives and may missvery longlives;theseeffectsbiasthe result and wouldhave to be
of
( a ) two protonssepararld
by a distance taken into accouut in a precision measurement.
of 1 fm;
(b) a gofdnucleus(Z=79) andan
a_panicle(Z=2) wirhtheircenlreslOfm apart; 2.3 One litre of COz at S.T.P. containsa number(N) of carbonatomsequal to Avo-
(c) two nucleiZ=46,A=115,radius g=,|.2x4,/rfm, gadro'snuobe! (6.022 x1023mol-t) divided by 22.4litres mol-r. The rate of dp,cayof
justnottouching.
the uC is given by
2 . 2 An investigation
of themeanrifeof theK'-mosonyrerded dNrr -''"t'
20 evenrsof thedocayinode =
T
K' < p'*v",
i:

whcreNrr is the numberof lrO atomspresentendo ls tbe l'O decaytransltlonrate.But

in whichthetimeintervar
between
thearrivar of the K.-mesonin a detectorandthe (dNrr/d4 = -5 per minute. Thus Nu is given by \fu, wherear-r = 8267years' Using
wasdetermined, lhe meanrifeof tho K.-mesoniroi ttresem.asuramentsdecay
Estimato minutesfor the time unit this gives
(timoin

-Nrr
= 5x8267x365.25x24x60
N -Ir;t-x22.4
,,#-0"' ., 2.1
..,t
31.r :, l,
2,1 1.
03 ^:. -6. i.t I
?- i.t s ro
,f,..o
3C.4 i.t i.s 8.09x 10-13.

12 13 t4 15 16 17 18
1 6 , 21 9 , 011 , 2 5,3 15,7 6,1 13,0 1 9
3,0

2 ' 3 I n a s a m p r e oofn s l i r r e ocfa r b o n d i o x i d e r i t . s r p a n a v o r a g e o f

6disintegrations,
r l C- ' f N + g - + 9 .
of the K' meson
ThadeQay
Catcutate i
,lirlXr.:lr.rr,g#ure.
rheatomic of rlc presont
fracrion lf themeantifaof,r

'
K' -ll'+ y,
K| arl *lC ,l
Solutions
Kri11.+ri+lto
2,I The (mechanical)potential-energy '
of two pointJike positive chtges Zp a:ad..Z2e, K'rt!'+tto+no ,
separatedby a distanced is U, given
by: ('*1'+p'*v, r
K'+Z+ f c'*Y-
,_Zfizez _ZrZzahc
This appliesequallvto t*o s113.icailJ1i,0*netric Th6msanlile of the K'-mesonis 1.237x 10-'s.
clarge disrributions,centresseparated
by a distanced, providedthe charge
distriuutio* aoTot overlap.The latter is the
(unrealistic)in this question.In case
oui nuclearunits:
i
= z,z, 197'3 |
U(MeV) Solution i
Then u7.04
dfm' 2.4 The meanlife of the K+ mesonis 1.237x l&E s = r. The total decay transition
rate is o * r-L = 8,084x 10?s-1. Multiply by a branchingfractiou to obt&in the partial
 8 Chapter 2 j:
Chapter 2 I
transition rate for that mode.
Thus for K+ + p++ z (aalled
Kr2)
u(Kr2) = 0.635x 8.084x rt Exercise
107s_r
= 5,13x 107s-l
$ 2 . 6 , 1 3 8 i( m e a n l i f e T . 2 d a y s ) d e c a y s b y / - p a r t i c l e e m i s s i o n t o ' l l l P o ( m e a n l i f e 2 0 0 d a v s ) ,
t.
Aad so on for the other which in lurn decaysby c-particleemissionto'l3tPb.lf a sourceinitiallYcontainsonly pute
modes. ,l3Bi,atter how long will the rate of a-particleemissionreacha maximum?

(Adapled Physics,
in the HonoursSchoolof NaturalScience.
fromths 1960sxaminstion Univetsity
of
Oxford.)

Exercise
sample of gold is axposed : '
to of constant intensitv such
ns por socondara absorbed rhar 10,0
,ll ,tr:::::lllttm

tllAu+n' lr4uar. Solutiou

2.6 The decayschemeis:

Ih:lilli'.il1il'#:,".n{,i",?'o:;.'31',:#:H.ff
presontat thattime.assumino Tl,!"3sedavsHowmany rro6r
6or
Numberat timet = N,(t)
Transitiontate = o.
equiribrium
number ;,T;:;n''d;tlJff;:il;ffitrJJ',HT:iiriif.Xlii:
or,,,o, !l r!9pa Numberat timet = Nr(t)
fromthc1974erami*ionin x' v Transltionrate = @r
ffii5t rheHonou.schoorof N'urar physics,
science, University
of
tPb Numberat timet = Nr(t)
Now
Solution t . t ,l M./r\
(l)
Nr(t)
: i ?=-<rr
?'5 Ft /v(r) nunbei*r:rrl nucrei
oecav is rulv(r)where'
"rgu
rate of production(assung.o*t*t;
preseur ,,-. J,'10*
a.."r-tt"or't;fi #J", ;r thedpcavtherateof rossdueto
of thisnuclide.
If p is
t dNrl;(t)
o,
= +orNr(t) -u)2N2(t) (2)
;;;.-""..
' If n (t) is the rate of c-particle emissionat time t we have
i lt alyrrr *
&(t) = u2 N2(t) .
This basthe aolutlon ' ,
i SinceN2(f) is alwaysgreaterthan or equalto zero,& is a maximumwhen
D
N(t) = : (t - ocp(-r..rt)).
--a;-=' '
dNr(r)
l.Vehavet = 6 days,r.r-r=
3,g9daysandp = 1gl0r_r. The solution to Eq. 2 is
&ves SuUstituting
with consistent
units
N(6 days)= 2.64x l0r5. Nr(r)= ry - exp(-ar1r)]
[exp(-ar2t) .
,, trJl-O2' "

This is' in fact' the number This give the maximum in rt"(t) when
produced lessthe aumberdecayiug
produced is Pt = 5.1gx rotr. tt*.. tt. in 6 days.t[g arrmls'
;;;;;ff;".
tD turn, is equatto the amount ,".It.ilil;;:'end decayed = 2.s4x lors ani this, u2exp(-u2t) = ur exP(!r;t) ,
nuober/V(oo)of DrAu $ of 6 days.The equillibrium which gives
occurswten arv[r=_i, il"'r'i
*o.o I ie verylargeand t.o = --l- 1o3! .
uL-U2 U2
P=lf(oo)r.r,
heace Now arfl = ?,2 days and tr2-r= 200dayshence
,

N(o)=#=t.ru !-rr = -*rr3o d&vs

,*".,.,1 6;766i'"A
= 24.8doys,
 l0 Chapter2
Chaptar2 ll

Exercise '
Exercises
2.7 Naturalpotassiumhasan
616mis\ rsight of 39.Oggand contains
of the isoropef!K, which has two O.Ol1g atomic percenl 2.8 Naturaluraniumfoundin the Earth's crustcorftainsthe isotop€s23!Uand23!Uin tne

I
decay modes:
atomicratio7.3x 10-! to 1. Assuming thatat thetimoof formationthesetwo isolopes
were
produced.equally, estimate thelimesinceformation giventhatth6meanlivesareL03 x 10t
ifK-fiCa+/ +9. (fdecay), i r
and 6.49i I 0t yearsrespecti\/ely.
i f K + c -+ ffAr'* v. (clectroncapturetsccSection
5.3) i
2,9 Chemicalanalysis
of a meteoriteshowsthatit contains1 g of potassium
tnd 1g-ag of
|.$
'--i!Ar+7. noargon
argonformedfromthodecayof r'|K.Usingtheresultsof Problem2.7andassuming
finda valuefor theageof the meteorita.
hasescaped.
wheref!Ar' meansan excitedstate
of f!Ar. In this casethis excitedstate
grounctstateby eminino& decaysto the (Adaptod,from
ths1966oxamination Schoolof Natural
in thoHonours Physics,
Science, University
of
single7-tiy. rn. totai-iniensitvof
2'7 x 101kg-rs-r ef natuiarpotassiur /.paniclesemittedis Oxford.)
rna onir,aru.r.na,nrr" are12
every100p-partictes emitted.Esrimate Trays emittedto
th€ mea;life;;;{K. 2.10 Writedown the law of radioactivity dacay.Definethe half-lifeand meanlife of a
nucleusandobtainthe rslationbetweEn
radioactive them.
Thenucleus of 4.7x 10!oyearsand
llRb decsysintoth6groundstatoof !!Sr,with a half.-life
a maximum f-energyot 2i2kav, Discussbrieflytho difficuhiesyou mightsncounterin
anampting to mcasuie thls half.life.
proportions
Fivedifferent samples
of chondritic ryteoritasarefoundto havoths following
Solution of !fRb,$Sr and!lSr.
2.7 The decayschemefor
!!K is
Meteorlter llRb/llSr llSt/llSr

Msdss olao o,?!7

Homonoad 0,t 0,76,|
'0,747
Erudorhclm 0,72
l3ca Kyuehu 0.0 0.739
BathFurnaco 0.09 0.706

There are 2.T xr'a 0- cmitted per

secondper k'ogram of naturarpotassium. Giventhatthonucteus !!Sris nota daughter productof anylong-livedradioactive
nucleug,
12,y-raysemittedper 100p- so that There are
the tot"t r"-t-r'oii.."y, i, showthatrhossdataareconsistant with a commonprimordial tatiollSr/$Sranda common
agafor all thEsemoteorites
andfind thatagp,
t.l2 x 2.7 x 1grs_r 1*_r
(!,dspt€d in theHonours
fromihe1979sxrminstion in Nstural
School Physict,
Science. University
of
= 3.024x 104s-r kg-r . Oxford.)

from llK which has ar atomic fraction 2,11 Giventnatthecarbondioxideof iiroblem2.3 is froma sampleof carbonwhichwas
1l:_.,
x l0-.. *"tr-"re in natural potassiumof t.l8
Thereforethe number,.rr, of
!$K p; ;l;;am is given by fixsd in a biological whenthe tlC/tlC ratiowas 1O-ir,calculate
specimen lhe ageof the
"tonr spgcimon. .
N = l.t8x l0-rx
5ffi "6.022xt023kg-r
= 1.818 x l02rkg-r .
tl: *',r.o1.0*ays is -(drf/dt) = uN where
aris the transitionrate.Tbe meanlife is
ra-' andis therefore
giveuby

- 1.818x1021 Solutions
,-r
3.024x tOa that at some.time,t = 0, the two isotopeswere producedin equal
2.8 We ass.ume
,f
DUmOeHt l
= 6.012x l0l6s = l.g0 x lOeyears
I N2rr(t = 0) = N236(t= 0) ,
c
l..?
i
 ',
12 Chapter 2
Chapter 2 13
with obvious lotation. By the radioactive
decaylaw
z,t0 The radioactivedecaylaw is N(r) = N(0) exp(-rat). The half life, tr, occurswhen
Nns(t) = N(ii) = (l/2) N(0),hencefr =(l/w) ln 2: meanlife x ln 2.
&r(o) exp(<u23sr), '
, The rubidium decaysclemeis
.'
/Vrsr(| = &rc(o) exp(:la3gr) . ---\- years
SinO r= 4.7x 1010
At the presenttime, t,
p-\
lVz35(t)
=?x l0-s/Vro (r)
.- \ szc,
38e'
hence : A measurementof a balf-life of tbis magnituderequiresa determination of the
Z x l0-3 = exp(_u2j5t)/expt_a.,46t)
. numberof decaysper secondfrom a sampleof 87Rbof a known weight.(Table 2.4, (3)).
This samplemust be suficient to give a statistically significaotnumber of detectable
Given r.,'fi = 6.49x lOeyearseod rr* = decays(seeSection 2.11). It is understandingthe detectionefficiencywhich causesthe
1.03x lOeyearswe solvefor l. The result
is major problems.Relevantpoints are:
t = 6.07x10eyears
l. The kinetic energr spectrumof the electionsemitted is continuousfrom zero to
= 272 keV. (SeeSection5.3).
the estimatedageof uranium,
2. The eficiency for the detectionof suchelectroasdependscritically on the behaviour
2'9 To do this problem we have of electronsof this energr rangein the materialof the sourceand detector.
to assumethat tbe potassiumin the
the sa.e age as the potassiu,q roura "frh meteorite has
* ti.-zuil. ailows us to use the terrestrial 3. The efficiencyalsodependson the geometryof the sourceand detectorsystem.
value of the {K fraction to.determine tb; ;; li .oK so.uiuiog in the meteorite. 4, Someof tbeseefiectsare very dificult to model so that an accuratecalculatioaof
of t'apped,oA(plusiufenea;frjaei.r.ioo whenthe,ootassiuo
19_10".:* into
tacorporated was detectionefrciencymay be impossible;subsidiaryand calibratiugmeasulements Day
the meteorite.
The l g of potassiuo.coirtains. be necessary.
(6.022 xro', /gg-og9)atoms of potassium
fraction 1.18 xl0-4 a^re.oK.fnus of which
vr wu a
tle nunU.r.f'r"*i"f"S .rI( Age of chondriticmeteorites.A constantamountof 665ris presentin eachmeteorite.
";;rr;'-s For a given meteorite,let a be the ratio of the numberof atomsof 87Rbto tbat of 865r
iVr = 1.82x l0lE . and p be the ratio of atomsof 675rto 865r.Theseratios are changing.Let o(0) aud p(0)
The 10-5 g of '0Ar contains.(6.022xro23,x be tbeir valueswben this meteoritewasformed,aud a(t) and d(t) their valuesat the time
10{/40) atons (assumingan atomic weight
of 40 for thislsotope). But tho decayof .r of measurement.Applying the law of radioactivedecayto the amountof t?Rb gives:
p.o'uiao io' atoms of .'ce for 12 of {oAr,
Tbua tbo total numborofdocay productels '
dg(t)
= -ro(r)
trO=E
n2

= l,4l x l0rt, a(l) = a(0)sxp(-q,r)

,
By tboradloactlvo
docqy
lrw
Nx = (Ne+ Nx)exp(-ufi, wheret.r is tle decaytransitionrate for 8?Rb.lt followi that the accumulationof 675ris
given by
where I is the time the meteorite was
formed and r.r is tbe decay transition rate found
Problem 2.?. Then in
p(t) = p(0) + o(0) (1 - exp(-cat))

' = jr ( No*Nr
/Vx ) {
- 1) .
= f(0) + o(t) (exp(u.rt)

The data are o(t) and p(t) for five meteorites.If thesefive caseshavethe samep(0) and
= 1.09x lOeyears. havea commonage,i, then a plot of p(t) agaiusto(t) will be a straight iioe with slope
(exp(ot)- l), whereu-t = tt/h2.
 1tj r$ it
14 Chapter 2 , ', ,li
Chapter 2 lE
0.76.'...--
Modoc
0;75 Homestead
uruo€meim Exercises
0.74
Kyushu 2.12 A beam.ol neutrons of kineticenergy 't0r s-i traverses
0.29eV,inlensity normally
a {oil
nr., 0'73 of l3fU.thickness
10-t kg m-2,Anyneutron-nuclous canhaveoneof threepossible
collision
Pt(,,
0.72 rosults:
0.71 (1) elasticscdtterlng
of neutrons:r 12x10'30mt.
Bathfurnace (2) captureof the heutron followedby rhe emissionol a y-rcy by the nuclaus:
0.70
d.r7 x lo-tt m!,
0.69 (31captureofthe neuton followedby splittingof nucleusinto two almostequsl parts
0.4 0.6 0.8 t.0 . (fission):6r,rfxlQ'ri6z.
a(t)

(a) the attonuation of.theneutrdnbaamby thofoil;

Thepointsaresufrcientlycloseto a (b). thenumberof fisslonreactions persecondin thefoil,causedbythaincident
occurring
stnight lineto conclude that theyh"u*,u.oo.oo -
ageauda commonprimordialratio beam; |
of "s./;rsr. fi;;ratio is p(0) andis tbe (c) the flux of elastically
wheao(t) = 0; irs valueis 0.2.The interc.ept scattered
noutronsat a point10m frorh.thefoil andoul of the
,f""j h-i.oii -srvingI = 4.8 xlOeyears incidentbeam.assumingisotropicdistributionof the scattorednEutrons.
commo'.age. for the
,
(Adaptod
tromlha1970ersmlnation
of thr Honours of Naturst
School Phydcs,
Scioncs, Univ.rslty
ol
2'11 The atomicfraction:l Oxford.) j
theramplewasfoundto be 8.09xl0;r3;
result of ageingfrom an initiarl,a:: this is the t
ratio of -"g.rJ"
r.o
The radioactivedecaylaw then gives "i-o-".
ih'. o'."o rife of .c is g267years. 2.13 Definewhatis maantby tho terrh'cross.section'applied to.anuclearreaction.
;;
A tiquidhydrolentargetof volumsl0:' mt anddensity60kg m:! is immersed in a broad,
t = 8267
r (#) = lzsoyears uniform,ihonoenergeticbeamof negativo 10t particles
pions,of intensity m'2s{. At a beam
momentum of 300MeV/ctheonlyreaction, apartlromelasticscattering,whichtakesplace
is
t!- +Piz'+n
whh a cross-section of 45 mb (4,6x1O-smt).(Thonourral piondecaysin themodotto-21,
with negllglbly Shortlifetlme,)
Calculatethon-umber of 7-raysemittedpersecondfromthe tafget.
l.
(Adapr6d tromtnsh7l bramination of lhe*onourcSchoolof NsturslScience,Physics.
University
of
Oxford.) i
2.14 Atargetofnatfir{boron (aromiccomposition20%'g8,80%'lB) inthelormofathin
foilwhichhasa masspbrunitareaof 1 kg m-, istraversed normally by a beamof neutronsof
kineticenergy1 keV,Theonly significant noutronabsorption is by the A-10 isotopefor
whichthe crol$-section hasthe valueof 19.3barnsat I kev.Thisabsofption laadsto th€
emissionof arfc-panicld.The residualnucleusis lefi in its groundstatein 30%of the
roactions 6ndfoi theremainder in anexcitedstateat abo&t500keVfromwhichit decaysby
rlngtel-ray emlialonto ihc gfoundrtrto, Strtothc Zrnd A of th. r..ldurl nuclcurrnd
oaloulltothc ylolpof gemmoroyr'whontho bcomhil rn lntonrltyof l0r porrcoond,Th!
offootof clortloroltterlngol noutronrIn the torgrtmry br n$l|oi.d,
(Adoptod ftomrhcrtgSS ox!mlnltlonot rheHo^our.Sohoolol Nlturrl8olcno.,Phy.lor,
Unlvo.rltV
of
Oxford,)

I
'
Solutions i
2,12 Tbe total cross-section (o) of zrsli 1o,treutronsof 0.29 eV is the sum of the given
that is a = 2.7 x 10-26m2. We give tbe attenuationas the fraction of the
cross-sections,
 16 Chapter 2 Chaptet2 L7

iocideot bea,rntransmitted and that is exp(-naa), where.n is the numberdensityof nuclei teke the atomic weight of the isotopesinvolvedto be l0 and 11.A superficialmassdeusity
r0B as the only effcctivetarget' Then
lu the target and c is the thic&ness.This follows from Eq. 2.16 which is an integrated of I kg m-2 becomes(20/108)kg m-2 of
version of tbe operational Case 2 in Table 2.2. In this case as is the super0cial target
20 6.022x 1026
density nultipligd by Avogadro's number and divided by the target atomic weight: that n"=i6Tt--I0-.
is -.
,**,- -1 0 - r x 6 . 0 2 2 x 1 0 2 6 is 19'3 barns (= 1'93 x 10-27m2) so the numberof
Tbe neutron absorptioncross-section
nt=
235 absorptionsis (Eq. 2.17)
This gives I

exp(-noa)'= 0.9931. 105(l - exp(-nor)) = 2129s-r .

The fraction, 0.69%,of the incident bea,minteractiuggives meau collisionoutcomes yield of 'y-raysis
in A fraction oI 70Toof all other absorptionslead to a single7-ray so the
the retio of the cross-sections;thus the fraction that lead to fissionis (2.0/2.2) so that
the mean aumber of fissionsin the ta.rgetis 1491s-t '
2.0 0.69 The reaction is
,',r *.x105=Slls-r. n.+tfB + o +!Li 1or]Li' +lli + ?) ,
The elasticallyscatteredfractior is 2 xlo-to
/2.7 x 10-26of the numberinteractingwhich
gives 5.11 x l0-2 s-1. These neutrons are scattereduniformly in all direction,
ia th. so that the residualnucleushas Z = 3, A = 7.
mean intensity at a distance of 10 m, through a surface facing the target is that
divided
by 4n&, d = 10 m. The result is
Exerciges
4.02x l0-5 s-r E-2 .
2,15 A particlecounlerregisters 8n avorageof 0.453 countsper second.What is the
2,1g Cross-section is a meas,ueof collisionprobabilitybetweentwo particles.Classically probability
' that it 2
registers in any onesecond?
the couceptis etraightforward.Tlansformto the framein which one particleis at A largeicounterrigisters1296in tan minutasso thatthe bestestimate of its rateis 2'16
rest; the thatthismeasurs'
rateandthe ptobability
moving particle will suffer a collision with the particle at rest if the former's trajeoory persecond:sslimatethe erroron thismeasured
montis low by morothantheenor.Assumethatthe Poisson distributionP(n'm)lor largem
interceptssomedisc representingthe areapresentedby the stationery particle: the
cross- is approximated by a Gaussian with meanm andstandard
distribution deviationm!/2.
sectionis the srea of the disc.In statisticrtlsituationgthe conceptis takenoverto calculate,
for example, the collision rate betweenparticlesin a gas in terms of a cross-section,
2 . 1 6A n a . p a r t i c l e omf a s s 4 M a n d S p evepda s s e s n e a r t h e n u c l eauns ao tf o m o a
f tomic
In atomic aud subatomic physicsthe sameideascan be applied, and the operational
numberZandatomicweightA(>4).Thec.partic|ehasanimpactparameterban
defnitions ia Table 2.7 con be used. Applied to a nucrear reaction, a colision scattered throughan angled' Derivethe approximate relation, for smalld'
cross.
section will hsve to be subdivided into partiel ooss-sections each defined by
a specific
outcone of the collision. Q=(Zd)l(4xeoMo'b).
numericalpart of the problemis a csndidatefor the case I operationaldefini-
- Th. on a foil,thickness
tion ofcross-section given in 1bble 2.?. The ta.rgetcoatains A beamof a-particles with speedr.2x10tms'r is incidentnormally
l0-rm, of gold(z=79, A=197,density1.9x',l0.kgm-r). Estimate the proportion ot d-
particles whereeact scalteris of at least10'. in Vaversing
sufferingdoublsscattering, the
foil, ',
atoms of hydrogen. Each proton, by case 1, has a probability of suffering a collision schoolo.fNalu,al
in lhoHonouts science,Physics. of
univqrsity
by an (Ad6pted lromrhe1970Examinslion
r--mesou leadingto zr0-meson productionthat is 4.8 ;16-ro [r * 19r r:zl-r. Oxford.) \
llldent
Thus the mea,lnumberof reactioasis 161e-t. Eachreactionproducesoaer0 which
decays
with a mean life of about l0-r6.s into 21+ays
ltauie s.q. Thus the number of ,y-rays
pro{-ucedin the target is 322 s-t. since the chanie of a
7-ray interacting in hyd,rogenis Solutions
smdl, this number can be taken as the numberemitted per secondfromlhe which
target. The 2.15 The context of the questionimplies that the counteris detectingParticles
'elculation has to neglectthe beam
atteuuationas it travemesthe target since no targer The number of counts in
shapehas beeagiven. are firing the counterrandomlyat a meanrate of 0.453s-1.
Poissonstatistics.ftom Table 2.8, the probability of
oou ,..oid will be governedby the
z'fa w9 u9eequations2.r7 with )t = no,Now n is the numberof roB detectingn (integer)in one secondwhen tbe meanis rn is
nucleiper unit
wl1n9 of the ta.rget.This translatesinto nc being the superficialmassdensity l0B
nultiplied by Avogadro's number and divided by t-beetomic weight this
of
of
isotope. we
=t#
P(n,m)
 18 Chapter 2
. Chapter 2 L9
with n = 2 and m = 0.453tbis gives the probability to be 0.06s2.(Note that
a real wheib I = 10-! m, tbe thic.knessof the foil, end n is the number density of gold atoms
counter may not be able to give a Poissoodistribution. It may be incapableof resolving
two particles closer in time tban someminimum; thus the probability of detecting n,
particularly when n is large,-willbe lessthan-thot givenby the poissonformula.)
xl.exro{m-3.
The best estimateof the rate is 2.16s-r. The best estimateof the statistical error. Tberesultis
ry
on 1896is y'T806 = 36. Tbis representsa fractional error oD rgso oi (ff96);. f(' > 10') = 4'44x 10-2' ' '*" '
tle
estimatedfractional ergor\onthe rate is the samegiving an error on 2.16s-r of b.oo
s-t, The scatteringis a rendoia proceos80 that tbe numberofeve-nla,e8.h with 0 > 10o,in a
Sucha result is often expressed as 2.16 * 0,06s-r
Assumingan approximatelyGaussiandistributionabout the correctvaluefor mauy single traversal of the foil, is given by the Poissonformula. The.probability of finding one
trials, then the probability one measurement(trial) is low by at least one error is about is P(l,n) = In €-T = P(0 > 10') sothat
16%. (This is an approximatevalue for the amount of a Ggussianbelow one standard rn = 4.65x 10-2.
deviationfrom the mean.)
The probability of obtaining two scatters in a single traversal is.
2.16
P P(2'm\=ry =1'03x10-3:
-X+dx,
Note that this result is closeto m2l2.The reasonis that the probability of onescattering
occuring is rn and tbat, oD the average,.half the foil remains to be traversed.Thus given
one scatter tbe averageprobability tbat a secondoccurs is ml2 afi thus the probability
Target
nucleus,
charge
Ze that two occur is rn2/2.
In the figure, the forceon the o-particle when at p is

Zzez
' b_ -_. ' r
4neo(b2
+*)
In a time 41 = (dx/a), whereo is the a-particle velocity,this givesau impurse,transverse
to o, of
Zzez dc b
@n; (0,+,,jT
This causesa small chaugein momentumtrsrsvergeto the path. The total change
in
transverscmomentumAP1 is thereforegiven by

d'
aPr=g [r* - =-4 2 e 2 ,
Atresol-* $2+*1t Anesab'
Thus the o-particle, which has a mbmentum4Mu, suffersa small deflectiond given
by :

,- = A P r= 4TcoMu2b
4Mu
,'!l=
This calculation allows only small d to be contemplatedsince the impulse is calculated
assuminga straight trajectory.
The cross-section for scatteringthrough an angle> d is

o(>o)= n[b(o)],
=
. i-,. I
" [#*],
The probability that an a-particlescattersthroughan anglegreaterthan l0o is (Eq. 2.lz)

P(, > l0') = I - exp [-na(d > 10")tl

u
Chapter3 2l

Expandingsin (qr/h):
Solutions to exercisesin Chapter 3 =,L"I,*^n['- f*l (f)'.. .]an,'a".
F(c')
Exerclses Including all factors,the first term gives1. The secondterm is

3.1 Show that. for a sphericalty

symmetriccfurge distribution,
/ n2\ r
' t

tH e lo*o{iao'^a')
ta

#1.,-.1-#,' Thesecoadfactoris the meansquareradiusof tbe chargedistributionwhichwerepresent

by (r2).Thus
where(d) rstiremean'quar' 0f theerectric
charge
distribution. F ( c \=r -
[Hrnr:expand
sin (cilh) in #( r 2) +o( q{)
theformuldin Table3.ll
and
3.2 Show:h:j^lho
tormtacrorto, rh6char06
distrtbution
of modetI ts dF(c')| (r')
-;p
ll-lr,=o=
, : ^or-3lsin(qalh):(q?!.!,)cos(qolh)l
\z'
..,:. G4w t'
3.2 The model I chargedistribution has (Fig. 3.1)
3.3 Find,lr.l:.T lacrorfora chargedisrribuildn . ,
.,,,.{a*,\, :': . : p(r)=p,rca
| "Ii"
P(r)'Poe'h/r.
'...
3.4 An electronof momentum-33oMeV/c is sb.attered
at an angleof 10. by a calcium
nucleus.Assumingno recoir,find the momentumtransfer P(r)=o,r>a.
and its ,rauceo'ae aiogrie
wavelength. Also carcurate the Mott differentiar
cross.ssction
(point.rikenucreus),
and by Now
whattactorit is reducedif thecarciumnucreus (A=40) canbeassumed (qr h) (qr h)larr'zdr
modefIwith a-12Anlm.
to bereprosonted
by F(c')= It lsin I / /
tf hrz dr
Putting s-qrfhg:v?s

Solutions
3.1 The geaeralformula for the form factor is
F(c\= !###
- (qaln)cos(qal,i)l
_ 3[sin(qoltr)
=
F(c2)
* I I I alexp(iq.r/,r)dv, (1a/n1t
where the total uuclegrchargeie

z"=t I ld,lav. 3.3 This chargedistribution is sphericallysymmetric so tbat we can use the formula
from Problem3.1:
For a spherically symmetric cherge distribution we have p(r) = .. "
p(r), and
p(r) lstu(qr
/h) /(qr/h)l 4rr2d,r
ze=urll ,1,1,2 F(c')= [
o,, /o- p(") 4rr2 dr
'

woere
F(a2)= ! r" t+r r@ ' '
z, lo !_, Jo o(r) exp(iq.r/,1)12dr dcosdd/, p(r) = psexp(-r/a)/r .
wherethe polar axisis oriented ql
{oog so that q.1 = grcosd.The integraloverthe
azimuthalangle/ givesa factorof If we make the substitution x = r/o, the formula becomes
Zr. Tie integrjover cos0 gives
-F(o2\ - (h/qa) i- exp(-c) sin(qar/[) du
. F(q')= .fi lr- Albb(qr/h)/(qr/h)l4nr2
dr .
\: /
/p- cexp(-c) dr
 ll, ,
{r if
22 ChapterJ t' h
ll' i
Tbeintegraliu the denominator
is l. The resultfor theotherintegralgives '' 'll.* i
i; I
1,. ; Exerclrar
F(c')=ffi, tr ii
.'
potentlal
3.6 Whatls rhe mechanlcal cenrreof r gold
energyof on electrori'ii'ihd
ol radluc
,(Z-79, A-1971glvgnthotthcnuclour
nucleue ir a unifomlybhtrged spheto
Ra1.2Atttlm.
;..
3.0 Estimatetho rsdiusof t1i'first Bohrorbltof a p-.mesonabout
3.4 The momentum*uorr., q is given by (8) a proton, . :' ,
(b) arlC nucleus.
A
9 = 2P sin = UUO
sin 5o= 57.5MeYlc . Whatistheprincipal quantumnumberof theBohrorbittor I lJ' whichliesiustoutsidoI l68d
i nucleus(Z= 82. ,4= 208).if the nuclearradiusis 1,ZAtt lm?
The reducedde Broglie wavelength,\is UsingBohrtheory,calculato energyfromthe nexthigherorbitintothisorbit.
ths transition

3.7 Calcutate two thingsfor a p--mesonin a 2s statesbouta r:Cnucleus:

1 9 7 . 3 M e V f r_ o
^ _=hAt =_ =3'43fm' (a) the bindingenergy.assuming a point-likenuclearchargedistribution;
575Mtv perturbation
(b) the first-order of this energyusingmodelland assuming a=1.2Aatm.
._.
The form factor for calciumat this momentumtransferis, for Model I, of Problem3.7 can be improved.
3.8 Suggesthow the calculation

^..\ 3(sinz-ocosr) Someinformationfor theseproblems:

F(q')= ---;i.--:, r=qafh.
(1) 'Estimate'
meansget it rightto onesignificant
figure.
(2) Themassof the p--mesonis 105.7MeV/cr.
Now a = 1.2.4ifm, z{ = 40,so (3) Thewavefunction for the 2sstatels Li"'

a = 4 . 1 0f m , *o=(*!)*1*)'''\r-zi) ":"*\
= ''"radians'
T 4tteohz
ro=-FT
and

F(q = 57.5MeV/c) = 0.864.

The Mott scatteringformulais givenin Table3.2.sinceu = c, with srrftcient

precision
for electrons
of 330MeV/c,tbecross-section
becomes
Solutions
3.6 Outside the nucleus, the electric field is 8s if aI tbe cha,rgewere ct tbe centre.
do(0)_ Z2a2h2C , le\ f. _,_,/d\l
- cosec'[.ti Therefore the electrostatic potential at radius .R > o, the nuclea,rradius, is given by
dn 4E [t-si"'it/].
7e
Z =20, 4=330MeV, d=10"gives =
Y(R) R>o.
ffi., i
lnllno\
= 32'74
fmsr-r' ForR<o:
?
7. c tr=R
The expectedcross-section
is F2 times this value.that is 24.4 fm2 gr-1. =
V(n) dt. ..
E(r)
ffi- l,=.
 :
il
a

:l 24 Chapter3
!
Chapter3 25
i Theelectricfield,.'E,at r is, by Gauss's
theorem,
gvenby thechargeinsidetbesphereof effects,the bindingenergrofp- mesonin the n = 2 orbit about a 2 =6,A = 12 nucleus
: ra{uull t:
|; is
n(r)= l /-!\ t,. 1 3 . 6x0 f6r s o " f f i " v .
fra \A)
Substituting a,ndintegrating gives
= 25.1keV.

v(R)=
3- - If the nucleusis finite, the p- inside the nucleusa distance r from the centre has a
4Tesa F:!\ 1" , R<a.
'
\ 2ot'J hrcs mechanical potenti euerry whith is not
Herce I
_zo2
vrc\= sze' fo^, but ffi 1to'-r'1
8aeoo
Thugthe mecha,nical
potentialenergyof an electron(charge-e) at the centreof a gord whereo is the nuclearradius(question the perturbingpoteutialv(r) due
3.5).Therefore
aucleusis to this modelI nuclearcba^rge
distributiouis
, _ _32e2
. 8rcsa' r < a :V(r) = 9- - =4-(3a2 -12),
FotZ =79,A= 19Z,rr.
= 1.2(dl fn thisgives Atesr 8reoa3
r)o:Z(r) = 0,
where o = L.2Al= 2.75fm .
8.6 The formulgfor the radiur of the fmt Bohr orbit for a negatively Thefirst ordershiftin enerryof the 2slevelfromtbat for a pointJikenucleus
is givenby
cbargedparticle
of massm movingabout an infiaitely heavycentre,eharye perturbationtheory:
+Ze,is
'.,.' tp = g'(r)v(r)rt(r)4nr2dr
4ieshz Io*
:,. 7 0 = m = V -Ir -lgz.o4
r ^ . x l9z.B_ where
To allow for the nuclear massre-placern by the reducedmass
Proton:M, = 938.3MeY/C, m, = lbs.?MeV/C, Z = 1;then =
for the two-body systee.
r 284.6fm.
,l6=he)' *,(-#)
Q-';) ,
:l
b) Carbon:nuclea^rmass= 12 x 9it.5 Mey
/C, i = a; r = 48.0fm.
Learl:nuclearmass20? x 9Bl.S Meyf C,Z =g2; then r =3.12fm. ' P =!''#
,..
But this radius is less e2m
tban the nuclearradius, a = L.2Al = Z.ll fm. ih. Boh. and m = reducedmassof mu-mesonand carbonnucleus.Then
radius for an orbit oi priocipA
qYPiuE 'umber a goesas a2. Thereforen must
be 2 for tbe muon to have au orbit rp=258fm.
which, in the senseof Bohr's original model, is outside
tbe nucleus.(The auswersgiven
havea greaterprecisionthen sxt..,ed frtlm ihe problem's,estinrate,.) It is convenientto put
The bi!'ling energy of a particle of pass m in a Bohr orbit zl
- of principal quantum
number a arouad a nucleus Z is 2rr a,,
meaz2 which gives AE
nLC o
@=ffiaz22. o, =: (*) L)' 4,,r2
dr.
For the p- mesouarounda leadaucreus
makingthe traDsitio'froma = 3 to n = 2, the #1" ('- (i- #)
"*e1-2,/a,i
transitiouenergyis Sinceo, = 86 fm, we haveo 11 ap and we can expandthe first two factorsof the
integrandasa powerseriesin rfar. Tbeintegrandbecomes
(i - *) = 2.63
;m,ca2z2 Mev. -
(r-n' *7" * \ / t - 3 o 2 1 2 ) 4 n rd2r .
\ o;'4- I \;- u' 1
bi-"$* enerryfor the electroniu a ls stateof thehydrogenatomis 13.606 The first term of the powerseriesgivesa contribution AE1 which, from a straightforward
'3;1 ,Th eV.
yd Z: for.auorbirof priucipalguantumnumbern anda nuclearcharge integration, is
} ?:^T.ti{"')
o*lron ia replaced by o negative mu-me8on thenthe bindingenergyincreasee
."-:
Dy1'.t-o-t
t hct.r oI milma. Thue,assuming a poinblikenucleus andincludingrJuced mass t(*) (#) e-1
AE1= =no,.u
 26 Chapter3

The secondterm gives

= -gBr 193 = -2.2eY.

AE2 Solutionsto exercises
in Chapter4
z4 a,,
The next term is expectedto bereducedfrom Ag2 by a factor of
or deraf' "F
orand
--- therefore
---
can be neglected.Thus the total perturbation is
Exerclses
AE = 38.2eV
4.1 A slmpleproblemin elec{rostatlcsl
Showthatrhe potential,rnergydueto olec{rostatic
This is the changein the real energy;sincetbe real energyis the negative
of the binding forcesof a uniformlychargedsphereof totalchargeo and.radius g is 3cl2l(20rr6oB).
energy,this positiveperturbatio'r-de*easesthe bindingenergy.(An
iicomplete
' o,u*fuo.-
-'-
tion wasgiven and usedto calculateao incorrectanswerin the'book).
,i massformulels i.
4.2 The Coulombterm in tho eemi-empirlcal
3'8 The calculationsof probrem3.7 can^beimprovedin severalways. '
. we grveuo uor*i, l acttAlts,
for the generalcase,not one specificto 12Cor io a 2s level.
1) II (Fig' 3.1) for the chargedisrribution,or any other believedto be Usingthe resultof Problem4.1,calculatethe value of a. ln
9:.. Tgdd a more Assumethatthe
faithful representation. nuclearradiusls glven by I = 1.24x Atr! fm. "lv.lev/C.
2) The p-mesonis a heavierversion of the electron and has av,a€,and,^ glveirInTable4.1andthefsctthattheblndlngenergy
jhgy_rlu.:8.of
tle same.spin. Dirac,s
relativistic theory of the electron(section 9.3) can be appliedto
tri p-mesonwiih of,Y.ti:n
i"jra isJ4&l}lev, checkyourvalueof as.commenton any,dlscrepancy youriay find.
an appropriatemasschange.The equatiouscan be solvedan"tyti."uy
roi lylroguii-
Ine nucrsus'iiuc8nundorgo spontaneous fisslon(seechEp,1e1
6l: oneol themany
flssionchannels '
like atoms with point chargenuctei.For non-point like nuclei,ilu
.qo*iooi i;* 1.o
is, .
be solvednumerically.There are other imporiaut efiectsthat must
ue io.tuaia io,o 'gLa+ 3n. ,
' : { ' t " i '

.
completecalculation;the relativeimportanceof eachdependson z,
Aaod the orbii ,-l!jU, jler + ."i.1.,
3) In caseswhere the nucreushas a magneticdipole or electric qua.drupor.
,o;;;;; Estimatothe energyreleasedin thls channel.
there are level splittings due to the equivalentof hyperfile inieractions
io
physics. "tb.ii lAdoptodfromth. 1979.x.m|n!tlon In rhc Flnrl HonourrSchoolIn Nltur!l scl.ncc.phyrlc., unlv.rrty
4) Quantum electrodynamics givessomecorrectionsto the Dirac results:for example, of Oxford.l
i
the equivalentof the Lamb-Retherfordshift in hydrogen(Section
9.6). 4 . 3 T h e _ F e r m i - g a s m o d eolf t h e n u c l e u s s s s u m e s t h a t t h o n u c l e u s l s a s p h e r e o f
5) In the caseofsomemu-mesonorbits, thereis somesiguificant volume
screeningofthe nuclear- V=4rR3l3 (take 8=Fo x A1t3tmwith Bo:1.2 fm) and solves thii SchrOdinger elu*ioi
chargeby tbe electrons. ; to
find the numberof statesavallableup to a momentump; that number is7,y',wglzaf .
6) In heaviernuclei the calculationof wavefunctionsand energies
can be complicated show thatfor a nucleuswith equalnumbersof protonsandneutrons lhe energyFpofthe
by the perturbing effect on the nucleusof a mu-mesonwavefunctiou Fermilevelis givenby
that has a
significantvalue inside the nucleus.In addition, mu-mesontransitions
can lead to
nuclearexcitation, reducedmuonic X-ray energies,and the emissiou Er = ll2t2M87l (9trtllzts,
of uuclea*y-
rays.
whereM is the massof a nucleon.Estimatethe total kineticenergyof the nucleonsin a
nucleus.ofr!0.
For a hucfeuseAl tho asymmotryterm ls aalV-Azl'/.,Assuming
lN-Zl <A, usethe
model to ostimatedA.
{Adaptod tronithg.|978cxamlnltlon
Inth. FlnllHonounSchool
In NlturllScbnc.,phvrlcr,Unlvc[tty
of Oxford,l l

Solutions
4,1 A uniformly charged (Q) sphereof radius .R has a clarge density of.Je/4rR3.
Consider coustructingsuch e.sphereby eddiuga uniformlayer of thicknessdr to an
existing sphereof radius r < .R.The electrostaticpotentialV.(r) at the surfaceof tbe
28 Chapter4 Chaptet 4 29

ephereof radiusr is dueto a chargeQr' / ff , effectivelyat the centre:therefore - a"(145)l

=, a"(145)
BE(57,145) - - o^ttntiljtn'' ,
vb)=;fu. /),n2 " ffi
-"
= a,(23s)-0,(zss)i
BE(s2,23|,) -o^ (23s----taa)'.
There is work done h bringing up the cha^rgedq coutained in the layer thicknessdr. That ffi
rsdq=3Qr2dr/ft3
cha,rge andrhe:'-ffiff) dq.'Iherefore Then the energyreleasedis

E = -3o" - 9.153a" + 476.7a* Lll9or

Rt , AnesRl
7.lr\2 = 154MeV .
=
#Bfdr. It is interesting to note that by far the greatestpart of the energyreleasedis from the
I
Integrating from r = 0 to r = R gtves changein Coulomb energl.
3Q2
w= 4.3 The numberof statesavailableto a particle confiaedto the volumeV of a nucleus,
20resB-
up to a momentump is
Tbis work dooe is, of course, tbe mechanical potential enerry of the assembledcharge
distribution.
'=t@.
4trd V

4.2 For ephericallysymmetric nuclei Q = Ze,wherc e is the proton charge,eld I =

1.214, fr.. Therefore Each state can be occupiedtwo ideuticalfermions(spin up and spin down). Neutroo aod
ploton are not identical 80 we car have ar occupaDcyfor each state of two protons and
w=&.
2Mes$.2aAt) two neutrons.Thus the number of nucleonshaving momentumbetween0 and p is

u o,Z2/Al. T6obtainc. in MeV/c2put

Tbrsis equivalent Ltuf v
3
i2?r,')T'
e2 1 9 ? . 3. , . , ,
rm For nucleus(Z,A) rhisnumberis.4. Sothe greatestmomentum,
the Fermimomentum
G=;;;5;nMev
pp, is given by
andequate:then - 16rp$ A(2rh)l
a. = 0.692Mev. (1)
3=v'
The biadingenergyof a uucleus(2, /), 4 odd is Now the Permienerry Ee = p$l2M whereM is the nucleonmass(assumedtbe samefor
neutronsand protous).Putting V = (arft) Rf;,4 wherethe nuclearradiusis R6,41,gives
B(z,A):ovA-ufi -q* -o^(A*z)' .
.; ^ rr' /9ur\ rl
Usingthe naluesfrom Table4.2 wehavelor (Z = ?3, / 1 181) or= m4 \T )
qq,t
= 2816.4
rnii:ruev Mev- r5?.s9
Mev- sbr.32 u"v - . The number of statesin the rangep to p + dp is-
Ai
4np2V
wbid gives on=@o''"''
oc = 6S3.4bAI lZ2 = 0.694MeV .
The4dnnucleons
in thisra.nge
eachhaskineticeuerry@'lzM) sothetotalkineticenerry
Thrs is in very good egleementwitb the previous value for o.. Of course,the semi-empiricel
is
mass formula is a physically motivated parametrizatioo of the observedvalues of nuclear
massesthroughout the periodic table, so agreementis expected.
Io the spoata,neousfission
,=t#on=|,'"n#W
'zlNU
-$nr +'!fLa+ 3n, 4 | hc\z I /9r\ 3
the euergyreleaped Now
is the inoeasein nucleerbiudirigenergies. in \6/ m (t/ A'
Forr0O,r{ = 16,MC =$8 MeV,.Ra= 1.2fm,givlng
-o^9#,
= a(8?)-c(841-"ffi
aE(35,8?)
E=320MeV.
 30 Chapter4
Chapter4 3l
Nearthe Fermilevel,tbelevelspacingis grvenby
total potentialchaoges
a neutronaudproton,with the resultthat the effective
bbt*,eeo
o"= (#1,,) asthe neutronto protonbalaDce
is,altered.

= ( a t r p 2 Vd p 1 \ - t
\(2rri)3dElar/
Now
^2

m=o
so that
dpM
dEp
Hence
aE = -Qrhf-
AnpFMV-
I f i n a n u c l e u sZ , N = A : Z, N > Z,oneprotouischangedtoaneutron,thenit
has to be movedup the ladderof energylevelsto find an unoccupied
etate.since proton
or Deutronoccupancyis two, the number of stepsbas to be (N -
z)/2 and the energy
requiredto changefroa Z, N to Z - l, N + I i8

Yot'
But sinceAZ = -1, this is equalto

_ dEl
d Zl e .
z, N; = Al2 theasymmetry
energyis zerosothattbeenerryrequired
lt a to change
fromZ; = A/2 to Zr

,^ = l:::;,+ffi1^az
=- l:;,ff o,o,=- l:;ff aaaz
= [+(A-_22)'z
-or]t,'=(A-2zt)2
-Jetz -^n
"'
t s 8
we can drop the subscriptf to deaotethe z of the nucleusobtained
by successivechnnges
of a proton to neutron.Thus the coeficient oa of the ssyrq'etry term:id
the massformula
is predictedto be
.AE
ae=Al_
:
Using AE from aboveand substituting for p1from Eq. I abovewe
find
I
o^=* (*)'En =llMev. .
The observedvalue is 23.3MeV. The discrepaucyis due to the
assumptionthat the eole
contribution to the asymmetrye'ergy comesfrom the kiaetic uo.rgrof
th. nucteone. t[is
is not so. For nuclei that are lot symmetric,that is z
* /v, th; is a,nextra pot.iiiJ.
energythat also increasesI (z - N)2 inoeasesfrom zero.This potential
ererry occrirs
becausetbe nuclear force betweentwo protons or two neutrons
is difiereut fiom.tbat
 Chapter5 33

Solutions
Solutionsto exercisesin Chapter b to the first part,attempta precisof Section4,3.
6.1 Foran a,uswer
Tbe enerry,Q., releasedwhena nucleus (Z,z{) emitsan a-particleis givenby

q" = IM(Z,A) - M(Z - 2, A - 4) - M(2,a)lc2,

Excrclrct whereM(Z,A) is the massof the nucleusZ,A. Tbe bindingenergyof the a-particle
B (2;4) = lzMt + 2Me- M (2,4)lC.
6.1Erp|ainthiie,'alnthceemi.empiricatao|icmass|ormu|al
.*::_j Therefore
l(2,7): ZMx+ NM.- al * arAn+ dczrl At,+ i^ (A _
2Z)2| A * ar1tqut. Qo= M(Z,A)- M(:Z - 2, A - 4)+ B(2,4)- z(Me+ M^),
show for largc4 rnd Zrhatthecncrgyroreascd wherewehavedroppedtheC sinceall coefrcienkin themassformulaaregivenin MeV.
whsna nucreus(Z,A)emirsand-particrc
givenby
.:.,
ig forM(Z,A) nd M(Z - 2,A - 4)
Substituting
Qo= - o " A q a ,l l + o " z 2 l l l + a 1 r ( l - 2 4 2 / A
Q,- - 4a"*EaJ3An+4arZ(l _ Zl3AllAtr _ 4a^(N
_ 4rlA, + B(2,4).
* a , ( A - 4 - a , ( A - 4 ) l - o " ( z- z ) ' ? / ( e - t 1 l
is rhe bindins enefsy of the a-particte,28.30
"T-: 111,4, MeV. - ot(A - 4 - 2(Z- 2))'l@ - 4) + B(2,4).
,sAsandTtAu.
stsbrtty ortheso nucrerin ,f :f sirver
andgotd.are Discuss
rhe
",';l,iJ::rf:y-"::llg_,::,:f: Ga;il;';;;#:ffi;,El,iJ."illJ#:'iff
coefficlentsr glven ln Tabler0.1. li: Since.4 is largewehaveueglected
the pairingterm,Iu addition,weexpandtermslike
. (A- 4)" usingthe binomialexpansion.
Forexample,
lAdlptodtromtherggosxamrnrtron
IntheHonourschoorIn Nsturar physrcs,
science. University
of
@ - n 1=t , r 3 ( r - i ) t = / t ( r - * ) ,
6'2 How crn thc rpin of thc nucrcusrfNltrogcn
bc mearuredby morecurrrrpectroocopy?
(l - ay-l = ,4-l (t . , andsoon.
5.3. Dlscugrthc .xpcrlmenral..€vidonco
for thc cristenceo, tho ncutrino. #)
ThenuclidcflAa decava ro ?lNowittrilt..ri*iin oii-pli,ron. The In tbis approximationand neglectingsmall terms we find
masg radiusof thenucteus
number 21is3.6tm.e.rin'r,rir,.iffil-rinrri.
li*:^r enorsv
rheposirrons
can .Qo= -4a"+Ba"lgAI + aa"z(r- zlgA)lAl - 4o^(A-22)2/A2 + Be,4) .

ttomlhc t076 0rlmlnrtlonIn th. Honourschoot For tlfAg: Qo = -1.93 MeV.

In Nrrurltsctcnc!,phy.tcr,univc,.ttyo,
sfJ:i For tffAu: Qo = *3.10 MeV.
If tho formulo ia corroct, tho negativoQo moans thot tor?Agc&tr novcr spont&ncously
6'4 ln an und'rurbcdorec^o-ntarnrng0,rg6by werghtof z!!utherew* be comorf;Ra. emlt en a-partlcle, The posltlve Q" for fr?Au permits spontaneousdecayby a-emission.
calculate
thewoightof thisirotopeor radiumri, u, rirnJ
,nonemotriotono, oro,wh.l It In chapter 6 we give the simpletheory of a-dccay:it will be cleor thrt the tronsition
ofhcllum
scttnts pc'viirlitii, Jrorn,or
oro?
urorhodl.osrvon probablllty for auclra dportrooou!docoy wltlr o Q" - J,t MoV wlll br: vcry ururll
llililtJ.!:t"rtlon
(- 1g-zrs-l).and the elementis effectively staile.
5'5 Carcurate
values
fora- anda^of.probrem
5,1makinguccof thofolowingfocr*rlAr
omltrportrronr
wrrhomcximum
kincrro
.ncd;il;iiiii ono,flBrrrrhrrrrbJc U,2 Moloculat
mlrr numbl t3t, ErprcryourenrwonIn MoV/or. rrcbriol tpoctroacopy
0ncomp&860i
thovlbratlonrrl
nndrotntlonnl
atntoa
of molo.
cules.Naturelnltrogen
ls 99.6% tlN qpdtherefore
oneieotope thegreatmajorityof
tromrhoi'o? cromrnoiron its dirtomic molcculcsare homopolor.The natureoi this molccule'srotationalstatesis
InrhoHonour
schoor
orNerurrr phvricr,
Scronccr.
ffil# unrvc.rtyof determinedby the nuclearspin (j), as the followingargunrentshows.
The possiblestatesof total spil angularmomeDtumdue to the nuclearspinsare 2j,
5'0 Findsomenucrear
rabres
andtrscoth€mo$rikelyroutefiomz4. 2j-\2i-2,.,.., l , 0 . w i t b s t a t i s t i c a l w e i g h t s 4 j + t , A j - t , , . 4 j - 3 , 4 j - 5 , . . .I, 3 ,
- 245,2-g6 to
cach $gl by
.ith.;;: ;; ;:;;cay.whichi, r,, 6ig,,i respectively.under exc.hange of the uuclei,the correspondingwavefunctioo is symmetric,
:.:if :T:,,j:::1ff;;;H'*'yr, ri"d
ln principle antisymmetric,... alternatelytrom 2j down. Tbe symmetricstatesare labelledthe ortho
lherearefourdecayseries(A(modulo4).0,
t, 2, 3). tf rhc progcnlronwcro modificationaud the antisymmetricstetesare labelledthe para modification.(SeeSectioo
il#:.,T,n:*[irj:n:::,*::1T.?:il;-il;,h-.";urarrbundrnccconErrrhorrhc
oicachreri,,.
D;-;;;;;;tffiffi:iffiil1_.:ll.:lll; 9.6 for this labelling appliedto positronium.)counting, the ratio of the numberof ortho
[:?tr,jfi:".;Hllicridc to pa^rastatesis found to be (j + t) I j.
The rotational otste€csn be specifiedby tbe integerquaDtumnumber{. Even (odd)
{ states are aymmetric (antisymmetric).If the nuclearspin is half odd-integerthen the
 ,tu
,'4
.ri
'::T
1is
t".t:
':tl
34 Chapter5 -.8
i* Cbapta 5 36
total wavefunctionmust be antisymmetric and even(odd)/ rotatioual states havepaia
5.4 Onemetricton is 1000kg and that quautityof o.. .bot"io, I kg of ?|tU. This
(ortho) total nuclearspin states.If the uuclearspin is integertbe associationis
even(oad) uuclideslowlydecaysaudpopulates a secularequilibriumof reliti'relyshort liveddaughter
/ goeswith ortho(para) states.. products:iu tb.\.9qu{i!$lm .aV is tbe sanef9q28iUasfqq;,q*t!grrnstablemembersof
Tbansitions between rotational levels must preservetbe symmetry, The nuclei its decav scheme.Tbus
are
so weakly coupledand isoletedthat tbere is little chanceof a cbangein ihe ortho paie '
or r.rrr3N2fg = U226N226
spin states.Thus there are two setsof transitions,one betweenortho rotational 't'
statesaiiJ (Theassunptionof 1rulVthe sa^roel
is not true wherebranchinli'bccurs.
the otber betweenpara ldtational states.They haverelativeintensitiesuquJto Howeverthereare
ii. ,"tio no significantbranchesaround,,f!!Ra.)
Now
oJ tbe statistical weights(J'+ l) / j . The lines are easyto identify since.they alternatej'6s fs
,ry ,i, , ,.rFF-*,
tbe wavelengthchanges.Thus the rstio ofthe intensity ofalternate lines gives(i _ Ne l.tog
rfN +L)/i. 'iO n,---_
rY238 = _r5E_
For this figure is 2 and thOreforej = t. .'i, |
A more complete discussiouof molecularspectroscopyand of tho role of nuclei I' whereiV1ls Avogadro'e
number,in mol-!. Hence
can be found in severaltextbooks.see, for example,Leightou,R.B. (lg5g). principtesl"o! .i
Modern P/rysdcs, McGraw Hill, New York. ^, . N,t X 101ra43
,,2r,6_{
{ G
5.3 The evidencbfor the existenceof the neutrinois discussedin chapter rz.
rue flrve Themassof 2!!Rais:
decayreactionis 226 226 u2ss
NrrffiTF = *ffikc.."-.
!ftta -!!Ne + e++ v, .
since the nucleiare relativelyheavy,the decayenergyis sharedbetweeuthe positron = (6.45x 10e)-tyea,r-t , ind u226
Now r,.r2r, = (2,3L year-r . )llence
and " 19:)t
' 'tl
tbe neutrino, since the neutriuo has zero or a very small mass(< 20 ev), the positrou nassof 2!!Ra = 0.34mg .
can bave any kinetic enerry up to a ma:<imumequal to ep, where
The decayof uraniumfeedgthe secularequilibdu. it lproducts.The deceychain
Qp = M (21, lL) - M(21,10) - rn ".oogso that, uuderthe equilibrium
to 2!!Pb iuvolvesin all the emissionof eight o-particles
and massesare expressedin MeV and rn. is tbe positron mass.using the usuel conditious,eachurauiumdecayeffectively addseightheliumatousto tbeore.Theuumber
formula for the two atomic masses:
mass of 2i!U decaysperyearis

=
rrrgeN2sa - ye&r-r.
Qp = Ms - Mn 1:5 (rr,
' - to2) - rn. . # o*:16
2li
peryearis
Hencetheweightof heliumgasgenerated
The value of o" is not given and the implication is that the changein coulomb
enerry
must be calculatedfrom the given nuclearradius R. Ftom problem4.2 we know that,
the = 8x4 1 ff dfurksyear-r
Coulombeaergyis
= 2.09x 10-ll kg year:! .
322e2 ,
* _
20reoR'
5.5 The argondecayis
Tbus the changein Coulombenergyid
ilAr ,rllCt + e++ v. + 4.95Mev-.,;--
aw =2 \ ;11'z- t" 't.t
-1o')
- , / ' ) ' Themar<imum ofthepoditrons
kineticenergy (4.95MeV)is givenby
S __ \4reohc) R.
Using the usual numbersand R: 3.6 fm, as given, we have ?L* = c[M(35,18) - M(35,L7)-2m,1
(Z,z{).Usethe mass
(fromTable5.1)whereM(Z,A) is theetomicmsssof nuctide
Al7 = 5.639Y.Y . formula, as in question5.1, for example,Absorbingthe c2 in the defiuitiouriof massard
Now, sincethe massof tbe proton Mp: Mx - m. in the coefrcientswe bave: ..." ,

Qp = Mp-M,+AW, T.o =i Ms-M,+ tra'-fi\;31y.

fr
= -1.293 * 5.039MeV Therefore
",::.
,;4.t.-- .i:
- 3.75 MeV
, -o.782*0"(35)3-2r0.,
4.9S= :.i' ,
and this will be the maximumkinetic energythe decaypositrou can bave. and i
l:,
 36 Chapter5

ac = 0.631Mey/cz
The most etable isobar of A = 23Swill be close
to the point at w[ich Solutionsto exercises
in Chapter6
aM@,A)
T=U. Exorcirer
Now
AMO.A\ 6.1 Describebrieflythephysicalprocessesoccurringinc-decay.withoutdetailedcalcu
- M n - M , + 2Dnq Z3 - l*a^ ( A - 2 z l
,. az "'o'IF --!'
tion,givoa qualitative
explanation
of the dependence of the transition
rateon theZof the
Thrsts zerowhqnz = 56and;; daughtornucleusand on tho onergyreleased in the transition,O.
'iict
at'=2r"4ucv1"i
' 5.902MeV
.itt
5'6 Thelongestlivedmeoberof eactrof ihe
four decayseries,
with its meanlife,are:
z{ (modulo 4) = Q; 2!!Tb, r =2.034
x l0roy.
d (nodulo 4) = t1 '8lNp, t=3.08?x1oov.
z{ (nodulo 4) = 2: '8fU, r = 6.446 0.294MeV 6'
x fOev.
/ (oodulo 4) = 3: ?8iU, r=t.0t4xrOrv. 0.142MeV
we assume that the nuciides 0.043MeV 2'
moremassivetlan thesedecayed rapidryto theselonglived
tTl.o-T that-verysoouafter t = o thereJsied equar 0.0 o'
numbersof eachof these
nuclides.Now,1010yearclater,the uumbere,;r;iri;; will
bein
's the ratiost'rver
vse rolreu givenby the
radioactivedecat'law:
/Vo: lVr : JVI: /Vr = exp(-r.rst).: Tha figureshowslhe c-decayschemeof 2$Curium to rllPlutonium. ThEtransitionsare
exp(_r.r1t): exp(_r.r2t): exp(_r.r3t), markedwith thobranching fractions in percent.According
where t = 1gl0 years aud r.r is il. t .ipto.a to a simpleformulathetransition
or iu.'..uo life ia years. This gives .ate,,1.for the groundstatoto groundstatetransitionis givenby ln 1e C- DZlAtn,where
IVo: /Vr: Nz Nr=l: 0:0.34i:g.Et;i0*:-'
C-132.8and D-3.97 (MoV)'nwhenI is in s'r. Calculare rhsmeanlifeof 2llCm.
All fourradioactive
series
havealternative routesto thefinaletableleador bismuth
nuclide'Mostof the alteraativeroutesiu.odd ff thesameC andD arcassumed to apptyto rherransitionfromthegroundstateof ,llCmto
e *J.i areudmportantsincethey are the6r levelof 2flPu,showthatthisformulaforc-decaytransition rat6overostimates
thorate
by ptp-decay branchiogtractionswhire-*J'"
ld deviationfrom the main roure for thattransitionandsuggesta reasonfor the discrepancy.
is pcssible'Thesedeviatiorscomeaboutwhen
,u..G". a-decaysleavea nucleusaeu_ (AdePtod
tron ricb and far enougbfrom the Z for stability tromrho1988exsmination in theHonourSchoolof N8tural Science,Physics,
Univsrsiry
ol
egainst/_aeca' tUat t;;r;;"_* Oxford.)
competitivewitb the uext a-decry In some
...* pla..", winsand a,llthe seriesinclude
eeveralsuchdecays(seefor ocample,Table
5.2).I; the caseof the odd A nucleithereis 6.2 Explainwhy naturally
occurringnucleiof massnumberA:60 aronot a-unstable.
ouly ooe'oasscurveaad as eachsu."ori".
nucleussmoothlydepertsfrll-r_Ur. the neutronrichaess,the with neglectof nuclear spins,andfor coulombpotential
"-'i.."vli.r.r.o p
ooio,.f ,t"UiUti
barrisrs
largocomparodlviththed-
tbeotherha^ud decay.(SeeFig. s.6).On particleenorgy. thodopondenca of themeanlifer of anc-unstablenucleuson thochafgez
eveaA nucreihavetw9masscurvEr "grnst
opportunityfor deviatious'fro- raolioiu-;ffi.o.! irii.s.o;tilil;;i". and c.pirticle velocityv is rspres€ntsd
by
overseveralstages. "-iu"tu,
" t .c cxp
| 4nZd\ i
.
\a;#;/
Discussthe basicassumptions madein the derivation of this exprassion.
ln the decay2l!U+ t$Th+ a, theomission of c-particles of onergy4,195,4..t47,4.039MeV
is observed.Usethe aboveformulato estimato the relativestrengths of thesethreelines.
what arathemostprobable spin-parity assignments for the statesof 2srh producedin this
roaction?statobrieflywhy consideration of the spinsof the statasof ri.Thwouldchange
youf,ostimatosof the relativeline strengths.
(Adapt.dfiomthe1975cnminrtionin theHbnourSchoolol Natural Science,
Physicr,
Univcreiry
of
Oxford.)
 T

38 Chapter6

Solutions
6.1 If As is the transition rate from $cm to the groundstate of 2$!puthen its valueis
given by
h)6=@ - DZ/Qrlz, Z = atomicnumberofdaughter.
Solutionsto exercisesin Chap-ter7
Hence
ti
Exerclses
. .Jolo
= 132.8- 3.97x 9altffi, , it
ll
and 7,1 Provethe formulaelor.U,P",and I. givenin Fi9.7.4. il
' J
lo = 9.1?x 19-10r-r fifl
If ) is the total transition rate.then : 7,2 PrcvetheformulaegivenIn thil captionto Fig.7.5.
t

)o = 0.767.\' 7.3 Computothe O-valuesfor tho reactions

t'
Therefore d+!r n+!He,
!

I = 1.20x 10-es-r . - d+t{n+d.

The meanlife is )-t = 8.36x 108s = 26.i years.
If the formula were correct for tbe transition rate ()6) to the 6+ excitedstate of. given: massdefectol the neutron - 0.008665u.
2f!Pu then massdefectof deuteriumatorn = 0.014 102 u,
maisdefectoft.itlumatom -0.016050u, -*'
Inl5 - 132.8-3.9?x 94/\ffi -0.016 030u.
massdelectof helium3 atom
Tbereforethe predictedrate is )6 ='1.72 xlg-ll s-I. massdsfectof helium4 atom -0.002 603u.
In fact the observeddecayrate is 3.6 x l0-5) = 4,32 x 10-1{ s-r, about 400 times
Whatarethe maximumenergies (in the laboratory) thatcanbe produced
of neutrons using
slower.The formula givenappliesonly to transitionsin whi& there is uo nuclearaugu-
4MoV deuteronsincidenton stationarytargetsof deutorium.and of tritium?Use non-
lar momentumchauge.In the transitioa coasidered,conserrration of angularmomentum andassumonuclearmasses areAxg31,5MeV/Cin the translorma-.
rslativistic
kinematics
requirestbat the final state relative orbital angular momeltum be 6t; the angular mo- alreadycalculated.
tions,but usath6 O-values
mentum barrier reducesthe transition rate from a valueexpectedwheu thereis no orbital.
angularmomentumin the final state. 7.4 Showlhat, if the protonrecoilsfolwardwith a kineticenergyof 2 MeVfromphoton
scattefingby an initiallystationaryproton,the incidentphotonenergyis 32 MeV. (This
6.2 Near u4= 60 the binding etrersr per nucleonis about g.76 MeV (Fig. 4.6). Thus : problem.equirssi6lativistictreatment.)
the removal of two protons and two neutrons requires,therefore,about 95 tvtev ana
this cannot be compensatedby the binding energy,2g.3 MeV, of tbesenucleonsin an, 7.5 Show that if I particl€of massm and velocity v elasticallyscattersirom a nucleusof
a-particle. Thus a-decayis energeticallyforbiddenin this regionof the periodictable. .massM, tho grsatost.velocity.the
rscoilingnuclouscan haveis'2frv/(n+M1.
:: '", Hence ratloof.thegreat,:sq,recoilvelocitiesof protons(vr)-and*otnitrogonntrclei(v*)
In the decayof $U - ,33Th* a, the a-particle kinetic energiesare 4.195,4.14? the
- li bombardedby neutronsof the sameenergyis given by
and 4'038 MeV. The mass,Mo, in MeV of an a-particleis 3z2z MeV. The velocityof an .i
a-particle of kinetic energy?-is given by o = ct/T/zMo. This giveslf c= 4.745x 10-2, il
4.717x l0-2, aad 4.655x l0-2 respectively.(This is a non-relativisticcalculationand we ,
are neglectingrecoil). The quantity 4nzelfLnesha can be rewrittet as' ;zal0, o,herel
0 = u/c and a is the fine structure coostant,The trausition rates are proportionnal,. where M., Mn and /Iy'*are thb'massesof the neutron.prgtciii,'andnitrogennucleus
therefore,to exp(-AraZ/p). That is to Chadwick'svalueswere vr-3.3x10?ms'r and vil-4.7x10tms'r. Find his
rospectivslv,
valuelor MnlMr,
exp(-I23.94), exp(-t?4.92) , and exp(-12?.80).
This meansthe relativestrengthsare expectedto be

I , exp(-1.03) and exp(-3.36) . Solutions

That is I : 3.6 x l0-l : 3.5x 10-2. 7,! Usirrg tbe symbols of Fig. ?.4, the velocity of the centre-of-Fass must give pa^rticles
The ground and lowJying excited states of ,!$Th are expectedto belong to a I and 2 equal and oppositemomentumin that frame' Therefore
0*, 2*, 4+,...rotationalband.The three involvedwill thereforebavejp = 0+, 2+ and M { V ; U ) = M z U,
4+ and the transitionswith kineticenergy4.14?(+ 2+) and 4.038(- 4+) MeV will be
inhibited by the angularmonentum barrier, as in problem6.1. hence
u = Mrvl(Mt+ Mi .
 40 Chapter 7
Chapter7 4l

Now P. equal to the Domertun of M2 is the centreof-mass.Therefore Tr=4MeV d+d d+t

MtMz PrMz I I
P, : i712v= "
n+lHe
@rvr= 6g;. n+c

Tbe total hnetic eoergr in the centre-of-na$ (4) is the sum of the two kinetic energies.
a 3.27MeY 17.59MeV
Therefore, since the two particles have the sane mtmentum K. E.'r\ centre.of-mass:
' r"=#.#:m T.=\Mzl(Mt+ Mz) 2 MeV 2.4MeV

Velocityof centre-of-mass:
U =VM/(M* Mz) 0.03267 0.02621
7.2 After a reactiouhasoccured,the total enerryin the centre-of-mass is { = T"* e,
This ie dividl{ b.,.$ry.e.o
the twofnal stateparticlessoastq giveeachequal,but opposite, Centre-of-mass kinetic
roomeotun4: T!.e19fore -: energyalter the collision:{ 5.27MeY 19.99MeV
'pnDa
Momentum of neutron
after the collision:
This means
r _i'i d'r

Pl=lM 85.81
MeV 172.61
MeV
":;:"
4=,fffii, Referring
to Fig.7.5,thefinalneutro!will havethegreatest
energyin thelaboratory
if it is produced&t d. = !o il thecentre-of-mass.
Therefore
the neutronin thelaboratorv
wherethe redgp*:rygssM is givenby hasmomentu Pm
=f+M^U.
i _..
't 1 . 1.
_=_+_ 24.4MeY
M Mt' Mt'
The uext step is to fud the momentaof the pa*icles es would be observedin the labo, P 116.2MeV 197.0MeV
ratory. Tlis meansadding velocity u (Fig. ?.4), in the directiou of the incident,particle,
to. the velocities of the particles in the centre.of-6eqq.ta this addition, the transverse (to Thekiueticenergyis P2/2M, 7.25MeV 20.8MeV
u) component of aay.velocity is unchanged.Thug fcrr pa^rticle3, for example, in Fig. z.E
7.4 The proton recoilsforward and the scatteredphoton recoils back. Thereforethe
P,H
= problem is only one dimensionalin spaceaud all momentaare along or againstone axis.
frsin0" frsin0r,
7D- lnitial state Final state
U+ftcosl"
= fr*tr.
. "tp
o
+ ?p
Multip$ng by M3 grvestbe formulaein Fig. 2.5for d= B. H

Total Euerry 4 lMPc g,

lEr=T+Mrd
7.3_ The Q-valueis givenby the deceasein the massdefectfrom the initial colliding Momentum Er/" I o -q/."1/S 4c1e
nucleito the productuuclei.For d + d+ n + lHe + e wehave
This table definesquantitiesfor individual particlesbefore and after the collision. Con-
a = (2x14.102-8.665-16.030)
x 10-3u servationof enerry requires
' = 3.5lxl0-3u. E, = E, +T .
Consenationof momeutumrequires
Nowly = 931.5MeY/ C, therefore Q = J.27MeV.Similarlyfor d + t + n * a * e, e =
17.6MeV. Et = -Er+ rf4'f Mic ,
For the hnematicsof the two reactionswe usethe systemof units describedin
's
= -4+lT\zrM,c.
Table?.3.Thevelocityof a 4 MeV(T1)deuteron *nereM1=2 x 931.bMeV.
Jffi Eliminating Ef grves
Jle.resutt is (=
0.06553 7,). (Rcnember,the actuai velocity
ig this timesthe velocityof
lieht). q=;g+,/n+nun.
 42 Chapter7
ChepterT" 43
PuttingT = 2 MeY,Mrc2= 9J8.3MeVgivo for theincidentphotonetrergl
'
." . Exerclses
Er = 31.7MeV. i'
' , 6 | . : ;

7.6 Definethe l6rmsatomlc mass unlt, mass defect. and averagcbindlng ehergy
7.5 The recoiling nucleusof mass M has the per nucleon as appliedto tho neutralatom. Draw a diagramshowinghow the average
$eatest kinetic enerry in the labora-
tory frame if the incident p?rticle massrn, is scatteredback along its i;ident direction. bindingenergyper nucleonvaries,with 8tomicmassnumber.and discussbrieflyits
,
The problem is thereforeonl dimensional.We can usenon-relativistickinematicsas s|gnificanceforthestabi|ityo!.nuc|eiof|argemassnumber.:..',',
thi, Whsnthe rlC(a,7)cross.soction
velocitiesinvolvedare small comparedwith the speedof light. , : b measured, a peakis found at an c.particleenergyof
7045keV.Explainthis observation8ndfind theenergyof the 7-rayemitted.Discusswhethar
it would be possibleto confirmyourexplanation by measurement of the rtN(p,d)cross-
initialstate ==+' Final gtate soctionas a tunctionof protonenergy.
(ThemassdefEctsof the proton.d-particlo,[N, ltO are7289, 2425,100, and -4737 keV
meuloM It'allnl M*v
respoctively,)
Velocity , lo -1)' v (Adsptod ot ihoFinrlHonours
ffomthe1977examination School
of Nstural
Sciencs.
PhFica,
Univclsity
I
Momentum rnu I -m!' *'
of Oxford.)

7.7 The reactionrlC(d,p)tlChas a O-valueof 5,952MeV and I rosonancs when the

It | incidentdeutoronhas a laboratoryenergyof 2.45MeV. Do you expectthe reaction
Kinetic energy i^o' I o tr*roI tuv, rlB(c,n)tfN,O-0.158MeV,to havea resonance? lf so, estimatethe laboratory
kinetic
energyof tho d.partictoat whichit would occur.The followingpiecesof information
are
naedodto answsr:
The table definesquantitiesfor the particlesbeforeand after the collision, Conservation
of energyrequires 1. The/-decayrlC+rfN+9-+9.hasa O-valueof 0.156MeV.
atommassd.ifference
2, The neutron.lrydrogen is 0.782MeV/ct,
I*o'=!*r"
zz2
+!uv'
and conservationof momeutumrequires 7.8 Definethe O-value 8ndthothreshold of a nuclearrc8ction..
Outlinethe compoundnucleushypothssisin nuclearroactlonsand give one pieceof
n1! = -fn!' + MV . experlmentalevldence Describe
for th6 hypothosls. conditionsunderwhichit wllt fail.
Eliminating u' gives The tabls showstho energiesof the gammarays and alphaparticlessmittsdwhen
resonancosin the r!F+p roaction8restudled.
2nu
v=
m*M'
If m = Mo, the mass of the neutrotr,and Vx is I/ when M is the mass of a nitrogen Protonrosonshcg GammarayenergiesApna particteenergiol
uucleusand V, is V when M is the massof a proton, we have energy(laboratory) (centr'iof mass)
keV MeV llMeV
Ve Mn+ Mx
G = M " +I h ' 668 : 6.13 .1.30
Taking Mx/Mp = 14 grves 6.92 1.47
'' 7.12 2.10
M"/M" + 14 3.3x 107 I

+ 843 . no gammarays .7.14

M"/Me+l 4.7x106 ! 6.13
874 i.46
ThereforeChadwick'svalueis 6.92 1.62
tr
7,12 2.25
# =1'16'
trr9

Draw a diagramto show th€ levelsin fiNe and rlO involvedin thbsereactions.Suggest
why thereis no gammaradiationaccompanying the (p,d) reactionat 843kev. What
experimentsmighl be caniedout to verifyyour interprebtionof the.levelsin r!O?
(Adsptod ofiheFinalHonourr
fromthoI 980cxrminltion School
of NrturufScienc.,
Phfics,Univcrsity
of Oxford.)
 '
44 Chapter7 Chapter 7 45

7.9 The radiusof a nucleuiof massnumber,4 determined by the measurement of tho kinetic energy.Using Eq. 11.19gives
elastic scanering of high-bnergyelectrons,can bo approximatedby the expression
B'1.2x Atnlm.Thecross.soctions fof th6 radiative
capturo of 0,025eV noutrons by many 4= Eo(#
r _1 ,
nuclei are of tho ordaf 10'2'to 10-8mr. Explainwhy these.two ststements ar€ not
inconsistent. where M is the massof the recoilingoxygennucleus:now Md = 16 x g3l.b MeV, the
The radiativecaptufocross-section, as a functionof neutron€nergy.has'thofollowing conectiou due to recoil is small and we fi.nd
generalform for manynuclei:for energios<1 oV rhecross-seclion is proportional to v-t,
whore v is ths neutronvelocity;for 'onergies > 1 eV, ths cross-soctionvariesrapidlywith Et = 12.440MeY .
energy,having narrow poaks superimposedon a relativqlysmall background.Give a The reaction
qualitativeexplanationbf this energydependence, i
p+tfN-a+llO,
Describean experimental arrangement suitablefo( them€asur€ment of a radiativocapturo
cross.section. clearlyhas the sameneutronand proton numbersas doesthe compoundstate of interest.
(Adapradfromthc I 977oxaminrtionot ths FinalHonou.sSchoolo( NsturrtScienco,PhyEica,
University That state will mauifest itself as a peak in this reaction cross-sectionas the incident
ot Odord.) proton enerry is iucreased,providedthe massofa proton plus a rfN nucleus,both at rest,
7.10 Describebriaflyand explainthe principleof operationof detectorsfor (a) thormal is below the massof the compoundstate. Seethe figure belowshowingtbe energr levels
neutronsand (b) noutronsof energy100 MeV. in this case.The test for this is tbat the Q-value(Q2) for tfN(p, a)tfC is lessthan [, rhe
How maya suitableneutronbeamand a targetwhh atomicnumberand massnumber centre-of-mass energf at which the peak appearsin the tfO(a,,y)lfO reaction.
(ZAl bo usedt<iinvestigate.
(1) rhoexcitedstatesof the nuctido(eA+1), Qu = A(p)+a(TN)-a(a)-a('3c)
(2) rhe oxchedstatesol the nuclide(Z-1,A)? = 7289* 100- 2425- 0
An anomalyis observed in the rcattaringof 10MeV c.particlesby"hydrogen,
At what = 4964keV
energydoesthis anomalyappearin the scatteringof protonsby helium?
Thisis 320keV below?". Thusa peakdueto thecompound statewouldbe expected to
(AdaprcdfiomthcI 975crumlnstion
o, thcFin!lHgnour3
School
of NlturalScience.
Physice,
Universily occurin the p * lfN cross-section
ol Oxford.) whenthe collisioncentre-of-massenergyis 320keV.
Thiscorresponds to &protoolaboratoryenergy(stationaryrfN target)of 320x (16/lS)=
7.11 Canyou find anoxplanation for thofactthatradiative is morelikelythan
de"excitation 341.3keV.
re-emissionof the neutronatter slow noutroncaptur€,oth€r thsn that givgn in the text, Thusourinterpretationofthe peakin thecoss-section for tfC(a,7)1fOasdueto
Section7.8?
a compound statecouldbe confirmedby the observationof a peakil tlrecross-section
for tfN(p,a)tlCat an incidentenergy
(laboratory)of 341keV.
Solutions
7.6 The ca.rbontargetreactionis
o+rAC*7+rfO
The Q-valuefor this reaction(Qs) is the decrease
of the massdefect'
I
Qr = A(o)+aftC)-affO) r"L5284 keV
= 2425*0- (-4737)keV I
= ?162keV.

We interpretthe peakin the cross-sectiouto conespoadto a compourdstatethat is etr

Centre-
of-mass
En€€y
(mass)
I
occitedstateof t!o:
o +. 12^
r 8 c *r6nr
f o ' - . y- +, r163 o . 12440
ksv
This excitedstate hasa mass(in energrunits) tbat is greater.tban the masnof an a-
particle plus llC nucleusby the ceutre-of-mass
kinetic energyat the resona,lce;from
Fig.7.4:
7,=tM2l(Mta M).
Where? = ?045LrV, Mz = !2 o,DdMl = 4. HenceT, = 5284keV. Then this er(cited
stateof tlO is 5.284+?.162
= 12.446 MeV(= Eo)ebovethe grcutrdstate.If theresction
goesto the $ound statetben this erergygoesinto the yny (Er) and the nuclea^r
recoil
 46 Chapter7
Chapter7 nz
7.7 Todeal.withthis questiou
weneedto findthemass(ooergy)difference 'The
between ihe firetstepie to rewritethetablegoasto giveenugie!,ail theyarein the cetrtre-
protonplusrlO uucleus(Me+ M(6,1a))andtheneurronptur'illltaf" ?.8.
iluit, ,r)), Ii;;
I wearetold
M(6,r4)- (M(7,14)
* nq)= 0.156
MeV,
of-mass.Co]umnonenirmbershbveto be nultiplied by 19/20'tb"giwthe centreof-mass
kiueticenergies.Gommaray energies
a aegligibleeffectat theseenergies.
sbouldbe correctedfor.iruclea^r
recoilbut this is
The last columnalsorequirescorrectionfor uuclear
recoilto gve tho finsl statecentre-of-mass
euergiesand nowt19.9$ectls not uegligible.

I and that
.\

M" - (Mp* rn ) = 0.782

MeV.
Thereaction hast9 bre;.: ,;r ;.
. .,.
.

energiee
sothat the o-pa,rticlecentre-of-mass mustberaisedbyiffrbtor of.20/t6to obtain
the total centre-of-masskineticenerryin the final state.Tbetablenowsppe$ltas

(Mp+ M(6,14))- (M,+ M(Ttr4))= 0,1b0

- 0,7E2 i;
= -0.626MeV. . .ll
Wccnrlnowrlrnwlhnotrorgy,
lovoldlngrnrn
approprlnto
to tbotlO(<t,py,lO
ruueUi,
passlngthrough a rcsonan.,e(compound etatc) at a
ccntre-of.massi.ioeirc unergy of
2.a5x $3/15)= 2't23MeV.wo placeonit rholeverforn + rfN, orila rsoJzi"Mev
abovethatforp + rfC,andthatflt o + rlB, whichis 0.158
MeVabove then + rf!.
The figure belowsbowsthe result. Tbe ma.ssof a + rlB is below that
of the compound
state whichis thereforeexpectedto sbowasa resoo"rcein rlB(o, n)rfN.
A centre-oi-uass
kinetic erergy of.T.29LMeV is requiredto reachthe compoundstaiel
tnis co*espondsto
a laboratory o-particle kinetic energy(t!B at rest) of.7.29tx (18/li) =
9.942frioV. :, Nowwenotetbat in box1 (in MeV)
6.13+2.625= 8.?55
= 8.758
;.6.92+1.838
7.12+1,625= 8.?45

Tbeseare the sametotal within the precisiongiven and we.concludethat a 7-ray emis-
sion and a-particle emissionoccur one after the other with a total energy releaseof
8.?5(3)MeV. The sa^me kind of result ie obtainedin box 3 with a totat energyreleaseof
8.9a(5) MeV. We uow comparethe uumbersfrom the first column with thdse we have
foundand'the no 7-rays'eoergy',:
Centre-
of-mass
'
o.63i 8.?s3
Energy 7.291M€V
(mass) 0.801 8.925
0.830 8.945

Within the limited precisionthe energychangefrom row to row is the same in both
columns.Thus the increasein centre-of-:nass energl in the proton plus rlF system is
l$O systemj"-
appearingdirectly in the'y-ray plus o.pbrticle plus
o*'1t The resonancesin +p rlF system must be compound states that are excited states
o.)r. ).,r.
""u ""u of !$Ne. The two setsof three 1-rays repeatingthe sameenergiesmust be from the de-
e*citation of llO producedin the emissionof o-rays from two of the compound states
(the o-particle has no bound excited states). This gives the enetgy level diagram shown
in the figure. :i

-t
 48 Chapter7
ChapterT 49

. -?r :*prrrrwhy ihereare,.o ?-raysin the caseof the second

reson&Dce
weshould 7.9 The determiuationof the chargedistribution in nuclei by measurementof electron
considerthespinandparityof thei'itiar sndfinalstatesin thereaction
scatteringrequiresthe useelectronswith a reducedde Brogliewavelengtbmuchlessthan
the nuclearradius (seeSection3.4). Neutronscj kinetic energy0.025eV havea reduced
where
fgoi, io'iu.ground
state.
;t1;;1il, n * aneven-even
nucreus
soborh
de Broglie wavelength(X) of 2.9 x lOa frr, wL-chis very much greater than the nuclear
have-epin-parity0+. If the l$Ne.sratehassiiu-parityir tl* iU. l* ,"]pp.", radius, aud it is this length that sets tbe magnitudeof the absorptionooss-section,not
tbe final stateas rerativeorbital -gur* .o.uotun z = t; i" the uuclearradius (seeSection7.8).
i, with iarity coiir-iuutioo Section7.8 providesthe material trecessary to aDswermost of the secondpart of
(:!'. T9 cou;erve parityauda,ngubrtomenthm, therefore,ii ,"r, iAoie;;;r.116
0+,1-,2+,3-,...Thustbe secood the questionand only the o-l dependenceof the cross-section below 1 eV remainsto be
corpouoastal.ust havejp U.f""g-i"'ini, ,*i*.
converselythe first aadthird musthaveeacha jp not belongini clarified.This cross-section includestwo factors.On is d2 whereI = ft/ P, afi P" is the
to tuis ;eries,otber*ise centre-of-massEomentum; for low energr neutronsP" can be taken as the laboratory
c-particleehissionproducing a groundstatet!(i wouldoccur.Thesetwostatestherefore
each-emitan o-particle producingexcitedst-&tesoJ momentum and we have r2r2s. u-2. The secondfactor comesfrom the probability the
aogula,r-momeotum {o, presumablytr.*uy Jioo,i'g oeutron entergthe nucleus.By a time reversalinvarianceargument (seeSectionl3.l),
aad parity conservetionby a differentroute,
The conclusionthat the this probebility is the sa,meas the probability the neutron is re-emitted.Fermi'sGolden
l$o is consistent
witl Lr"vs r". eniited by excitedetatesof
datagiven.To verifythis Rule number 2, iutroducedin Table 12,6,showsthat this probability is proportional to
lhe conclusionthe uest courseis to produce excitedstates
of r$o in a nuclearreactiortbar cannotinvolvetjF the density of final states.In this case,tbat quantity is proportional to u. Thus the total
igN" ou!."*ii"" r-iu'u.-. cross-sectionvariesas o-1, near u = 0 and awayfrom resotrances.
o<citedstat€ wouldo<cludethe latter nucreias being", the souceof the 7-.uy, "r our.ruua. Ofcourse,the fa4t that
the neutron can be re-emitted meanstbat not all the cross-sectionis due to radiative
capture. However;in medium and-heavynucleithe largestfraction is radiative, more so
as o become,bvery small.
The measurement of the radiative capturecross-sectionin mediumand heavynuclei
can be done by measuringthe transmissionof a ueutron beam through a thin target of
, o-particleemittingtransi. the material. The 'target in'.and 'target out' responseof tbe monitor to a steadybeam
tionsarelabelledby the as iu Fig. 7.2 would do tbis. A correctionfor neutronsscattered(expectedto be small)
. laboratoryo kin€lic could be determinedby measuringthe inteusityof scatteredneutrons.That is a statement
energyln MeV
of the principle of the method: for the detailsconcerningDeutro[ sources,beam energy
Contre- 7.12Mev ) spectrq,shieldingand neutroa detection,and other relevantmatters, interestedreaders
of-mass 9.9?l,!.Y f Excired of r,!o
srates are rdferredto one or more of the following:
Energy 6.13MeVj l. Curtiss, t.F. (1959). Inlroductionto Neutron Phgsi,cs. Van Nostrand,Princeton.
2. Melhodsof ErperimentalPhysics(1961).Voluroe5A, pp. 461-581(eds.Yuan,L.C.L.
and Wu, GS.). Acadenic Press,New York.
3. Methodso! ExperimentalPiysiu (t986). Volume 23A, (eds. Skiild, K. aud Price,
D.LJ AcademicPress,Orlando.
4. Knoll, G.F. (1989).RadictionDetution andMmsurement(2nd edn.) pp. 48r-SS4.
John Wilen New York.

a+ rlo ?.10 Almost all particle detectorsdependfinally on.the detectionof ionizationcharges.

In the caseof moving cha^rged particles this is normally straightforward as they loseenergy
in a material by ionization.For neutral particlessucb'asphotoasor neutrons,other steps
must occur.To be detectedneutronsmust first causea nuclearreactionthat givesmoving,
detectablectra.rged particles,or a product that has a radioactivity that can be measured
during or after exposure.For example:
 50 Chapter7.
Chaptet7 5l
Thermalleutrols. A typicelreactionis
n + rjB * ltte + lt i', e =2.J|MeV (seeproblem2.14). Excrclrcr il' :

The borouis in the formof borontrifluoridegasin a proportioualcounter

which 7.12 Neutronsof kineticenergybelow 1 MeV are scatteredisotropicaltyin the centreof
candetecttheionization produced by thea-particleandihe recoiliogt i oo.r.orlr.u massby nuclei.massnumbeiA. Showthat averaged overmany.collislons.
the enorgylost
Section
11.2). percollisionis a fraction2A/(1+Af of tho Incidentneutronkineticenergy.
b) 100MeV neutroag'lUse!€utron-protonscattering:a suitablematerial plastic
is scin-
tiuator which containsa large fraction of hydrogen.?he recoil.proton
is ieteited by 7,13 The r6son8nc6at 1,46eVlor neutronabsorptlonby rllln (Fig. 7.l0) is almosr
the light it causesto be emitted as it slowsdown and stops (see complotelylsolatedtromenyothorrgsonancs andthe cros3-s6ctionmaybedescdbedby the
section rr.ij.
There are many otberreactions and methods.In addition theru Breit-Wignerformula.In thiscaseit describesthevarlationwitl\reutron klnsticenergyI of
r*y i*por-
ta't aspectsto neutro' detection;for example:efrciencyas a function "r. the neutrontotalcrbss-sectlono(li) by the formula .;;; .
of euergy,eoerry
measureneBtand resolution,nature and arrangementof the neutron absorber
ioa of tla
ionizationdetector,Interestedreadersare referredto the references given iu problem 2.9, o(r")-dti1:ffiy14
1) Excitedstatesof (z,A+L) usingtarget of,(z,A). Exposetie '
. t"tg.ito o.o*oo, t tl*!:
rn an energyrenge up to &bout 100 kev with a techniquefor varyiag where|-h/Pe P. is rhe neuron contr€-of.massror.nt,ffio
in a known way is the value of ?i at
the energyof the neutronbea-- Resouarces in the absorption.ro.r-ruaiioo iudicatecom- rosonance (1.46eV).Thequantities f.//t andVll arethotran3ition
rat6sfor thorosonsnce
pound statesand theseareexcitedstates of.(2, A+l), This to decsyintothos661p6ln+rllln andintoallchannels (1. is calledtheneutron
respectiVely
techniqueonly exploreslevels
ia asmall raugeabovethe neutrouseparatiouenergyof the ground partialwidthand F ii thetotalwidth of the resonance.)
Th6sratistical
factorg is givenby
xriuoit 1i,i+t1.
Below that level, the statesmust.be exploredby a measurementof
the euergyspectrum
of 7-rays emitted after absorptionof thermal neutrons(seeFig. 2.12), ,- (u+l)
2) Excited states of (Z-L,A) using target of (Z,l). i*por" target " (2r+ l)(2j+ l)'
to & mono_
energeticbeamof neutronsof say 20 MeV. furange mattersso that
the eiergy spect.um wheres- * isthe neutronspin./ is thpsginof $f n. .l i, thospinof the compoundnucleus
of protonsfrom the (n, p) reactioncan be measured.ihis spectrum
reflectsti-e spectrum formed.
of ground aud excitedstatesof (Z-1, A), as in Fig. 2.7.
Inv€stigatetho meaningof this formula(startat Section2.9) andcalculatetho valuoit
The scatteringof r0 Mev o-particlesby hydrogenmears a centr+of-mass givesfor th6cross-section
kinetic maximumandcomparethatwhh thevaluein Fig.7.10.
energy of l0 x (1/5) = 2 Mev. The anomalyoccursat this energy.
To reacb the same
centre-of-mass energyiu proton-heliumscatteringrequires2.5 Mei-incident protons.
1 11- 7,t = 5,I"=3.0ncv. | - 75mcV.l
7,ll section 7.8 stressesthe high excitatiouaboveground state of the compound
state
formedby thermal neutroncapture.There are ootrn"lly severalroutes
ofde-excitatioi so
the systemwill favour the fastestand is very likely to havean El or an Ml first
step. A
2 MeV El can approacha transition rate of l0r? s-r (Sectioas11.6to ll.g).
r Solutions
. competing with this is the emissionof a neutron. Fermi's seconi golden rule
7.12 We use the notation of Figs. 7.4 and 7.5. The label l theu refersto the incident
(Table 12.6) shows that a transitioo rate depeudson two factorg.The firsi
is, in this neutron and 2 to the target nucleus(,4). We take Mr = Mo and,M2 =.AMo. The centre-
case'the squareof a matrix elementbetweenthe compoundstate and the groundstate'of
(2, A) p|* a neutron. Thesestatesare very unlike becauseof the bigh u*litutioo of-massmomentumis given by,
of the first and tbe matrix elementis small. The secondfactor is the deosityof
final"o"rry
states
' P"=P'fr' A

(dN./dE in Table 12.6).For this two-bodydecay,it is proportional p,

to ihe momentum
of the emitted neutron. For thermal reutrons p is very snall conpared with equivaleni and the centre-of-mass
velocity is given by
momentaiD most stronginteractionprocesses. The consequence is that the transition rate
becomessmall comparedwith that for photon emission. Prl
, [.
-
tt = --

/ M"A+L
/
i
:;
i i
52 Chapter 7 Chapter7 53
.
Couider & neutro! ecattered at an angle d" is the centre-of-mass.Using the formula,e The value obtained from Fig. 7.10 is 2.8 x l0{ barns.The measurements shownin this
rlsln' and at normal
at the end of tbe captiou to Fig. ?.5, it eppea,rsot ar &rgle dr in the laboretory with figure bave been made with uatural indium, which is only 95.?%
nomentum P3 (3 = scattered.neutron) given by temperature.Thereforeo(?6) must be multiplied by 0.957and correctedfor the Doppler
oK
efiect on the sbapeofthe resonancein order to predict tbe observedvalue.At 293 the
P3aind3= P.sinds, 0.77.Tbe final result is
Doppler effectreducesthe peak by a factor of approximately
P3cosd3 = P.cosp.+ ilf"U . {
-s 2,94x 10{barns.
It followetbat the laboratorykiaeticenerry,?9,of the scattered.neutron
is givenby .,
''
-":.'rr=#=ffi*r'i"*s"a'ry-.
** A measurementhas given 2.96 x 10{ barns.This valuewas extractedfrom a pub
lished curve (Landou,H.H. and sailor, V.L. (1955).PlrysicclReuieu,98,1267-1271).
These authors obtaiDsvaluesfor I and o(?q) froIo a Deasurementof many points over
The average,(4), is found by averagingover equal intenralsofcos0" from cosO.= I to the resonanceend a completeerror for onepoint is not available.In addition their analysis
@sd" = -1, foi which (cosdJ = 0. Hence avoidedthe needfor o Dopplercorrectionand they did not report a teEpelature.
A more advancedtrestment of the Breit-wigner formula than is posible in this
volume may be found in Krane, K.S. (198?). IntroductoryNuclearPhysics.John wiley,
New York.

The averageenetily lo$r is - (?s) which !s a ftaction

"r
2A
izTlF
of the incidert eoerry ?1.

?" = ?o andtbe peaktotal ooss-section

7.13 At resonance becomes
rr
= ar,rrof .
o(Ts)
The reducedde BroglieWavelengthA = ft/Pu Iu thie caseP" = P(115/116),where
P = \/rIM, is the laboratorymomentum
of the neutron.Hence
(hc), .. /116.\2
x,2 =
_
riffi*\rrs/
Also .r = Lf2t i = 9/2 nd "I = 5 which gives
+t 2J
e= (@il;lt
11

la = 3.0mV and| = ?5 mV
Subotitutingthese,values,
o(Ts) = 3.99x 106fmr
= 3.99x 10{barDs.
 ,nts

)t i
".ff;;.-,-,,, Cnaiier
e ss
9i.0.
.tro!.,ro,ii!ti.;{v.;
i9affif rhe nucrous inwhich
,rrr
nrffi rr"consrdered
robe
mdVlngin a ceniralpoientialpreiicts'shellclosure'
effoctsin nddii'ir'properties
for neurron
:.orproton.Qumbors.2q
Solutionsto exercises
in Chapter8 numbers
8.20,'34;.40.58,92, and l3g. The.otii5iiiedneuron o. proton
bt whichtheseclosuree{foctsscluailyoccw.arc2,g,2eilgiFO,g2,and| 26 (126
for neutronsonly).Exptain
howt modificafion to the singte.particlspotontialaccountsfor

- Exerclses

8.1 AsinglenucleonEtatoisanoigonstatoof theoporstorsJr. l.r, SrandJ,wlthquantum

numbers7i,/, 9 and,1,respectivoly.
show thatlt is aneigonstato
of tho operatorl..s with the Solutione
eigenvalue

*t i( i+l't - t(t+1)- s(s+1) JD,.

8.2 Provetho formulaof oquation(8.4).

8.1 Let the singlenucleonetak: be representedby the ket lX,8,o)wbere

J2l!,'t,cl = i u + L ) h 2 l i , t ,,E^ l.,:

L2li,2,sl= t(l+ 1)42U,{,s) ,
t
s2li,r' t) E r(r+ l)aru,r,r) .
8.3 Nowputthoshell modeltoworkforyoursalf.Belowisatablooftheodd-Anuclei upto
rlF' Ootormine
thotype,noutronor proton.of thooddnucleonandusetholov6lordoring Now
for
the 'nuclearpotentialwith spin-orbitinteraction'
of Fig.g.6 to decideits configuration. J=Ir*S,
Pencilyour.esultslightlyinto column2. Thenput the sxpocted spin-parityinto column3 therefore
andworkout yourprediction for thenuclearmagnetic momontandpencilthatintocolumn
4. column5 containstho measured valuesof tho magnotic J2=L2+2L.s+s2
momont.lf otherreaders have
beenherebeforeyou,6r8setheirpencllmarksor checktheml and
L.s=;(Jr-Lr-sr).
Odd nuclaon Nuclear Magneticdipolomoment Therefore
typeand spin-parity nuclearmagnstons l
configuration Calculated Measured L. Slj,/,s)= +\ - qe+t) - s(s+t)lh2U,I,s)
.
;A(i
iH 2.9788
8.2 A particle is in an eigenstateof J2, L2 and 52. Its total magneticmomeut consistg
!He -2.1276
of contributions from its intrinsic spin magnetic moment aud from its orbitat motion,

I
lLi 3,2564 Tleating all thesequantitiesas vectorg:andwriting them as operatorswe have
!Be -1,1776 = 9'S'
, I"
ttn
2.6885 , Pt = gtLt
ila
-1.0300 p = giJ.
'ic 0.7024 In additionwehave
'iN -0.3221 J=L*S, .:'+
';N -0.2831 and ,. i.i

/ '!o
r 0.7189 tt=giJ-91L*9,S.
,{ 'lo -r.8937 Taking the scalar product of both sides of the last equation witf, J we have
':F
4,7224 9iJ,J = 91L.J*9,S.J
'!F
2.6288 = scl,.(t + S)+ 9,S.(S+ t)
= s t ( L 2 + tS. )+ 9 , ( S+2L . S ) .
i.
 66 Chaptet8". Chapter8 57

Apply this operitorequationto the ket lj,(a) andusethe resultofproblem8.1to find

Exercise

8.6 Thespin-parityT?andexcitationanergy€ofthegroundstateandasequenceofexcited
slatesof tho nuclousrflHf are given in the table.
asrequired.
i' o* 2* 4* 6' 8'
8.3 Useequations
8.3and8.4.
f,(kev)0 100 321 641 1041
type and epia-parity uuclearmagnetou
Accountfor thisseries andcalculate
of states, themomentof ine(iaof thenucleusin sachof
p thoOxCitod Commenl
states, OnYOur tesultsandcomparothomwithlhe momsntof ineniaof
8Ll2
n 8r12 -r.913 -2.t276 tho nuclousconsidered es a rigidlyrotatingsphorg.Thg momentof inertiaof a sphereis
u2+
P P3l2 312- 3.793 3.2564 I M R2.Take8= 1.3x 10'rrAutm.
D Ps12 312- :1.913 -t,1776 (AdaptodiromtheI 983examinstionofrh€FinalHonours
School University
Physics.
Science,
ol Natutsl
P p312 312- 3.?93 2.6885 of Oxford.)
D p612 312' -1.913 -1.0300
D PL12 Ll2- 0.638 0.7024
p Prl'. rl2- -0.264 -0.322r
p Prlz Ll2- -0.264 -0.283r
n Pu2 l:/2- 0.638 0.7189
n dstz 5/2+ -1.913 -1.893? Solution
p dqz 5/2+ 4.793 4.7224 8.6 The expectedrotational energyis giveu by equation8.7:
Ei=iu+\h2lx
8.4 The a.nswerto the question's6rst part cg^obe obtained from Sectionsg.Band g.4 We calculate7c2 fot earhof the exited states in units of MeV fm2
The nucleus !!Ne is eveu+ven and so must hove spin-pa^rityjp = 0+. The nuclide td = j(i + t)h2c2
f zgi .
lfAl has an odd proton in the 1d572 levelso hasjn = 5/2+ ondllSc has an odd proton iu
lhe lfTp level and so has jn = 7/2- . jP Ei !c'
SeeSections8.3 and 8.6 for the assumptionsthat havebeenmade. MeV MeV fm2
{,7 0
2+ 0.100 1.17x 106
4+ 0.321 1.21x 106
Exercise o ' 0.641 1.28x 106
8+ 1.041 1.35x 106
8.5 Find out how nuclearmagneticdipoteand electricquadrupolemomentsmay be
measured. The classicatmomentof inertia of a rigid sphereabout a diameteris 2M R2/5. Tbea
xd =2M&R2/5. Now for rflHf:
Mc2 = l?0 x 931.5Mer/,
R = 1.3(t?o;trr 6,
Solution
8.5 Manyteclr"iques existfor themeasuremeat therefore
of nuclearEoments.Wethereforerefer
readersto gomeSources. Two classicbooksare: xt = 3.29x 106Mev fm2.
Kopferno", H. (1958).NuclurMomenls (trans.,Sc.heider,
E.E.).Academicpress,
NewYork. This is roughly twice the value derived from the enelgies of the rotational levels: for
RamsanN.F. (1953). Nuclur Moments,John Wiley,Newyork. coDEents on this result, seeSection8,10.
However,therehavebeenmanytechnicaldevelopmenk sincetheeebookr appeared,De-
scriptionsof sometypical modernmeasurements Eay be foundin
Krane,K.S.(feaZ).IntroductoryNuclearPliycics,JohnWiley,Newyork.
 Cl"pt"r e fS

lf both electronond photon ore real, and siuce they muet pa.rtcompanywith equal aad
Solutionsfor exercises
in Chapter9 opposite momentum in this fra,me,they must have a total enbrgy greater than the resr
massof the electron.Thus energycondenationcannotbe setigfiedand the auppositioole
lncorrect;the processis forbiddenfor real partlcles.
The same argument,nbmely energy consenrationin a zeromomentumframe for
axorclrec
., each processor lte reverse,ehowsthat all these processesare forbidden if all particles
9'1. s.howthatthegaLgerransformation.of
equations
(g.3)reaveunchangod involvedare real. .
the magneric
r'rv !!!ev"er
and elecrric fields of equarions (9..| and (9,2),
)
9.3 The figureshowsthe two leadinglorderFeyumandiagramsfor electron-electron scat
9'2 show that the processeirepresented
by Fig.9.2(a)-(d)cannorsatisfyrhe rurelhar tering. when the free electronlinei are labelled with energyand momentum,thesetwo
'nergyand momentum araconserved
at a vertexir ail threeparticras diagrams are clearly different diagrams,
in eachcaseararir".
(Thismeansrhata[ of thesoprocesses
arephysicaily impossibrouna* $,urconiiti-.j-'
Pr,Er Pr,Er
9.3 Findthe two leading-order
diagrams
for erectron-erectron
orasticscatteiin!.(Thetwo
to bo foundarebothtwo-verrexdiagrams.) Findoneand raberarrftrein-goiig;il;;t,
goingparticteswith typaandfour-momentum. Thenfinda secondwhich
- - i !'
is Yr'|!vrv"v
differentnoto
thattherecanbe no annihilation
diagram
likarhatof rig. S3ibl.- "v'Y
' Pz'4 tt: t'
9.4 Findthetwo reading-order diagramsfor thoproduction
of an erectron-positron
pairby
a realphotonin thaelectricfieldol a nucleus,
9.4 The two diagra^ms
are:

Solutions
9.1 Werepresent
thegaugetransformed
feldsby a prime.Then
A' = A+gtadA,
6' = Q-*,
ot
whereA is a scalarfunction of position and time.
Now, by definition (&. g.1)
B' = curl A, = curl A +curl gradA = curl A = B,
therefore
Exerclses
B'= E|.
Also (Eq. 9.2) 9.5 Considor a systemconslstirigof two non-identical
spin-| fdrririons:
listaltthe atiowed
statesthat aresimuhansously eigenstatesof the operatorsL?,52,J2 up to ,-3 by their
E' = -gradd -# , spectfoscopic notation.For each find the value of 1t, whero,Pis the parity.and the
symmetry..Check thatrQ andtS, arethe only stateswith 1r=1..
-$ado+$s,aa r -# -$s,aa,r
,
All thostatesthst:youhavelistedareavailablo
to theneutron-proton system. but onlyhalt
areavailablato the noutron-neutron and proton-protonsystems: listthese.
_ _ $ a6d_ T ,
/ 9.6 Useetsctrostaricsto provethoformulagivenin Fig.9.12 forthemutualpotentiat energy
therefore ot two eloctricdipoles.Ghoosea non.trivialsetof valuesfor d,,dr.and9, andshowthatthe
forceactingon one dipoledoesnot act slongthe lineof centres.
E'= E.
Thus the fields B and E are unchangedby the gaugetransformation.

9'2. consider e- + e- *'y. supposethis processcan Solutions

occur:transform to the rest frame 9.5 Weusethenotation2'+rtrj,anddenotethespingaritybyje andthetotalsymmetry
of the initial electron;the total energyiu this frameia
m"*. No* .;il;; th. i*i ,r"r., by s or a, for symmetric
or antisymmetric
underexchange.
For{ < 4:
 60 Chapter9 Clnpter 9 u t

jP
which must be providedby the decreasein energyof the system.Therefore
lgl
lPl
l+
l-
a
I
s
Frdbr- -(#.H)*,
3Ps,3P1rsP2
0-r l-r2- era,8 Hence
'Dr12+a p = -@,srin(d1+d2).
3Dy3D2rsD3 4Tesr'
l+,2+,3+ I,s,g
ttr'3 In generalthis is non-zero,tbere is a transverseforce,and the total the forceis not along
3- 8
,Fr, 3F, 2-,s-,4- the line of centres.
1Fr,
- Thl onlystateswith jr = l+ are3,9randtDt. In calculating
theparitywchavemade
the usualassumptionthat two non-identical fermionshaveevenrelativeparity. (Beware!
A fermionand its antifermionhaveodd rerativeparity.) For two identical
t..ioor, to.
exanple,proton-protouor leutron-neutron,the pauli exclusionprhciple allows
only the
aatieymmetric.(a)states.Theseare

9.6
/rE

E1

The electrcistatic potentiar I/, at a poiat X, coordinate r, d1from an

eleciric dipole
P1 at a point O.is given by l
'-Il'' v =ry
?hea the raaiallana transvenie compone!*';'; I
electric feld at X are

E-' = -Y-2qqosiei ,
0r 4ne6t
prsindr'
F^' = _!0V _ '
r 0h 4tres73
The remainhg orthogonal coroponentis zero.The mechanicalpotential
enerry of a dipore
p lviag in aa electricfieldE is -p; E. Applvthis to the
dipie p2pr*.J"?i;
with angleedefi"edin Fig. 9.12.The nechanical "ri"t.a
potentii eneigy'oftl. ,yrt.i- u, i,
thereforegrvenby
| (J = -p2oos02E,*p2sind2cos/.&1
,
= -ffi{zros0rcos,z- sin0rsing2cos/}.
Tlivial raluesof the angresoccur,for ocample,if all are zeroin whid
./ casethe
forcedoesadtalongthe line oi cerrtree.
i" g**J"'.'lave to showthat the forceou p2
tla'Dsverse
tc r car benou-zero.we usea virtuarworkmethodir tbecasewben6.= o and
{fowing a dieplacement rddl ofp2wlthoutrotatiouofp2 so that 02changes to 0z*dLt,
/ Thenthe workdoneby tbe forcef, actirg in thsdireciionof tbodiaplacetent,
ie Frddl
 r'
'iF

; ri' Clapter I0 63
'
m
tf[
. t t l illt
i
mass(non-strange)baryonstatesare:
Thef'lowest it
I Solutionsto exercisesin Chapter 10 Electrlccharge
-10+1+2
i

lli
l
nuclgons: n p
A+ ' A+r
i,
A-baryoris: A- Ao ril'
rll:
li
(a) What aretho quarkconstituo-nts of eachof thesestates? ili
Exerclses
(b) Assuming thequarksarein statesof zerorelativeangularmomontum. whattundamental t;
difficultybppoarcto be assoiiatedwith the A statos.which hivb i -1. and how is it l:
I
10.1 Usetha informarion
in i0,7 and rhe densiryof liquld hydrogen(7i kg m-r) to . resolved? I
calculate _Fig,
the meanfreepathfor (c) Howdo you explaintheoccurronco
5 GeV/cK. mesonsin tiquidhydrogeni of excitedststosof tho andA wlth hlgher I

valuesof l? "u.fioi I
10.2.Lookup tho nacessary
masses
and carcurate
the o-varuesfor eachof the foilowing (d) What approxlmate 6gqu6nco In the parltyof thesehigheratatis wortldyour slmple
r0actrons: modelpredict?
TheA0andthon (strangeness -1 ) bothdecayto pfotonandr'.meson,E;rplaln why tho
,t'+PiKo+n, A0moan-llfo h - 10'rt! whllothatof thoA l! 2,6x l O't0r,
K-+P+zo+Xo,
(Adopted
fromI 984exsminotion
of theFinslHonours
Schoolof Nstural
Sciencr,
Phyricr,
Unlvc'tityof
K- *P+ l(o4go, Oxford.) |
P+P-Kt*E'*n,
E -+ p - n 1 n , 10.6 Descrlbotho exporlmsntal ovldencewhlch iupportsthe quark modelof hadron
strucluro. :
1 -t + P r K o + K o + n , "
ln o eimplequarkmodelthellghtesrhadrona
crecongldered al Odrjndctatslof u, d rnd r
K- +P-16' +Ko+O-. quarksor antiquarks.
Glvethe compositlonof the mesonsn' , f , K!, K' (S- + 1) and(o
(S-1) andtho baryonsn. p andA accordingto this model.
writedown thevalencequarkcontentfor eachof thediff'rentparticr€s
andcheckthattho State,whh reasons.which of the following reactionscan proceedvia the strong
conservation
lawsof olectriccharge,flavour,strsngeness
and baryonnumberaressrisfied
throughout. interactlon:
Drawa quarkflow diagramfor the lasireoctlon.

10'3 Two of the foilowingrsactionsarnno, oaa* under l(-+P+(o+1

any circumstancesand a third
cannotoccurby stronginteractions.
Findth6soandindicatetho reasonsin eachcase: Ko+n+ A +no
K-+P-A+flo
( a )K - + P + ( 0 1 n , Ko+p+K'*n.
( b ) z ' + p + + K ++ ! . , t.

(c)z-*p+f(+42o"un-, ln the additivequarkmodil tho total inreraction

cross.sectionsol high.onergyhadrons
( d )r - + p + 1 1 - 4 1 * , areassumedto bo duo.tothe spmgof.the interactloncross-soctions of tho constituont
quarks,Takingaccountof the diffeiingcross.sections quarkpairs(qq) and
for different,
( e )K o * p + 6 - 1 p 1 n r , assuming thatd(qq)-o(qq), usethii modelto provethe relation . ,
(f ) p+p + 1.+6. *x- +v- av.,
(9) z' +p - 11o1Xo* zr * K++Ko, r(Ap) -o(pp)+oKop)-o(z.p). :
( h )K - + p + D t * n * z - .
beammomentumof 100GeV/ctho total interaction
At 8 laboratory cross-sections
are
(i) z-+P+f,'+I- +Ko+p+t,+n,
slowlyvaryingfunctionsof momentum.
Giventhat
/ 0) z-+p1E-+Eo+p.
oKop)r20x10-t b
Thenotaionr meanstheantiparticle to thex andthosignconvontion
is thatE. hascharge it'(r'p)-24x10-rb
+1 andis theroforo
tho antiparticlo
to the !-.
r ( p p )r 3 9 x 1 0 - ' b
tatmshadrcn,repton,boson,fermionarc usedin rhe crassification particres,
10'1 Jhe of
Explaintheirmeaning,
givingexampresof theh uso,which can be appriedto quarks?
 64 Chapter10
Clnpter 10 65

theinteracrion
crosssaction
oi theE- hyperon
(quarkcomposition
dss) Solutions
lll.^.:.::,:if":t
with pfotoffi. "-" ''"
10.1 The total cross-section,a, read from Fig. 10.7 is about 19 mb = 1.9 x 10-30m2.
(rurptcatromiliiffilrmination of thcrinatxonours
siioot of Natural
sclenco,'physics,
universlty
' ol The meaafree path (Eq. 2.15)is (na)-t wberen is the numberof protonsper cubicnetre
oxrord') *:'-'-",
..;.;::' , of liquid hydrogen.
10.6outtin6'tli6Guarr
moueroerlrriprioni* n = 7L x 6.022x 1026/1.008 .
rrrefrioii,'*ii;n n.ri.-o-.ciu" quarr ii:.
rn^odeld_escriptlohand strangeness of othermesoii..*ith ir-O- wtricfr.* U. *;irJiia Hence
rroms, q anos quarrc.How do.mosons with/r-!;.grise.in thismodol?What1?wouldyou (no)-t-12.4e.
oxpocttho tirst6iiited statosof tho 0- and 11 meJjns ro hauel ..
Thepmesonfiasstrangeness s=o.ir=l- anda massof zio uev. what wourdyoi expect
to be the principaldecaymodegf .. o1" why can the t0.z The conceptof Q-valueis describedin Section7.3. It is the sum of the rest masses
/ mesonnot decayto zozo?whar of the colliding particles lessthe sum of the rest massesof tbe collisionproducts.Thus,
would you expoctto be the principardecaymoderand
approximats rifetimeof tho ,o?
*: y'misht
benroducei
311itgj:ii;;;;-ilffi;-.;;i1,. for example, the reactiou
:fflll'Jj:lt;;; r-+p+Ko+A
(Adaptedfromr9g5oxsmin.tion
of thcFinarHonoure physics,
schoorof Naturlrscience, has Q given by
Oxfad,) university
of
Q = 1 3 9 . 6 + 9 3 8 . 3 - 4 9 7 . 7u-1 5 . 6
10.7 starewhat is meantby (r)..charge .ymmotry(D) chargeindependence = -536 MeV .
of nucroar
forccr,lllurtratcahirrgcrymmctryby rcierrrng
to ttre.ncrgvrevers
of ilght nucrer. The calculationof the Q-valuesis thereforestraightforwardand the remainingvaluesare,
Explalnqualltatlvely the followlngphenomeno: In MeV,
(i) At a csrtainmomentumtho.cross-sections
for z.-neutrono(n.n) and ,!--proton 104,-391, -746,29, -957, -1232.
o(t-p) interactionsareequalwhereas o(K.n)-22mb anda(K-p).6i66. The valencequark contentsmay be formed found in Tables10,3, 10.4and 10.S.A
(ll) Thep0andKomesonsborh
{ecaypradominantly to (2. +a-).Thomeanlifeof rhepois quark flow diagram for the last reaction is: ,.
10-a whereas thatof the Ko is O.tigx i g-ro,.
(iii) The meanlife of tho E'-m'son is 2.6xr0-rs, K-s
whereasthat ot rhe zo-mesonis
0.8x10-t.s, u
A-beamconsisting of a' andr' mesonsstrikesan iron absorber. Giventhat th6 cross
eoctionfor n. interactlons with hon is 600mb/nucleuscalculatethe fhicknessof
nac.$ary to attonuatethe z' beamby a factorof r000. Exprain iron K+
attonuatedby a differentfactor.
why tho .nron, *orti Lu p HU lc
[Thadensityof hon is 7g00kg m-r. Thorerstiveatomlcmassof iron is b5.gs.j 10.3 Reaction (f) doessot couserveelectric chargeand reactiou(h) doesnot conserve
(Adrptcdtrom| 98r orrminariono, theFinsrHon6unschoorol Nrturatscience,
physics. baryon number. Sinceneither conservationlaw is knowo to be broken,thesereactionsare
Oxford.) University
ol
not expectedto occur,
Reaction(d) has a two unit changeiu strangeness.The weakinteractioncan cbange
stra,rgenessbut has a very small cross-sectionfor lASl = 1; requiring lASl = 2 *oo16
mean a nggligiblecross-section.

10.4 For a defnition ofthese terms, follow tbe index, Quarksare strongly interacting
and are strictly hadrons;however,usageis now restricrtinghadronsto be tbe observable
combinationsof quarks,
(a) SeeTable 10.5.
(b) The three identitical quarksin A- and in A++ appearto haves total wavefunction
that is symmetric.This violatesthe Pauli exclusionprinciple.This problemis resolved
by the introduction of the colour quantum number,as describedin Section10.?.
(c) Excited states will occur when there is orbital angular momentum between the
quarks.
(d) Each additionalunit of orbitol angularmomentumbringsanothcrfactorof (-l) to
/ the reckoningof parity and increasesthe mass.Thus we expectthe parity sequence
* (groundstate),-, *, -...
 r,lr
I

66 Chapter 10 Cbaptul0 67
The decayAo * r- + p conservesell quantum numbersand thereforeis causedby uecaymode Critical factor caueingsuppreesiol ' -vobserred
the strong interaction. The Q-value is large (- 150 MeV) and so it has a mean life of o*- relativeto r*ro node bruchlng fraction
order 10-23s. The decayh + n- * p has a straugeness changeof *l and this Beang & 1t+1 Electromagnetic -4*10-r
quark flavour change;sucha changecan only be brought about by the weak interaction. ,; , (J?rr-r (0n)-, ?r' ? 1. Forbiddea by stronginteractions
It has an efrectivestrength10-r{ that of the strong interactionso the meanlife is of order aud can only be causedby
i,"'l , glectromagaelicinteractiong.between 'Unobserved
10-og,
. .r iiiusditdit quar:ts'.
,iif&,r h,.,

10.5 The experimentalevidencefor the existenceof quarksand for the quark model :2: Sifilll:lifi{t'itate pbaseiir'dii;
lii{ [4r)r' SmaU[Dal state phase 8pace.
hadronsis listed in Table 10.11.The quark coutent of theselightest hadro.s is given in. "f .,-<2 x l0-r
iX.:il$
Tables10.3,10.4,and 10.5. . ,ti.'i,!
Reactious K-*p - K0+n, K-+p - A+r0, audKo+p * K++n proceed Uf tle l[,ii
stroag interactionsiuceall quantumnumbergareconserved,The reactionKo+n * A+,no ' ThesedecaysviolateSI conservstionof G-pa,rity.SeePerkins,D,If. (1932).Intruhrctioato
hasachangeinstrangeness(As=-2)audthereforecannotproceedbythestrong HighEnergyPlyricr (3rd edn).Addison-Wesley,
Readiug,U.S.A.
interaction.
To show o(Ap) = o(pp) +o6op) - o(tr*p). we use the quark contentand the The p0 has ie = I- so tbe decayinto r0r0 can only corurervetotal angula^rInoDeD-
additivcquark model: tum if tho two r0 are in an / = 1 atate of relative orbltal angularmdmentum.Thie state
is antisymmetric and tberefore forbidden for two ideutical bosons!y the Peuli exclusioq
o(Ap) = 2o(iu)+ o(sd)+ zo(uu)+ o(ud)+ 2o(du)+ a(dd). principle.This principle requiresthst s state of two e more ideuticalbosonmust have a
= 2o(su)+ a(sd)+ 2a(uu)+ 3o(ud)+ o(dd) wavefunction tbat is symmetric under exchangeof eny two. ' ' ..
o(pp) = 4o(uu) +a(ud)+o(dd) For a production pethod seeFig. 2,7, and for infening the lifetime seeSection2.9.
o(Rop) = 2a(su) + a(sd)+ 2o(au)+ o(Ad) 10.7 Chargesymmetry and chargeindependence'aredescribeddnd illustrated in the
= 2a(su)+ o(sd)+ 2o(ud)+ o(dd) context of nuclearfoicesiu Section,9.Z ,l
.l
o \ f r ' p ) = 2o(uu)+ o(ud)+ 2(du)+ o(dd) (i) The states ur-n and n+p rurecbargesymmetric sinceuuder the opr:ration of cba,rge
symmetryn =r p and r* + r-. Thereforethe collisioncross.sectioDs shouldbe identical i
: 2a(uu)+ 3o(ud)+ a(dd)
apart from the small effectof the n - p masediffereuceand of the electromagneticinter-
wherewe haveusedo(du) : a(ud) = a(du) = o(ud). Then
actiou.The states K+n and K-p ele not conoectedby the operationofcbargesymmetry
o(pp) +o(Rop) - oQr+p) = 2a(uu)+3o(u<t)+o(dd)+2a(su)+o(sd) sincethey haveopposite8tralgenessrthereforethere is no reasonwhy the coresponding
= o(Ap). cross-sections should be equal. :
(ii) Tbe decaysare
We now needo(E-p); this is found by the followingsteps:
o(E-p) = 4d(su)+2o(sd) +za(ua; +o(dd)
po-r+*r-rr = 4x1o-2rg,
= zo(Rop)- (2o(ud)+ o(dd))
K9*r++r-, r = 8.9x 10-us.
= 2o6op) - (2oQr+p)- o(pp))
= zo(Rop)+ a(pp) - 2o(zr+p) I

Numerically As webavesee4in quegtion10.6.The p0decaycorselves all quautumnumberg a,ndis

The K0 decaydoesnot conserve
causedby the etronginteractiou. stralgenesn rod ca[
o ( E - p ) = 4 0 x 1 0 - 3 + 3 9x 1 0 - 3- 4 8 x 1 0 - 3= 3 1 x 1 0 - 3b a r n s .
bencebasa meanlife $ester tbatrthet for tbe
only be causedby the weakiuteractioo,
poby a factorof order1013,
10.6 The 6rst part of tbis problem may be answeredafter referenceto Sections10.8 (iii) The decays
are
and 10.4.The first excitedqQ above0- and 1+ are tPr, 3Po, 3Pr, md 3p2 having
,P = 1+,0+,1+and 2+ respectively.
The principal decaymodeof the p+ is expectedto be and is
rr - pt +vp, T = 2.6x 10-8s,
P+-t++ro. ro -^l*,1,r = 8,0x 10-17s.
This mode conservesall quantum numbersso is causedby the strong interaction, All
other euergeticallyallowedmodesare suppressed:
 68 Chapt* 10
Chapter10 69
Theseare the domiuautdecaymodesin eachcase.The
first occursby the weak
irteraction, the secondis obviouslyelectromagaetic.
Tle formeris ."J
latter aud leadsto a muchlongermeenlife toi tru oi ,i* ,0. Exercises
decaythau for the".i1,
ro decay.
The a*enuarionof a beamof particlespassbgthrougL;;;;;fi; arecreatod
by whichleptonsandhadrons
,i,J,u, Bo. 10.8 orawdiagrams thamochanisms
to illustrate
2.16:.. at highenergy.
in e'e- annihilation
/V = /VoexP(-c/l)'
collidorthe particlescirculatein shorlcylindricalbunchesof
In an electron-positron
where,\ = (za)-I, tlg nean freepath. Forpioas radius1 mm (transverse to the directionof motion).Thenumberof particles perbunchis
"i" in ;iron
5xlOtrandthebunchescollideatafrequencyofl MHz.Thecross'sectionforp'p-creation
. ; -:",..o
= 800mb/audeus = b x l0_2em2. at 8 GeVtotalenorgyis 1.4x10-!gcmr;howmanyp'p-pairsarecreated persecond? Whatis
Foriron n = 2900 , |O26/ES.8S. tha rateof hadronproductionat this energyT
Hence :
" 9:0F lndicato. canbe identifiod
with the helpof a sketch,howg' andp- frorlro'e- annihitation
) = 0.235
m. andsuggestthe principal sources of background.
Tbereforeto obtainrn attenuationby e factorof 1000require (Maptedlrom the 1985eraminadon ol the FinabHonourcSchoolof NaturalScience, Physics,
a thickness
ofiron r, given
Univerrity
of Orford.)
exp(r/l) = 1000,
into threoy-
predictsthe decayratefor 1rS,positronium
10.9 Ouantumelectrodynamics
that is
raysto be givonby
t=1.62m.
The pi-mesons interactstrorgly with thenucleons m,C
of the nucleiof theiron absorber, ',,,_2d(n'-9)
9nh
eothat theinteractioncross-section is appto*iratetygeonetrical(- tr}z,whenfi
tbeauclea^r radius).Mu'mesons is now
do nof interactr;;.;gly with nucleone but do interact Assumingths same formulaappliosto the decay 9(3097)-three gluons followed
electromagnetical; bowever the erectronagn.ii..r"*-rl.ti.ns ereressthanstrong
inter- by fragnlentationto hadrons, ths tragmsntation occurringwhh unit probability, calculate
actioncross-section by a factorof order.toi. trus ne for mu-mesons is much a, for tha ccgvertices
the effective in this docay,Thefull width ol the rl(3097)is 63keV
lessthan that for pi-mesons. "it.ou"tioo and 82%of docaysareto hadronicfinalstates,Assumethe massof lhE charmquarkis
1.65GeV/c,
Nowconsider theradiativedecayp/d t+g+g. This,followsdby fragmentation of thetwo
gluons.woutdrspfesont thomochanism for radiativadecayio hddronicstatosnot contain'
ingcharmod quarks.In it oneccgvortexof yr+ 39 becomos a ccl vortox'Modifytheformula
to giveyourprediction of thedEcayrateandestimate thobranching fractionforthisradiative
decaymode.

10.10Thehyperfinespliningof thelsstateofpositroniumisaboutl50timesgreatarthan
theanalogous theorigino{
splittingfor the 1S stateof the hydrogenatom.By considering
thosplining,can you explainwhy this ratiois as greatasthis?

viith principalquantumnumbern is
of thelovolof positronium
I 0,11 Showthattheonergy
givonby ,,

E=-a'Y',c rl
"'

wherem. is the massof the electron.

+€€4*lrL:.;'!-il tr:i
 70 Chaptert0
6h"pt , to Tt
Solutions
Electronaudpositronbunches crosset o, thecentreof theeolenoidal detector.A is e thtu
l0'8 Two of manyposslbre quarkflowdragrams wslledbeemvapuumtube.A magnetlcffeldpuallel to tbe uttg tr producedW a cunent
for hadronproduction
in highenergy
electron-positron
annihilation: in the solenoidC. Tbe.returupethof tbe megnetic fieldts by.;dte€lcy[nder,p-S is a,
low doueitydotectorgiviugapacocoordlnatoe aloagtho troJoctoit&of chargodpa,rttcleg.
E is a detectorwhichgivestrai:kcoordiratesofparticlespenetiitiia the coil aod steel.
The collisioDs
a,rebetweeue+a^ud e- of e4ualandoppositripiiineDtum.Thuseveats
givinga p+ ap.dlt' aloneproducetheseparticleswitb equel.,iriid;oppositeEomeatumr
theirtrejectoriesbendingappropriately h themagnetic 6eldand.botheasilypenetrating
tbecoilandsteel(c+D) to bedetected

thesteelwithoutabsorption
Major backgrounds
in E. Thetbidoessof thesteelis choseu

or scattering.
aredueto:
sotbat
in the energyregionof interest,thereis a minimumprobability-that hadronspenetrste
li
I
I
e'+ e- + zit++ztd + no e++e--)A+K++ro+r-+fr l) Lowmultiplicityhadronproduction, in particular,

Thesediagramsdo not show the gluonexchange e+ + e- - n+ + n- * neutrals,

lineswhichcreatetbe secondaryqQpairs
aad which arrangethe final productiou of ciourless
hadrons.rn aadition, we hlie
-- ' oot where the two chargedparticles are nearly back to beck, botb penetrate the steel ald
shownproductioa through an intermediatestate
of a Zo (seeFig. l2.Z), :
-appeais measuremetrte$ors on their momenta make theseeveutsdifrcult to classify correctly,
To an electronin the electronbunch,the positron
bunch to haveE x 10' 2) Low multiplicity hadronic eventswhere r - pu decay in flight allow easier peaetra-
positrousin a discof radius 1 mml that is an
appaientsurfacedensityof s x totr/(r* tg-u;
e+m-2'Thep+p-production tion of the steel by the observedchargedparticle(s).
cross-section
isr.4xr0-3?
Jil;;;;ilr; ri,ll.r..r."
has a collisionproducinga p+p,. pur in crossing
the other bunch is
3) Tau pair production(seeTable 12;1)

5'x 10rl e++e- 't++r- t

x 1.4x l0-o' .
,r x lo;
where the t&u-mesonsboth decayby a mode with a single cha.rgedparticle
But there are 5 x r0rr electronsand the bunches
cross106times per second,Therefore
the expectedproductionrate of p+p- pairs is r i p+v+v
(5 x tgtt;z x 1.4x lO-3?x 106
-=.t.tl X lU--S--.
r x 10-6 t +t*u t
8 Gev it is possibleto producethe first two generations
ofquarks so we expect
a (Fig' 10.10)to be r0/3. ?hereiorethe hadron p.oa,i.ti,io
rate is expectedto be-' and both chargedparticlesp-enetrate the steel. ::::
4) Cosmicray mti-mesons passingnearO canalsoimitate p+p- pairs.
1.11x 10-2a = 3.Zl x l0-2s-r .
" . All thesebackgioundshaid featuresthat allowmostevei6io:be properlyclassifed.
A simplifieddetectorwourdhavecompo'entsshownin However, apparatus
iroperfections
do allowsomeeventtopologies to mimicp+p-.
the next figurg,this shows
longitudinal aad transversesections. I

10.9 Reptacea by as and rn. by rn. to obtain the transitionlrate'oi l3,gr cbarmonium
(r/(3097)) decayto badrons.Thus
'hu
=,rg?4Jl,-n,".cz
The full widtb is 63 kev &!d tbe branching fraction to badrons.i! 82% so that the partial
width fo! this modeis 0.82 x 63 keV; this is &.r. Thug

^ 9rturt
-J
d : = -

2Qr2- 9)m.C
and
as = 0.287.
 72 Chaptqr 10 Clnptcr 10 73

For the radiative decay,one ccg vertex becomescc? and one as b replacedby an a. Tbus
the.partial width (n r) for decay into one 7-ray plus hadrons is alrar/as = l.3l keV Exercises
predicting a transition rate of 2.00 16tEr-1 and a branchingfractionof 2.og%,
" 10.12 Whatis theisotopicspinof the O.meson('So,i t=0-, cS)? Whywould lhe decayof
10.10 The hyperfinesplitting in positroniumand hydrogenis due to the difierencebe- tho D: - D.+rf beforbidden
undertheeffectof thastronginteraclions?(D': is the3Srstato
tween the iuteractios energy of the two constitueuts'magneticmomentsiD the s,sr erd ol c5.) ,
r.9s states. The magnetic
momeat of a particle of spiu s is (seeSectioag,?)
10.13 Exptainhow theisospinandstrangoness quantumnumbers arisefromthoexistence
in of multiplets particles
of elemontary andfromexperimental observationson theirptoduction
lr,= 0tfis, anddecay.Statotho isospinselectionrulssobservedin strong.electromagnetic.andweak
For the positroi.g, = *2 and ry,C = g.EUlMeV.'For the protol, g, :- *5.b9 and and with rsfetence
interactions, to thesesaloctionrulesdiscusseachof the following
Statements:
Mec = 938Mev. Thusthe positronnaguetii!'inoment is aboutosotin.s that of the
protou.Tbereducedmassof positroaiumis half that of tbe electronia thehydrogenatom (a) the z' and z' mesons aroof equalmass,but the X' andE- baryon masses ditferby
sothat the magnettcmomentsir positroaiumareion the average 8 MeV/cr;
furtherepartbi a factor 'baryon
of 2-thon they qpein hydrogen.sincetlie magneticiateractionis inveroeiyprolortional (b) themeanlifeof theIo ismanyotdotsof magnitudesmallerthanthosaof theAo
to the third por* of the eeparatiol(Fig. 9.1t), thig makesfor a factorof i. hon tlis andEo baryons;
si^mpleargumentweo(pectpositroniumto l"* uyp.tnnesplitting aboutg2 timesthat (c) the reactionl('+prf,++l(+ hasnot beenobs€rved at anyK'energy.
of thehydrogeratom.In facrtberatiois about14s," ile annilihtio-ndiagram(l.ig. (Adoptod from 19?7 cxeminrtionol tho Fin!l Honours School ol Notu?61
Scisncs, Physics,Univorsityol
9,3b)
increasesthe positroniumsplitting abovethat expectedfromeimplemag;eticinte-raction Oxlord.)
arSurDents.

lo.ll. The rqr!! for.tbe euerryof a boundstateof an electronin a hydrogenatom,

gven by solvingSchr6dinger's
eguation, is . . .i

o^ " = - Wmiea
, Solutions
10.12 Both the C and s guarks havezero isotopic spin. Thereforethe D" and Dj have
In positronlum tho effectlvemasslg tbe rcducedmass,m./2. Then for positronium zero isospin,The zr0hosisospinl. Thereforethe dccay
Di- + Df +ro
rflrel
_ - 6 4 n t ] f f i " - - F .azmri
or " =
involvesa changein isospinand canuot be causedby the stroug interactious.

10.13 Tbe first put, of the problemmay be answered by reference to Section10.11.The

isotopic spin selectiol rules expressthe allowedchangesin total isotopic spin quantum
numbeis (t, h). The dange ie ftom all tho hsdronsin tho initisl steto to ell tbe hedrons
in the final state.
l) Stronglntoractions: Al = 0, Alo = 0,
2) Eleciromagneticiateractions:for A - B +'y wbere A and B are hadroulc states'

p,230,
3) tffiifi*lttjl'=urtinarcn*ainthocommontr6n iniootopic
thochansoe
ue not usefullysummarlsed.Ae en example,the eemi'leptonicdecaye(Section12.1)
lnvolving u, d or e quarks(or antiquarks)only, hovo
A5=0,At=0,*11 Al3=jl'

or
AS = AQ = *1, AJ = *l/2, 66 = 6912 .
(Q is the chargeof the hadronicsystemand S its strangeuess.)
a) The r+ and zr- belongto the sameisotopicspin multiplet but tbey are also related
by chargecoljugation (Section10.3) and must, therefore,bave the samemass.E+
and E- are not related by chargeconjugationand need not have the same mass'
 lilI :
i:

74 Chapterl0 r{ L

They belongto the sameisotopic

spin multipret ess
and therefore
lqersrurewtu
a massdifferenceof a few will be
oe expectedha*
L\ MeV.
D/ l'he Eajor decaymodes
are
E0 - A + ?: = -i'. At3 =
Soluiibn'sto exbrcises
in Cfradier11
n o - o - + l ; 1la t = q 1 1 2i ,i i = l6,v electromagnetic
z , A , 9 = a t ,pi u " 1 .
E0+ A0,r-no, at = q1'12', iii= _itr,As=a1,
The electromagletic*teraction
q,eak., -"
.. . Exsrclccr . .:...:l
is a factor of about r0rr times
sothomean strongerin its effect
'fe orthi ii is ,i]r"".o., ot magnirude 11.1 Showthatthemaximum energythit canbc transierred
to .i .i..tron, initiaryat rosr.
:111r*::1i tessrhanthose by a particlaof rastmasstt and total energyE is glven
r;) The reaction bv

K*+P*K++Dt 2n,C(8,- MrC) 2rt,Cgy

bas A5 = -1' It can onry "" M|c+nl/+2Emi
be causedby the weak
therefore
sosmallasto make
tl. ,.*ii*
interactionaud the cross_sectiou
is tg.fEr
\M/ ,\MI
"ffir*ur.. where/cistheverocity
of theparticraandy-(1- f2 )-r,asusuar.
Thisisthcrerativisticsily
.'"-.'--',r
exactformufa.Showthatfor the extremerelativisticcasaE> M2czlrrr.
t
u-'-E'

andfor a lessextreme
casewhen, n fic andE< M.c2lm,

v*,*2m,f)!c\
.,.
Non.refativistically
(E-Mcz+7, T<Mcz) the maximumencrgy
transferis givenby

u^, = 4m,MT
(m.+Ml'

Calculate
the valueof v-. for p.mesonswith E-5 GeV.

11'2 show that if energyv(<<ra.cr)and momentumg

are tansferredto a freo.
slationaryerectron,then g.g=2rn v. rf v> z.c the probrem
L r.r.mti.ii" ir,il1*, ii
thefour'momontum Lookat Fig.9.6to findout whatthiIineansana,no* o
transfer.
q2n-2mrv. tiri

11.3A particle
a,of a massMr(>n,),'chrarso
ZJll.,andinitiatkincticenergy
range
R.'showtharrherange inrhesamematerili I hasa
ior parricre
b i, gr"ri il ii, JJi"s
law

, M.zl
Rr(Mv Zv Tb)' R,lu,,2,, T,- M,TJM).
i, 4
or.positrons.)
whalassumptioliareimpticitin rheuse
llili:::,,1_i,1ltly,l-9^r]:-:.r',r1.
of thisscalinglaw?ls it validfor relstivistic.
magsivepa.ticfesf
11.4UsingthergsurtsgivenrnTabrelr.l,showthatrhekineri.in.rgy(r)specrrumof
d-raysknocked
outof atomsby a fastheavyparricle
is givenapproxlmately
by
dNK
dT T2

for l< I< v_,, wherel( is I consrant.

 . ,::;
''..: '
:':'
76 Chsptetrr , Chapter11 77

Solutions For the extremerelativistic caseE >> M, E >> M2f m. and E )) m" therefore
11.1 In the centreof-mass,the collision that trausfersthe greatbst momentumis one
ia which the electron reversesits direction of motion. If u" is the velocity of the centre- Umu= E '
of-mass ia the laboratory (electron initially stetionary) then in the centre-of-mass,as a
For the lessextremecasewhereM 2 m. and E < M2f m" then the denominatorterms
cotureque[ceof the collision, the electron revenresits velocity from -u. to *u.. Ttansfor-
(^,lM)' afi 1(m"lM) = (Em,lM2) are both much lessthan I and
mation back to the laboratory after the collisiou nea,nsadding velocity u" to i to obtain
the poshcollisio4 vglocity of the electron in the laboratory uhb. using the relativistic v^u=2mo92,f2=2rn,(82 * M')lMt .
additiou of velocitiei,
-l For the casewhere the incident particle has a non-relativisticvelocity tben E = ? + M
-rlrb = us u6
-
r+0;
, and?( M,giving
,.
where all velocit'iesare in units of c. The energytransferred to the electron is jur;t its final
kinetic energy 4 and it has its greatest ralue in the collision described. Therefore
r/mu=ffiffi1
4m.MT
Yu=Tc=tzh(ftb-1) -_
(M +rn")2'
where
Considera 5-GeV muon.The massof the muou is 0.1057GeV. ThereforeM f mo =
?lo=m; 206,9and,M2/m. = 21.86GeV.This casequalifiesfor the lessextremerelativisticformula:

/mu = 2m,(82-M')lM'
a.ndm. is in uaits of enerry.
: 2.29GeV .
Now the velocity of the centre-of-massin the laboratory is the total momentum of
the initial system di',ided by its total energy.Therefore
11.2 Energy v transferredbecomeselectron kinetic energy and momentum q trans-
'!c=ffi' fened becomeselectronmomentum.Sincey (( rn c2, the velocity of tbe electronis non-
.,.-..... relativistic and 2zrn. = q. q.
P2= E2- M2 end -t;:':#H'ituting
where wehave The relativistic casehas Iour-momentumq = (q,v/c) and.q2c2 = u2 - q.q8
" (Fig.9,6). Ifpl is tbe electronfour-momentumbeforethe collisionthat transfersenergy
and momentum,and p2 is the final electronfour-momentum,then conservationof energy
Hence and momentummeansthat
q=p2-pl
')leb = (E + m')2 + P2
,, and
{ ((82 + m,)2 + P2)2- 4P2(E + m.)2
q 2= q , q = p 2 2 + p l - 2 r r . . p z .
. =,w, (E +m,)2 + P2
Now p = (P,Elc) atd p2c2= E2 -P ,Pc2 = m2ca.h particular
'
Therefore pr * (O,rnoc), -
pt = (P2,m"c+v/c),
=
t/nu=7,%(T.u-l)
ffi Therefore
2m,(E2 - M2)
_ Pt'P2= mucQnoc
* vf c)'.'
M2+.m!,*2Em,'
Thus
which is the result given ia the problem, apart from factors ofC and c{. For the incident
particle we put 1 = E/M, then p = PlE, E2 - Iu{2= M2p2f end. q2 = 2m3t -2m,c(m.c+vfc)
= -2mrv.
.. * = @ . 2w02t2
u
11.3 The range, R, in a givenmaterial, of a particle of massM(>> m"), cbaryeZe and
Thrs formula for z.o can also be written as
initial kinetic energy?s is givenby (Equation 11.2)

= to AT
R(M,Z,TiJr"fiG
 '.t
i...,.tr,', ;
T{T:"t}'.-'

78 Chapterlt

Nowdfldo = -22!(T/M) wbercf (TlM) is essenrially a functionof thevelocityof the

CiapterII 79
[l'
particle.(T/M = 8f2 not-relutivisticallyandT/M = - t, where =
7 t ' v
UtllT/C,
for a relativisticparticle.)It followsthat
1'1.5 Showthattheaverage radiative
energy
lossofelectrons
oi i"liJbev/ccrossing one
1-.
-nI |r",,ffi
1o drg) lengthof.lead'lc
radiation rbout2.0GeV. '.-.r j.

and thereforethat
. rtnM,z,rol= A bcamof clectronrof cnrrgy1 GcVtrrvcner normallyr loll of,lcadfith ofa rtdlatlon
lengththlck. Show that th6 angulardistributionof bremsstrahlulg,photons
800 MeV is determined
of energy
mdreby multiplescaneringof the elEctroriS
rhan by the angular
'-n1u,z,ro'1=- In ths basicradiationpiocoss. .
distribution
M f -Y Jn I@)
whey V = T /M aad,yo = To/M . Henceall particleswith the samey0 havethe samevalue, Solution
of z' R(M , z,Ts) / M . That is, that two particles,a and b, with initial kinetic energies?i iir'ttii. radiation
leii6his aCiinea
in Section
11.3.Electr;;ll;i dnirgy8.2GeV/c
and ?6 have emergefrom crossinga radiation length of leed with an avera!'eenerJ of 3.2/e =
1.18GeV. Thus this averageenersf loesis 2.02GeV. . ..;; .
frR1uo,zr,rr1,
ff "r*",r^,^)= ";,.Tbe root mean,squaremultiple scattering angle is epprocldi-i*ely giwD by
.,",&,..
providedthat T,/M, = TalMv. Therefore

z6,Ty)= p$nfu.,
R6(M6, 2",T.= TbM.lMb). Forp I' 1000MeV/&Ht L = Lal2b,rhis
or ri'aisii:lii .c,(E6'.:rr.n).
forliangversar
tutr 26
etgld,is4.?mr,An.elechon.emitling a photonof enerry87 iffiibii tlet at ao a^ugle
The assumptionsimplicit ale that approximatelym,C/E, to its dirdctionof flight.[u th6caseof,liliis,problemthisangle
1 . The lossof energyis by ionisationalone. is 0.6mr. Thusthe augUlar of thesepbotons
distributioD is rodStly.determined by the
2. The rate of loss of energyby ionisationis a function of the velocity and charge,at: multipleacatteriug
of the radiatingelectron.
all velocities,but not of the massof the particle.
The formula canuot be used if one of the particlesis an electronor a positron since
Eierclse
assumptionI is not valic in their cases.Both loseenergr by bremsstrahlungat a rate..
greater or comparableto ionisatioulossat all but the very lowestenergies(seesection,,
11.3).The next heavierparticleis the muon:at all but very high.oetgiesmuon energy
lossby bremsstrablungis negligible.
Relativisticparticlesmay haverangesthat becomecomparableto or greaterthan the
mean free path betweennuclearcoltisions,In tbis casenuclearcollisionscan frequently Peak Energy(keVl
causelarge, single,energy loss eventswhich decreasethe range and which causelarge A 1368
fluctuationsin the distancepenetratedby a sampleof suchparticles. B 2754
c 1732
1 1 . 4 T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n f o r a f a s t , h e a v y p a r t i c l e t o l o s e e n e r g y i n tuhl e D 2243
o rva* n
dg, ve E | 153
in a singlecollisionwith an electronis (doldv)dv givenin Table 11,1,siuce r, = 1, tr56 F 2520
0nolgy
0{thoknocked
0neloetron,
thodlllarentlal forprotluelng
erosr"r60tl0n a,n€lootron
of kinetic energyT is given by

da ila I [. u l. lzr\]
fr=&"7[,;;'\, -V)J
D The frequencydistributionin energyof thc ejectedelectronsis 11.0 Flnda formulaforthemaxlmum
electron.
onofgythNt0 photonof sncrgyE,csntranstor to. fr66
I
#"#['-#('-5)] Thc figureshowstho encfgyspoctrumobtainedwhen a gmallrolld stltc detectorb
exposedto t.fsdlatlonffomflMg.Accountfor thc structuroc
are511 keVand 1022keVlowerin energy,rospectively,
at E andF.ThepeaksD sndC
than8. Explainhow theyarise.
For a fast particlcV/c: I nnd
(Ad!ptcd,romth! .|984crrmlnrtlon
of thcFln!lHonou,rSchool
ol NrturrtSciincc,Phyrlct,Unlvrrrljy
dNl
ol 0xford.)
7Fofr
 80 Chapter 11 Qhapter11 87

Solution
11.6 The $eatest energy is traasfened to the electronwhen the incident gamma ray Exercises
gcatters back aud the electron recoils forward. This is then tbe game
situatioa as iu (11.14)is dimensionally
problem 7.4 where we forrud the gamma r&y ererof required to give a forward recoiling 11.7 Showthatoquation conect.
proton a bnetic energr, T, equal to 2 MeV. Solving the formula for E, as a function
of 11.8 Consider the docayof equation(11.12):giventhat tho spin-parity of tho ril8a'
T, fot T as a function of .B", with MrC replaced by mrc2, gives
excitedstateis $- and that of th6 groundstateis 1}',dacideon th6 multipolarity
of this
ZEl '=, photon-emitting transition
and calculatothe expectod transitionrateusinga formulafrom
T
- = 'mo' TablE11.4.
2E., + tncC -
Determinethe multipolarityof the radiativedecayf,orAy (equation(11.11)) and
This is then the ma.:cimumenergr that car. be transferred to a stationary, free electron estimato rateusinga formulafromTable11.4.0o you sEeanymodifications
tho transition
by a gamma ray of energy Er. tharshouldbe madeto the formulathatyou wishto use?
The excited llMg enits g&'oma rays of energr 136g kev and,of 4L22- 1368 =
2754kev. Photo-electricabsorptionofsuch,y-rays ofthese two energiesin the detector 11.9 Classifythe followingtransitions and calculatethe oxpectod
by theirmultipolarity
generat€ the pea&sA aud B respectively.compton scattering oI these,y-raysgives transitionrates:
recoil
electrongwith kiuetic energiesfrom zeroup to 2loo. This has the ralues 1153ani 2b20 'lllu'(i') + rffl-u({+)
+y+ I l4 kcV, @ = 5x l 0 ' s - r ,
kev
respectively. Thus E and F represent the top end of the kiaetic energy
spectrum of !!Co'(2') + $Co(5')+ 7+ 58.6keV, @ = 4x l 0 - r s - l
compton recoil electrons from the two primaryy-rays. The ldeal spectrui-is not flat
but fiNi'(2') r $Ni(0')+y+ 1.33McV, a r = 9 . 5x l 0 r rs - |
risesto a pea^kat ?.ol'the peak is smearedby the efiect of the electrons
being bound -) - a ) = 4 . 5x 1 0 6 s - l
and not free. !isc'(l !fSc(2t)+7+68 keV,
275a k3Y'y-rays will, in somecases,producean electron-positronpair in the :lsc'(+') + !fSc$-)+y+ 767keV, & r = 2 . 6 xI 0 6 s - l
_ _- Th.
fielil ofa nucleus'inthe detector.fire positronlosesits kinetic energy,.orn., to
rest, and Commenton any discrepanciesbetwesn expectedand actualtransitionrateswhereveryou
wiihiu the time resolution of the detector will annihilate witb an tlectron to give
two can.
7-rays eachof 0.511MeV
a'1e- +^l+.1. 11 .10 Use the given transitionrateslor the following decaysto attempta dslerminationot
If one 7-ray from the aanihilation escapesfrom the detectortheu the enerry tho multipolarity:
depositedis
27s4- iLl keY = 2243keV. If both ?-raysescapetbe energydepositedis ressuy ar: l.l x l0-2s-r,
another !!Rbi-!!Rb+y+556kcV,
511 keV, that is 1?32keV. Theseenergiescorespond to peaksD and C.
llNbr-!fNb + y+ 236kcV, @ = 5 . 8 xl o - t s - l
Look up the transhions (try Ledererot al.,1978l. to find how noar you aro to tho cortoct
classification.

Solutions ,
11.7 Equaiion 11.4givesthe transition rate of El photon emission:

u(Er)=*(3)'.f."roi,'.
"''
the quantity hc hasthe dinensionsof (energy
The fine structure consts,ntis dimensionless;
x length) so that (Erlhc)3 has the dimensionsof (length)-3. The velocity of light is
(length/time) and the squaredvalue of ( r ) is (length)2.Putting these dimensions
togethergives the right-hand side of the equationthe dimension(time)-r as requiredfor
/ a transition rate.

11.8 The decayis

tjutBa' - t3jBa+?+662 keV

 It
!!
i:

82 Chapter lI
ClapCerII 83
." ll- - .q+
J'=T - j.=i E2t u = 1.37x106s-l
The smallestcbangein angurarmomentumis 4 units
and there is a changeof psrity so ThusMl is'themostlikelyclassification.
the tra'sition could be M4. rlowever,Es is likely
to havea comparable;te. d;g the
formulafroo Table ll.4 we fnd tbe Weisskopf b ) ! f C o ' 1 2 +-; ! $ C o ( s + ) + ? + 5 8 . 6 k eaV
r =, 4 x 1 0 - 5s - t .
singleparticlerates:
to be M3 or B{. Wepredict
Thisdecayis expected
M4i u = l . 5 0 x l 0 - 3 s - l,
.-*
M3 : r.r = 5.81* t0-e t-t ,
E5: w = 3.54x10-3s-r
Although the. latter is closer to the observedvalue (4.5 E.l: ur = 4.80x 10-12 8-t .
x 10-3 s-r), the approdmate
nature of theseformulaewill not permit a 6rm
cressidcation of the transition. ThusM3 is the mostlikely classificatiou
The decay
Po+A*?+Z6.9MeV c ) ! ! N i ' ( 2 + )+ t g N i ( o + ) + 7 + i . 3 3 M e tVa,= 9 . 5x l 0 r rs - r . . '
is l/2+ + 1,/2+so that Ml is the only allowed
transition. using the formurafor Mr gives
Tbis decayhasto be Wenretlict
12. t:::t,
.'-.-7"#.,, .
u = L.43x 10Ies-l , , .'.|d=7.t2 y 1gr0r-r , " -1
The weisskopf rates assumethat the radiating particre E2 transitionsfiequenityhavetransitionratesenhanced
Uifffii.t' to the'tireisstopf
is I proton and that it has a
magneticmoment of.2,79nuclearmagnetons.The rates(eeeSection11.6).
io is not a nucreusand the only cuargea :..,:.
particlesthet lt containsare quarks.Assuming
that quarksare point-like fermionsthen d) l!Sc'(l-) * !!Sc(2+) +? +68 keV,ar= 4.5x 106s-r . ."
the intrinsic megtetic Eonent of an up quarkifor
exa'mple,is expectedto be
This decayis expectedto be El. Wepredict
/2\ eh
&\5/d', u = 4.02x 10rlg-l .
wherem' is the massof,Lo quark and 2/3 is for its charge.Now quarks have
If spin e) !fSc'(**) - tls.(l-) *,y*76?keV, u=2.6x 106s-r .
s =.1/2 so, by analogywlth Dirac'e theory for the electron*hi.h giuo
9" = 2 for that This decayis expected
particle (seeSection 9.6), we assumethat quarks to be M2 or E3.Wepredict
also haveg. = Z. tl'erulorl" *u ir"io. out
from the weisskopfformula a proton magneticmoment M 2I w = 7.73x107s-l
(g"ehf4Me,9. = s.bg6,Tableg.4)
:gl"red,and replaceit witb.an op qu"ri."go.ii. rir.tt (g.ehf6mu, & = 2) squared.
we cau only take a reasonablevaluefor Eu, e-eo
uev7c2 (Table 10.6),so that the change
E3i w = 1.40x10{s{.
from our previousresult for the Eo + Af transition
raie is a factor Apart frornd), the mostlikely predictionsof the transitiotrratesarewithin a factorof 30
/0.667938.3\2 of thr: obsewedvalues;this is goodby the expectedprecisionof the Weisskopf formulae.
=o'462
, ThellSc predicted decayrateis greaterthantheobserved
\z:zs3$o i valueby a factorof aboutl0t;
whicb givesa prediction for the transition rate thereare no obviousreasons but the mostlikelyis thet the uuclea^r matrix elemertis
muchsmallertban anticipatedin the Weisskopf formula.
r..r= 6,60 1gl8r-l .
"
This quark model calculatiou cau be improved by proper
a
11.10 For the Rubidiumdecay:R = 1.2(86)r/3= 5.296fm, E" = 0.556MeV and
treatmeDt that tekes itrto
accountthe quark spin wavefunctionsof the Do
n ptur t iour"t" .e.* rv* n"y.", the observbg vahrcufm - 5.027:x10-2{fm-r. We6rst coDstruct
a tablefor electric
R. aad Weisskopf,V. (1967)Nuovo Cimento,Vol. "oiAE0,
612_645.Errata, Vol. AEl, Sg3)
transitionsof this R andenerry(tnits MeVaudfn):
to give

The measured
u = L.32* 16let-l
valueis 1.4 xl0le s-r, with a 10%error.
L
z(L+r) | 3 \
W\Fsi (#)'".' R2L a/ca

: fm-l
11.9
I
10-1... 2.238x l0-5 2.805x.101.'t.0tt9x tu-"
2.500,x
2 .4.800r10-1.:) L,777x L0-r3 7.867i'i011 6.710x 10:13
a)r{flu'(t) * tffr,u(i*)+?+n4kev,ar=bxl'es-r t
, 3 "6.047.x:10:1 1.411
.::, x 10:rt 2.206x,1-0.L1.882x 10-1t
This decayis expectedto be Ml or E2 and using 4 5.142,x
10i7':' 1.121x 10-23 6.189x 106' 3.567x 10-2{
the appropriateformurafrom Table 1r.4, , .r
we predict
i" tuejjiceeaing three'cohrmns
Ml : u = 4.67ri lgto r-t ,
and is the expectedrralueof ufca $ven the assumptioufor'.L"iu'the6otr sotunn,uF
surningelectrictransitious.EvidentiyL = 4is a possible.fr.ridotioo.W.-*Oo ft4t
 84 Chapter lt Clnpter ll 85

might predict a sinilar value for wf ca; ix fact that assumptiongives a prediction of 11.13 The splitting A& is 23 mm on the plot and that correspondsto a velocity of
2.9? x lo-m fn-t. 2.3mm s-l, This givesau enerrysplitting of l.l x 10-?eV. The centreof the linesis moved
A sinilar trial and error for the Niobium decayshowsthat, by the order of magni- ? mm which correspondsto a velocity of 0.71 mm s-r and an energyshift of 3.4 x l0-E
tude, the observeddecayrate is cb$istent with eitber al E4 or an M3 transition. eV.
Thesetrial and error metbodsneeduot bo used.Graphicalpresentationof tbe results The grouod state of ![Fe ha.sspin 1/2 and can only havezero electricquadrupole
for transitioo rates or lifetimes as predicted by the Weisskopf formulae are available. momentand, therefore,there is no groundstate splitting in any electric6eld. The excitpd
(See,for exo,Dple,Erge, H.A. (1966). Introductionto Naclear Physiu. Addison-Wesley, state hss spin 3/2 a.ndthereforecan have and has a Don-zeroquadrupolemoment. Of
Readiug.) the four magletic substates,j, = *312, *1/2, the energr shift causedby the electric
field gradient is the samefor the pair * 312 and - 312 afi is tbe samebut opposite
sign for the pair + Il2 afi - l/2. Thus the splitting givesa doublet, with centre at the
Exerclgeg*
uuperturbedenergy,aud the isomershift is the 3.4 x 10-8 eV.
11.11 FindthCJoimulafor the relativistic
Dopple?
bffecrand compareir to rhatfor non.
relativisticvelocltles. : 11.14 The behaviourin a gravitational field acting downwards(acceleration9) is the
.,,'''.' same8nthat in a systemmovingupwardswith accelerationg, Thus betweenthe time the
11.12 Giventhatthewidthof th6M6ssbauer absorprion
linoin Fig.11.12(b) isentirelydue photon leavesthe sourceaad arrivesat the detector(t) it is as if the latter had acquired
to theconvolution'ot
the idonticallinewidthsat emission
andabsorption, estimate thatlins an upward velocity gt. Thus at the detector the photon energy E is red-shiftedby ao
width in eV. , enerry AE = Egtlc. But ! = h/c wbereI is the height of the detectorabovethe source.
HenceAE = Ect/&, A downwardvelocityu of the absorberfoil is requiredto compensate
11.13 Usethe information givenin Fig.11.12 on the!!FeM6ssbauer transitionto calctlate where
tho quadrupole splittingin bifenocenyl and the isomershift betweenthis nucleusin a ECIL
^a = ----;-
D-
chromiumfoil andin biferocenyl. Givethe resultsin electfonvolts.
Why is it thattho€nergy ac"
of tho€xch6dstateol flFe is splitandnot thatof the grounditate?Why is the resultof tho Therefore
splittinga doublet?
f a=sh/c
11.14 A 14.4keVphotonfrom!!Feis red.shiftedasit risesfroma source8t groundlevelro Forg = 9.8m s-2,h = 10m wehave
an absorberfoil at a heightof 10m. What volocityof the absorberfoil is requiredto
compensat€ the redshift.andin whichdirection? o = 3.3x10-? ms-l
= 3.3x 10-{ mm s-r

Solutions
11.11 A sourceb emittingligbt of frequency /o audis recedingfroma stationaryob-
serverwith velocityu. Nou-reletivistically,
the observerseeslight of frequency/ given
by
t=tofrt .
n b!*itti.Aty, time dilation of the sourceclock must be includedso that /s becomes
htf t - azlC and/ is nowgivenby

' ' . : 1 '

For an approadinE source changeu + -u.

11.12 The wiatl- on tbe plot of the observedline shapeof Fig. 11.12(b)is about 3.5 mm.
Ths conespondstb a velocity,l, of.0.47mm s-1. For a photon of 14.4keV, tbe Doppler
shift due to this velocity is 14400xufc= 2.3 x 10-6 eV. This width is the couvolu.tion
of two ideutical liorentzians: this meansthe required width is one half this result, that is
1.1 x 10-E eV. (The convolutionof two identical Loreutziansof width I is a Lorentzians
of width 21,)
 , n,l
,l'1

1d.fl.

Chqtet 12 87

Soliitioni
'ili
12.1',l
Solutionsto exercises
in ChapterL2 lii
lL
I p+ - e+lDr+ %':":l vj +ilol -ilAfTt''
p'-r'r{ rp+r.''.i'i
'
4+p 1tr- {ifTi+ '
Excrclrcr K+1ro +p|.f /.i:; vr* r -r e- +lp:::',
'
12'1 Assigntheleptongenerationeubscrlpranddlrtlnguichantlncutrlnogfromnoutrinocln
Ro-i,r++e_+rr," iH 4!He+e-+r.
D-*n+p-+w r+ - p+* yr '.",,i"
the followingreactlons

tt'- d* e' * y
anddecayr_Use
thosymbolsv,,i., v,,-v,,v,,1,,
y+p{n+c{
D+* Ao+ e+-+v...,.
Do-r K- + no+ e+.ir.
tr- { e- f D.,r',..*,,' .
t' - r' I'r9"iV:-' l1,i
llil
lt'-c'*v+v v+flClrflAr+c' 1 2 . 2r - 4 e - + V . + 4 .',1
lt--c' +v+v y + p { l - + p + r tr
K ' - z o ac ' * v y+n+c'+p
Ko-zo*c- * y
lH<lHc+c-*v ,_, *-:*,.
!'-n*l- *v n'<p'*v
I'-Ao*c'*y n'4c-+v
D0{ K. +n0+cr + y r'rr'*ro* y,

12.2 DrawFeynman diagrame

for thefoilowingdecayr:do thisat thoquarkreverror thooe I(o+n-*o+*u.
Involvlng
h6dronr,
t'-c'*4*y, ,6'
Ko-r"*c.*y. /
Wt -t+lt
D'-Ko+t'+v
t^ ( o i-+. l - , -
t'qn'* 9, ,r

[+p+c.+i.
-+Ao+
E r-
K'-n'*n *z'
D+-Rorp++vu
12.3 Draw Feynmandiagramsfor the foilowingreactions:
do this at the quarklevelfor
thoseinvolvinghadrons.
v.+C'{v.+C-
e-+P{n+Y. /u
1. vl74vt
l'*c--ir*v.
' D'i
^ a Y - a r . --i 'c
v,f p-p' a6'

12'4 Checkrhatrhs consarvation

l€wsgivenin the boxof Fig, 12,4arcobeyed
by all the t+ + tt+ +D,
examplesin thisfigure.

12,5 Showthattho followingdecayscannotoccurby firstorderweakintsractions:

D-K'*z +f +r{ d tr'

D'- go.ro'
Do< K. *lI- * i,
l(o + z+* c. * 9..
.w't'
2"
vi
 a
88 Chapter12 Chapter12 89
i
A + p+e- +t and

Ve ------t-€

wl
" ,n':40',
U+g
d+-+d
€-4-v"

In the last and in the following diagramsa W- one way is entirely equivaleatto a W+
propagatingtbe otber way.
e-+p+n+Y.
v'
e-+-*-
E tl- \. -
1.w
/..d
'J U++d
o l-:-:-! "
" -, 8Y " t , u
8 N.
<l-r-d
Lf +e- -Dp*uo

K++r++r-+r+
,,,-g-VY

,-'*#vr
"'
u-'41! u,t 4' 11-t /r- .l' l\++

vrr-+r.- F-
", .-'t'\; t
\ fv'
d -r-l-F u
". U# ua*
U# U
h all the ha.drons
therearegluoninteractioukeepingthequarksboundandin the last
12.5 First order weakinteractionmeansonesingleW excbangebetweenthe coustitueDt
diagran,gluonluteractiols qeate the dd pair. In the last two c8ses,otherdiagramscan
quarksand leptonsof the initial and final states,that js two Wf1f2vertices(seeFig. f2.4)'
contribute.
In fact the first two decayscan occur in first order but are strongly inhibited because
in eachcaseboth W verticeschangequark gqnerations.Iu both decaystbeseinhibited
12,3 v.+ e- + yr + e- \,
changesa,re ,'.
r.
\
c _ d*wl,
W + + u + s ,o r W + + u * s .
vr--r,-tsv'
The decay
\* Do - K+ + tt- +r,p
- e-
9- -*- requiresthat one vertex of the W exchangeqeates lhe 1t-Or.The other vertex involves
quarksaod there is no way that onesuc"hvertex can cbangetbe c and I quarla iu tbe D0
into the E and u quarksin tbe K+.
Similarly the decay
Ko * r* + e- +i,"
 I
I l'll
. ,..,;.. i ill
90 Chapter 12 .".''
ill
requiresthe cbangeI and d in the K0 into u and il in
cannot do.
the n+, somethinga singlew verrex 12.7 We'refer
t'
oulyto p- decay.
?heevidence
theratioof charge
ia p+ decay,,
to massesrablished
"oo.j';i"j;:,:r:.
thar theparticres
nt i li
ti
i lii iil
*Tilr.?r.1',of emitted
Exercises
2' Chemical studiesshowedthatthenucleus
changed its atomicnumber by*1.
12'6 Thefollowingweakinleraction
decayshaverhee-varuesandlransitionratesgiven: 3. Point 2 lmpliesthat e neutrgnchanges
to a protoawithin the nucleus.
4'
Thekineticetrelsrspectrungf electrons
rlO+rfN.*c. *r,., emi*ed odended..;;;; fromzeroro
, g= l.gl McV, qr=5.04xl0-rs-r. a ma:cimum Tro, whichis difrerentfor eachr"iiu. ou.t.*
2'+1+e'+v,, ' ene-rgy diferencebetween and equrr,lto the mass-
0-73MeV, @ = 2 . 5 3lx0 r s - r , pa,rent anddaughternuclei. ,.ri
x'-tf*e'*v,, 0=4.083MeV, ro=0.39s-r, 5' Pauliproposed, asaoexprenation ofpoint4, that a neutral,lightparticre
n-p.|e- *i, 0 = 0 . 7 8 2M e V , @ =l . l 4 x l O - ! s - ' , simultaneously with the electron.Fermipoi t-li, iau" onto wasemitted
basiswith his sinpretneo.v a quantitative,successfur
coavention, anti_neutrino toj /;ae1v. Tir-ugrr p*iae is calJ-a
Showthatlhessdecaysapproximately conformto the rulethatar€ f*... ia d-_decay.) ".,irj"i. rsy
6, (Anti-)neutrinos from the..decay of fissionproduch,-whichare niutrou
12.7 Summarizetheevidencsthat,innucrear/-decay,atransmutationtakespracebetiiieen
detected about20yearsafterpauli .ra. ifJ pr.pl"f. rich, were
a neutronanda protonandthata neutrino(havingspin-! and
zerorostmaisl is emitted.
Thefollowingtabtegivesthehalf-lifet,ztor threipl-t n-ririonr. wucteaspinsar;;; 7' To conserve angularmomentumin p-decaythe neutrino
. musttravehalf-odd_integer
in brackets
and r-. is the maximum kineiicenergyof the/-particrein megaerectronvorrs. spin'Moderurelativistictheoriesoi p-d""ov;;;.,
epiuis |. auccessfullyr"tbatthe ueutriuo
. 7i,..(MeV) ,,,r(s)
!He(o)r !Li(l) i 3.5 8' Measuremeut of theshapeoithe erectrolkineticeierry sp-ectrum
o.8r aearthema.:dmum
iH(i) { lHe(})r 0.018 indicatethat theneutrinomassis lessthan
4 x l0l aboutz0 ev/c2.Thereis noevidence
r!Bc(O)*'!B(3) 1 it is not zero. tbat
o'55 5 x 16tr I
Explainbrieflyths faclorsyou could expectto be important
in accountingfor the Themainfactorsinfluencing
magnitudes of theseliferimes. the[a[-life are
(Adaptedfromrho1973examination l. The Q valuefor the decay.
oftheFinslHonours
School
inNatural physics,
Scienco, Univemity :, :.;:. "
of Oxford.)
2. The changein nuclearspin aia
iripy frorr the parent to daughternucleus.
1 2 . 8 E s t i m a t e t h e m a a n r iDf e' m
o fe s o n g i v e n l h a r t h e r . m e a n r i f e i s 2 . 2 x r 0 - ! s . ( A s s u m e 3' The matrix elementbetween
tbe wivefunctionsof the pare.rt anddaughter
that the wcs verlexhastho samestrengthas the wev. vertexand uucrei.
rhatthe wcd verlexis
negligiblywoak.) Factor I has its effect through increasing
the decq
jri"l'T..'#=h!1yp.]"il
Q(=?.*)ril;-il;.,sLe.prined--by;.-fi1
transition
rate
isdue
totmaio.'."ii;: w.-..i;.fr]!..#ffiUi:-*
,,r|t:n:
Solutions '.1

Decay . . r t1 x zll* (s Mevs)

12.6 _To test the proposalthat thesedecayshaveu ( 4o, form the qu*tity ,/Ot - ..
sinceT-o, the maximumkineticenergyof the emittedelectin, is veryclose
to e. lHe + $Li 4'.25x t02
, !H+ lHe Z;86x 10_r
Q MeY a, s-r ulQo s-'MeY {Be * tfB 2.52x t1tz
8v 1.81 5.04x 10-J 2.59x l0-{
Factor2 determines the degreeof forbiddeaness:
D+ 73 2.53x105 L.22x L0-1 the decayof lfBe is secondor third
4.083 forbiddenwhichin*easesits rau uretul"ti".
T+ 0.39 3.40x 10-{ ;;;"t of fH whichis a euper-allowed trau_
sition.Factor3 accounts for the efect .f th;
n
0.782 l.l4 x 10-3 3.90x l0-3 involved.,tlii.riiorediferent
aretheirspacew4vefuaction.the greaterthe u6";;;;;;ates
rirc,*a viie versa.Thisis exemplifed
Although tbe numbersin tbe w/e' column vary over an order by the rfBedecay;thisparentanJits a-"usu,ur
of magnitude, that is a n"u;lp;s 0 and3 respectivery, indiia.ting
small rangecomparedwith that of_thevaluesof.u, 2xl0s. Thus these a largedifference
in theirnucrear wavefuaitioo,
d-ecays
ao aoiro* *itl iiu cousequence tb&ttbehalfrife is
approximatelyto the rule @ ( ?**, greatlyincreasedfromwhatwouldotherwise be the case.
A generaldiscussion oftheseissuesis givenin i*tion fZ.S.
 92 Chapter 12
Chapter12 93
12.8 The generalD+ decaydiagramis This model predictsthat branchingfractioasfor the inclusivemodc

../' e+uo* hadrons,p+uy *hadrons, and hadronsalone,

will be in ratio l : I :3. The only fraction that has beendetermined
is lz * 2% for e+
t1' plus anything.
C+l-+- S
D'
,-T, Exercises
where the choice of I and 2 are
12.9 By 1955 tho symbord' hadbccnassigncd
to a particlcwhichwasobscwcd
to decay

2 0, <v, q ro,
et v. and which had a massof about 500MeV/6:.ws now know
or that it was,in fact, the
F' vD K''mesonandoneof hsmajordecaymodes:crassify thepossibrestatesof spin.na p.iitv or
ora u (throotlm€sforthreecolours) the finalstateandstataths restrictions
thesecrassiiications
praceon thespinandparityor
thed' underthe variousassumptions aboutthe conservationlawsthatapply.
The choicesr+u; aud sc are energyforbiddenand su is unlikely comparedwith du 12'10 Explainqualitatively
why all of thafollowingprocesses
canbeanributed
to theweax
(Fi& 12.5).Tbe guestionalsoiodicatesthat c + d insteadof c -r-s at the lower forcedespitethe veryditferentlifetimesinvolved:
verrex
is negligible.Thus therea^refive basicdecaymedanismeeachhavingthe sa-e strength (a) muondecay
asp+decay: ' '::: '
ll'+c'*vrlit ( r rr = 1 . 5x l 0 - o s c, = 1 0 5M e v ) ;
\ (b) neutrondecay
I
1+p*c- *i. (rr:i=60?s, Q = 0.782MeV);
(c) otomicelectroncapture
lBe+c--lli+r. (r,r=4.fx l0os,Q=6.36Y.U,.
(d) muqncapturein muonicaroms
rlC*p- -'!B * v,
(r,,r-I.4x l0-. s, Q= 92Y.Y;
Eechhase decayratewhicbls that of themuonscsledup by thefifth powerof the
Describean experiment
whichshowsthat pariryis not conssrvedin woakinteractions,
euergyrelease.If weaeglectthe massof the final stateparticles,the meaulife of tbe D+
explaining
carefully
why h showsthat parityii noi conserved,
is Thbdecay
I /m,,\6 r!O.(7r-2'; -
7b = f,x "g17'-6i; + c
s " til/ hasa panialwidth of ordsr10-rosV.what canbe inferred
2.20xt0-6 / 105.6
\6 aboutthe strongforce?
- (Ad8ptsdfromtho1985examination
oftheFinsl
Honours physics,
5 \1869.3/ 'r School of N6rirral
science, universiry
ol Oxford.)
= 2.53x 10-13
s.
However,ia this modelthat neglectsc + d quarkcha,uge,
D+ decaymustgiveamongthe
fnal state hadrons,one K-meson.The lighkst of theseis the Kj and Ki doublet
with
EassDear494MeV. Thus tbe mardmumenergydvailableto distributeaskinetic euergy Solutions
a.mongthe decayproductsis 1869- agaMeV. If we repeatthe calculatiouwith 12'9 The final states of the n+ro systemcatr be specified
lgz5 by the relative orbital mo-
insteadof 1869MeV the resultis mentum, /' since the pions
lave no spin the total angurar momentum quantum num-
/ =./. The odd parity bf the two o'.roo,
*u*r'that
9.:J, the total system parit' is
nr = 11.8x 10-13
e. (-t)(-t11-11t = (-l)r. Thus the allowedtotal
spin_firity srstesare:
The measured
lifetimeis 10? + 0.2x l0-r3 s .
0 + , 1 - , 2 + ,3 - , . . .
 94 Chapter12'

Ftom the pre.lg56 view, the decay

distributionof eveutsin cosd wasuotiuuiformbut
0+ - r+ +ro
conservedangular momertum and parity and the spin-parityof the
0+ had to be one of /V(cosd) o<(l + c cosd) ,
thesevalues.If parity is not conservedthen all thai.ro
be gaid is that tbe existenceof
this decayplacesno reetrictionson.the spin and parity of the d+,
In the casethat ellurar momentumis not conserved,irrespective parity with o - -1/3. we say the decay was forward/back asymmetric. Now
. of conser- there are three
vatioo or non-conservatioa,no restrictions on the spin-parity facts:
of the d+ foilow irom the
existenceof this decaymode.
a) Anlnpolarise{ sa,m.ple ofparticles cannotgive anything but an isotropicdistributiou
l-2.10 All thesedecaysiouoi* thu emissionof one or more neutrinos, process of dec&yproducts (in its rest frame).
a that
the weak interactionalonecan cause.A large rangeofharflives is
expeciedio.ilitu.gu b) A polarisedsampleofspin l/2 particlescannot give anything but au isotropic
rangeof Q'values.we expect tv12esor hrz Tlno to havevaluesthat --'' di+
are closerthan are tribution ofdecay productsif the decayinteractionis parity ciose*ing.
the valuesof f172.

Decay a
MeV
'l

MeV
lnu hp Q' tVzTio
s MeVs s MeVs
c) A polarizedsampleof uustableparticlesof spin > can decayto give an anisotropic
|
distribution of products with respectto tbe a:ds of polarlzation.-Ho*uu.r,this
tributioa cannot be forward/backasymmetricunlessparity couservationis violated
dis-
I
p'+e++v.+rF r05 OJ 1 o X l0{ 6.3 x 102 in the decay,
n+p+e-+% 0.7820.782 1.8 x 102 I.8 x 102

Note that for the p+ decaythe three final state particlesare all relativistic Thus the observedasymmetry gave two conclusious:
so that e is
not equal to ?.o. 1. The p* are polarisedwith respect.to their direction df motion; they have
TT:y
For the two capturereactionsthe situation is difierent: non-zerohelicity (Section12.10).
1) The two-body6nal statehasa densityofstates(Table12.6)that proportional
is to the
squareof the centr+of-massmomentum;for thesereactions,that meansproportional 2. Parity is not conservedin their decay.
to Q2.
2) The transition rate is proportionalto the probability of finding The decay asymmetrymeansthat the decayprobability 0 depeudson cos g,
the e- (or p-) at the
nucleus,that is to lrlt(r = 0)12,wbere r/(r) is the e-(p-) waiefunction. that is a dependenceon the pseudoscalarp..s, where ", s, ":juuo
is.the epio of the nuon.
i.{egtectiag - R
screeningtbis probability is proportional to Zsms (m'= rn or rnr). decay rate depending on a pseudoscaleralways tndicates parity. ion-cons.roiioo"
.
3) There are Z protons availablefor capturing the lepion. Tl. tron-zerohelicity of the muon also means that parity is not coneerved
. in the
Thus we expect\12 Q2 21 nf to havesimilar valuesfor the two *ot_".* : tt* + z, (Sectiou 11.10).Again, a decay rate deleuds oo pseodoscatar,
capturereactious: P, .S, iu this case. "
Reactiou t1p Z'mo Qz
The decay
s MeVs tfo. *tNc+ o
{Be+e- +!Li*uj 1.2x 10!
tlC+ p- -r?B + z, 1.8x l0? bas produi! ground state ou"j1:iUat ire evea-evenaud therefdreboth heve jp = 0+.
The excited'o.rygenhas jP = 2-,'lf. angularmomentumis conserved,the rciative orbital
Theseresultsare satisfactorilyclosein eachpair and showthat tbe
underlyinginteraction augular mombntum, l, in the fual state must bave | = 2. But such a state has even
is the samein eachpair. More completecaLulationswould show
that the interactiou is parity. The deiay is parity changing.The observedwidth, 1g-ro eV, is e mean life of
quantitatively the samein all four processes.
about 10-7 s. In tbeselight nuclei,coulomb barrier effects.arenegligibleand the mean
two original experimentsthat separatelyshowedparity non_conserrration
. .Tf. in- life is very long comparedwitb the meau life expectedfrom a strong inte..actiondecay,
volved the decayof !!Co and the r+ - p+ - e+ decay
chain. The former is described nanely < 10-20s. The couclusionis that the stronginteractioncirinot significantlyviolate
in sectiou 12.9. we brie8y outline the second.This experiment
used electronicdetec- parity consewation. In fact, the decay rate is probably consisttiit witb weak interactioo
is describedby Segr6,E. (1972). Nuclei and,particles(2ud edn), pp
fors-and ?4O_1. effects,either directly iu the decal itself (it is a nouJeptoiricdr:cay;section12.1), or by
Benjamin/cummings,fuading, u.s.A. Heie we usethe pictures
of this decaycloio, sho*o mixing of oppositeparity statesat a very low level (probably l0:l{) in the nuclearstates
in Fig. 9.14,to describethe priuciplcs,
involved,or bbth.
If d is the angle betweenthe positron momentum (p.) and
the direction of the
momentum(Pr) of tbe p+ just beforecomingto rest, then
ii wasfouud that the frequency
 96 Chapter 12 Chapter12 97

Sr. B is the scalar product of two a:<ialvectorsand thereforeis itself a scalarquantity.

Exercises
Iu a parity conservingsituation, observablessuch as transition rate or wavelengthcan
12.11 Showthat,ifright-handsd(helicity+1)neutrinosaraemirtsdinthe/-.decayoftho dependon scalarquantities.Thus a right hand circularly polarizedphotoa emitted in tbe
noutron.h is lefi.handedneutrinosthat areemittedin p.-decayof the anti-nsutron. direction of B (Sr. B > 0) can have a diferent wavelengthfrom a left haadedphoton
cmitted in the samedirection (S,, .B < 0), without parity non-conservation.
12.12 Showthat,if 8n unpolarized sourceemitselectrons
which arespin-polarized
with
helicity -1, then parityis not consewedin the decay.,

12.13'Theelectromagnetic intoractionconsrr"r, p.lity. Show that this meansrhat an

unpolarized sourceof /-rayscannotemitchcularlypolarized photons. Exerclses
An elearicdischarge is esrablished in low-preisureheliumgasin a magneticfield.Rod
light eminedalongthe'diroctionol the'magneticlield is found to consistof two lineswith a 1-2.14 Beamsof high-energymuonneutrinoscanbeobtainedby generating intensebeamd
smallwavelengthseparationdopsndonton tho strengthof the magneticfield. Thes6two bf r'-mesonsand,allowingthemto decaywhilein flight.Whatfractionof thea'-mesonsin
lines are oppositelycircularlypolarized,Does this mean parity is not conservodin the a beamof momentum 200GeV/cwill decaywhiletrav€llinga distanceof 300m?
transitionsteodingio thii emissionof thesephotons?Erplainyour answer, At lhe endof thedecaypath(an evacuatedtunnel)the beamis a mixtureo{ r'-mesons,
muonsand noutrinos, thsseparticlesin theirinteractions
Whatdistinguishes with matter,
and how is a neutrinobeamfrseof contaminationby z-mesonsandmuonsobtained?
[z'-mesonmean-life:
2.6x10-ts.]
(Adaptedtrom the 1984examinationof the FinalHonoursSchoolin NaturalScience,
Solutions Physics,
University
of 0xford.)
12.11 The (ant!) neutrinosemitted in neutron decay:are;961handed(helicity +l).
of 2.3MeVfrom the fissionproductdecayin a reactorhavea lotal
12.15 Antineutrinos
nip+e-+D.. with protons(i.+prer+n) of 6x10-'Em2.
cross-section Calculatethemeanfreepathof
thosenouvinosin water.Assumethe antineutrinos
areableto interactonly with the free
A mirror imageof that decayshowsa left banded(helicity -1) antineutrino (Fig. l2.S). protons.
Thus the mirror imageis not an observeddecay.That is e cousequence ofnon-conservation Estimateaswellasyoucanths meanfreepathof an electronneutrinoof 1.0MeVin the
of parity' or what is equivalent,of non-invarianceunder the parity transformation(p). materialof a neutronstar assumingnucleardensityand tho absencaof protonsand
Howeveruature is, exc€pt at a very low level, invariant under cp (section 12.9),This electrons.
meansa chargeconjugated,mirror image of the aeutron decayis equally likely. This is
d(v.+n- P+e-) = 10-" m2at 1'0 MeV'
the decaY
n + F+e+ +yo, 12.16 ThemuonnEutrino-nucleon inelasticscattering
cross.sectionis proportional to the
with a left handed(helicity -1) neutrino. noutrinoonergy.lt is I x 1g-4 r: at 1 GeV.Whatis the meanfreepathof 100 GeVv, in steel
assuming all the nucleons aropotsntialtargets? (Steel:density=7.9x193kg m-r). A bubbla
12.12 consider the unpolarizedsourceemitting electronswith helicity -1. Its mirror chamberconsisting of a rightcylinder,cross-sectional_area
1 m2contains1000kg of liquid
propan6. lt is exposed to a bsamof 10 GeVmuonneutrinos whichis incidentnormally on a
image is a sourceemittiag electrons with belicity +1. If parity were to be conserved,these
circularfacQof the cylinder,The neutrinosarrivein burstsfrom the accelerator usedto
two processeswould have equal transitiou rates and the electrons could not be polarized producethein(how?).Thebubblechamberis expandedin synchronization with the burst
on the average.Thus the fact that they are poluized meansunequal trausition rates and and any neutrinointoraction in the liquid that produces:iharged secondaries can be
parity non-conserrration. observed. How manyneurinosperburstareraquiredto givean average of oneinteraction
per100 expansions?
12.13 Right circularly polarizedphotonshavehelicity +1, left circularly polarizedpho-
toqs have belicity -1. As in tbe caseof neutrinos,Don-zeroaveragehelicity is possible mesonwasproducod
12.17 Showthatthoeventof Fig.12.18in whicha charmod isduoto
I oaly if tbe hteractiotr producing the photons doesnot conserveparity. Tbus parity con- the neutrino-{uark
rsaction
serving electromagaetismcannot causethe emissionof circularly polarizedpbor,oosfrom v"*d+p- *c,
an unpolarizedsource(Section12.10).
and is unlikely to bo due to the reaction
The answerto the secoudpart of tbe problemis no; parity is conserved.The directioa
of tbo photonr ia definedwith reepectto the directionof the appliedmagneticfield, B, Now yr+s{l'+c,
B ie an axial vector beceuseit is causedby au electriccurrent flowingin a clockwiseor in
whore tha s is from the sea of qq pairs that a nucleon contains.
an autidodcwisedirectibn around a spacearcis.If s, is the photoa spin, then the quantity
 'i r
' ! i ' i ' i '

: ' : " 1; , ,
98 Chapter12
Cheptorll? 99
Solutions . i. i1

j:- li;!ll,;i
12,.14 Reletlvisticslly,
particlesof massM, having
-- --o 'momeDtum -l
E(= 1/fiiz7@p,1have a velocityo givenby P, aud total enerry . 1 I : ..
^=G =
d.iSETfb:ii'
PC = 2 . 2 5x 1 0 r f?m ,
'= T ' ,,,.,, .
The time requiredto moved,rdistance = 726r-. l.
.L is, to observersat rest in the framein wbich
and P are measuredis given by .6
12.16 Weregretthat thereis a misprintfor the.muonneutrino.lgtal eoss-section.
The
.LLE correctfigure is ? x 10-{3m2at I GeV.The problemtells us that this cross-sectioo
t=-=- is
a Pc2' proporllggaltoneutiinriehergy 8d-'thbt
ir is ? x lb-{.m2 at tgg-g*;.Tbe uumberdensity
Thepropertimeinterrral? corresponding :. r':
to t is t/,y where,r = E/Md, Hence of ir6n'dibni, assuiriiiifitiiel
' "' iidTo0Totroi;ii :er. , .
;, :, z.sI rorx6.o22xlbz6 . ";i;i,,
MC LE ML
'=-T fu=-F. --' 5534'/--*
., '';*'
Tbusif ,L- 300m, P = 200eey c and, Wu.*o *soru, wlthlsufficient precision, that the isotopiccoilf6ditionof irou ls auch
f M = L39.6Mey/ c2wehave that tbe average numberofnucleong pernucleus is 55.8a?.
Thii'ide numberdensityof
nulleons,n, is just tho numerator
of tbisfrsction.Tbeothemeui'freepathI is givenby
= Mr, ,
-- _ 0.1396 300
V;;=lbo-^3;Tdt .1=
A -=
'no 7.9x 10rx 6.022x 1026
x 7 x l0-.1
= 6 . 9 8x l 0 - r os . '=
3.00x 10em ,
Then the fraction / of pions decayingis given
by tbe radioactivedecavlaw
tbat is, 3 millionkilometres.
f=r-exp(-T/r). We use the Case 1 definitid,n for the operational use of diies.section from Table
2.7 to calculate the neutrino nu'mbersin the bubble chanber pio[lem. A f000 kg of
wherer = 2.6 x l0-8 s. Then
' propane provides,with euficientlprecisionfor the purposeof thiirquestiou, a ta^rgetof
t = 2 . 6 5x 1 0 - 2 . 10t x 6.02 x 1026uucleons.The ocpectedcross-gection at 10 GeV ig 7 x 10-{, m2. If
The answersto the second-partof the question the target is immersed in a uniform neutrino beam, the prolabilty any uucleon guffers a
are found by referenceto Fig, 12.3, collisionfor eacbneutrino incidentper squaremetre is the productof thesetwo numbers,
which describesthe productionof a neutrino
beam.The presentproblemconcernsenergies tbat is 4.2 x l0-r2. To obtain atr averageof one c6llision pequilesa bea,mwhid has
about ten to fifteen times greaterthau those
in that figure so that the a..iy p"[ -a (4.2 x to-tz;-t = 2,4 x l0l1 neutriuosper square metre. If tbese neutrinos anive in
absorberthicknessare that much greaterthan
describedthere. bursts and 100 bursb are requiredio obtain one collision then bheremust be 2.4 x t}e
72'15 The numberof free protonsper cubic neutrinos in each sqiraremetre per burst. The most economicalway of immersiug the
meterof water (1000kg) is n = 1000x target in such a bean is to havethe beam iacident normally on one of the end facesof the
6.022x 1026x (2/t8). The meanfree path ,l is given
Uy cylindricaltarget. This hasan areaof 1 m2so the requirednumberof neutrinosper burst is
2.4 x 10e.
^=
*' 16s lfow' of the productionrofa muou neutrino beamis giveu in Fig. 12.3.Tbere
whereo = 6 x 10-'t8m2 is the antineutrioo-proton a.re'[owtecbniquesfor enhancingneutrinooveranti-neutrinof,ux, or vic+vema. For more
total cross-section.
Hence
details, interested readers are referred to Fisk, H., and Sciulli, F. (L982). Annual Revieu
) = 2.49x l0r8m. of Nuclear andxParlicleScience, Vol. 32, pp 499-573.
Nuclearmatter has a nucreondensity that gives
/ nucleonsa sphericalradius R = 12.1?' The muon producedis negativeso the collisionis a chargedcurrent interection
7.2Ar/3 fm. Thus the densityis in, nucleonsper
im2 of a muon neutrino (not antineutrino)with a negativelychargedquark in a proton, which
343 becomesa positively chargedquark. The charmedparticle is a D'+ so containsa c quark
4nRt 4n(t.2)l rot a e. Thus the collision is with a quark not an.aatiquark, Po'ssiblereactioas a^re

=
l, vrld.+ p- *c
0.138 nucleonsfm-3 . '.:'"'
2, vp+l-lt-+c
Thc I McV clcctron ncutrino intcraction cross-section
with ncutrons is given as l0-.7 mr - If the reaction was 2 then the e querk has to come from the sea.ofqq patrs that ecists
l0-r? fm2'Tbusthemeanfreepathin neutronmatter
of nucle",a.oiitfi, giu.o uy in the proton, Its conversionto a c would leave an unpaired $ amoDgst the remaining
 100 Chapter 12 Chapter 12 l0I

hadrons.That in turn would meau s stralge (S = +l) antibaryonor an ,S= *l meson.
There is uo evidenceof the former havingbee,nproduced.There is a possibilitytbat tbe 5
becamea constituentof a I(0 whic,heither decayedto n0r0 or left the chamber,However
tbere is no missing transversemomentum and this possibility is consideredunlikely. Thus
tbe most likely reaction is 1.
Exerclse
:
12.18 Supposetharthonaut;inosemittedbyrhosupernovaSNlSSTAwere.all ganerated
andloftthecofo.ina periodol onesecond.A largefractionof thetwentyneutrinos detectod
160000 yearslatorwereall observed in a periodof 2 s,with a meansnergyof about8 MeV.
Makea roughestimato of an upperlimiton the neutrinomass.
''Another
approachincludesthe assumptionofa onesecondproductionaad emission
period.Thus one secondis the ma:rimumdclay at tbe earth. Sincethe delayis dominated
by the lowestenergyparticlesobservedwe couldassumcthis encrgywa.s4 MoV, say,thcu
tn M2ca
A r a : 1 s= , .
W
This gives
Mt =2.5 x 10-6Mev= 2.5eV .
In fact, the calculationof an upper limit bas to take into accountthe energysPectrum
of the neutrinos,the time distribution of emissionand how that might vary with energy,
and tbe detection efrciencyof the detectors.There are variouscalculationsof this kind
and the upper limit is somewhatgreatertban that given by our simplecalculation. I

Solution
12.18 A po,rticleof total energyE, mometrtumP ord massM has a velocity u = P/E
where E2 = P2d + m2ca. Suppose& zero mass particle, velocity c, ta,kesto secondsto
correrthe distanceftom SN1987Ato the Earth. Then a particle of massM takes a time
ts9lPc and the d4ay At in its arrival with respectto t6 is given by

At = tof*-l\ '
\rc /
= 6(1'6-11 .
\rc /
SupposeMC <<Pc expand tle squareroot binomially.Hence
': '" '
' ll' ' u't\L _,.|
r = rol(,.ffi)
.. 1.''\: '' l ,
:.'. =tll .Iry+ -1l,
:l' L ' :
-. to .lufcr
. . " , . ; , .L. t =;V .
.. :
Oneapproachis io*iiia.. tu. aelayfor 4 MeVneriiiinos(Atr) andfor 12MeVneritrinos
'
webavd"' :"" "l
(At12),then(puitiiij Pc equalto tbeseenergies)
. , !.4;*,

?*'t(i-#)
; i.:i!rf+r:r: r_

at{.-alu = , M'c' in MeV2

**u.
Now t6 = 160,000yearsand we take Atr - Atrr = 2s. This gives
/
Sincethe neutrinosare emitted over a period of ls ard we do not know tbe extremesof
energy this result would be a rougb upper limit.
 ChaPta.l3 103

Solutions
13.1 A neutral system consisting of a fermion plus its antiferaion in a bouud state is
Solutions to exercisesin Chapter 13 an eigemtate of well-defined charge parity (the e,hargeconjugation quartum rumber).
That chargeparity, C, is (-t1l+' where0 is the quantum number.forthe relatirreorbital
angularmomentumand s is the total spin quantumnumber;Thui'Ps lSo has / ='0' s = 0
Exercises
uod C = *1 and Pss5r has I = 0,a = 1 and C = -L.The n0 is-ii 1.96state of u[ + dd
13.1 consultPerkins
' ,1
(1986) or Gottfried quarksand has C = *1. The photon has C = -li n photonshaveQ = (-1)". Thus the
andWeisskopf(1986) to explorothomeaning
of tso ffsystem can only give an even'.number6f pbotons,the
the charge-conlugationquantumnumberfor neutralsystemssuchis thezomesonandthe electromagueticdecayof a
3d and rSostatesof positronium.Showthatthedecays decayof 3Sr state can only give an odd numberof photons,if C is conserved.The decays
givencouformto this result'
no-y]-l,
Ps(|So)+y+y,
13.2 The energy'U' of an electricdipole in in electricfreldis given by
- 7* 7+ y,
Ps(lrS,) I'
u=-p.E.
conserve quantumnumber.
chargeconjugation

13'2 lf the neulronhasan electricdipolemomontpit mustbe parallel(or opposite)tolhe Nowifthep=as'whereSisthespinofaparticle,then::"o:.

spin LI=-oS.E. ra1:;1 .,;.r,,.,-
P=dS
Now S is an ar<ialvector snd E a vectorso that s'E is a pseudoscala^r. II the systemis
whared is a constant.
TheenergyU of thisdipolein an electricfieldE is invariant under the parity traosformation, an observablesuch'aslU cannot depend oB a
g'
pseudoscalar and we concludeo = 0 and hencep =
g=-p.E=-aS.E sign (tbe pslticle rotatloD
Under time reversalE remainsunchangedbut S c"hanges
reverses).If the systemis lnveriatrtunder time revers&lthen U cannot changesign and
By considering
what happens
to S.g under = and p = 0'
we conciude, by a separate a,lgument'thet a 0
(1) a paritytransformation
and Thus unlessthe inrrariancesunder time reversaland under the pa,rity transformation
(2) timoreversal are both violated in the internal motiotr of the neutron,it must havezelo electricdipole
separately,
showthatd iszerounlesstheinteractions
responsible
for theforcesbetween
the momenl.
constituentquarksin the neutroncontainan elementof parity non-invariance and
simultaneously
of time-reversal
non-invariance. 1B.g (1) D + p + d + ?. This is obviouslyelectromaguetic.The cross-sectiordePetrds
pb for
[Thepresent dipolemomentof the neutronis -0.3+g.5x1g-rr nt
valueof theelectric strongly on the neutron energy.It falls from 333 mb for thermal Beutrors to 30
(9=chargeon proton),consistent
with zero.l " Deutronsof 14.4MeV.
(2)3--A+zr-.Thereisaquarkflavourcbange,s-+llrsothisEustbea
a
13,3 Indicate,with a briof explanation.
whetherthe followingreactionsor decayscan weak iJeraction proce$. The value of P (seeTable 13.5)is 139 MeV/c so we expect
proceedthroughthe strong,the electromagnetic,or th6 weak intaraction.
In eachcase (rss;6 x a factor (- p.2') for the unfavoured quark cbange'That
trausition rate of about
aswellasyou cantheorderof magnitude
estimate of thecross-sectionor transition
rate,as gives2 x 10es-r. Tbe observedvalueis 6'1 x 10es-r'
appropriate.
(3)o+p+d*rr+.Tf,isinvolveshadronsaloneandthereisuoquark8avour
orde!
(l) n+p*d+7, .l-g.. if itS,tn.teforea stronginteractionprocesswith a ma:<imumcoss-sectiorof
( 2 )E - - A + r 10 mb (obseh'ed 3 mb) but decreasing with energy'
( 3 )p + p + r ' + d , is a quark flavourchange,"C + s and P is 845 MeV
t,il D+ ) K- +n+ +n+, There
( 4 )D ' - K - * z * * z ' so the transition rate i8 exPectedto be less than 4.3 x 101{ s-..1'.Theobservedvalue is
about 8 x 1010 s-r. Tbis difiereuieis not. surprising ln view of the simplicity of the recipe
( 5 )K - + p * K o + n ,
( 6 )z - + p + K o + A , given
-- in Table 13.5., , .
has AS = +2 (5 =- f.lr.anseaas) and.therefore
( ? )c ' * e - + W ' * W - , | 6) K: I O - fo t n. dis reaction
( 8 )Z o - p ' + p - , requirL'a secg-niordgl wga.kiqteraction. That neans a cross-;$|!3,that is unotiservably
small(< 10-56m2). .,.+;-*
(9) n- -Ko+K-. ploduction
: iOt ,r-+ D d K0+ A. At{uark flavours ere conservedbut tlis associa,ted
(d herestandsfor deuteron,
not d quark.) 'eans tfiat an s5quark pair has'to be produced. This inhibits.the leactiogr a,nd the cross-
bf aboritI mb.
iiction hasa ma.:<imuiii
 104 Chapter13 Clutptcr IJ 105

(7) e++ e- - w++ w-. Thisreactiouhase threehord at a centre-of-mass

energyof
160Gev. It is electromagnetic
so,ebovethreshold it hasa cross-sectionoforderlonijrTs Exercises
wheres ls lhe gquareof the centr+of-mass etrergy.At 200GeV this givesg x 1gi{ ,rrz.
(8) 70 - p+ + p-. Tbisis electroweak.Fton Table12.s,theobserved partialwidth 13.5 UseHuyghen's construction radiationis eminedat an angle
to showthat Cerenkov
is 85 MeV.This givesthe transitionrateto be 1.2x 1023 s-r. cos-t(c/nv,to tho directionof a chargedparticlemovingwith velocityv througha
(9) o- - K0+ K-. This process mediumof refractive
transparent indexn.
violatesbaryounumbercouservation. If that rare
process doesoccur,.theo the decaywouldhave8 transitionrate comparable to that for 13.6 Considarhow a waterCorenkov to thefollowing
detectorfor protondecayresponds
protondecay.None[as,been obeerved errd,indepeudent ofdecaymodes, theprotondecay two possible
decaymodes:
ratehasan uPperlimit.ofabout2 x 10ls s-r. Particulumodeshavetransitionratei less
I
than3 x t0-ro r-t'(Section18.6). ( a )p + p ' * K o ,
(b)p-V.+2..
{
thesedecaysftom
Listtoaturosof the detectedlightwhichcould be usedto distinguish
otherprocesses which might them
imitats suchas
Exerclso
vr*p+y+*n*Ko,
13.4 Youareplanningto communicate withtheinhabitants of a distantgalaxyandwishto
detErmino whetherthoironvironment v *prv*niz',
is of particlosby our reckoning, or of antiparticles.
Invbstigatcthe stateinentthat, althoughthe wo8klnteractlonvlotatescharge+onjugation
lnvariance,thereis no weaklnteractlonexperimentthat can be describedin *orJ. *hirn respcrtivcty.
permitsa resolutionof that question,other than experimentsusing the
Ko-Rosystem,

Solutions
13.5
Solution
13.4 we assume frstly that nature is invariant under the cp transformation
(section 12.9). u the distant inhabitants tell us that the charged particles
emitted in
tbe decayof neutroashave belicity fl that canaot tell ur uoytuiog ouout their matter
or antimatter status. The reasonis that helicity is definedby the angular momentum
of
the spin aloag the direction of motion, and we do aot kaow whether ihey definepositive Ad

Tsol.r Bonentum by a clockwise or anticlockwise motion around a given ucis, oo. .uo If tbe radiating particle,velocityr.,rmov€sfrom A to B in time t emitting Cerenkov
tbey tell us, radiation, then the direction of the wavefrgntof light emitted betweenA and B is at an
The experimentthat can conveyinformationconcernsthe K0-K0 system.The quan- angle d, where CB is tbe $,aveftontand A0B is i right angle.Now AB : ut and AC =
tum mechanicsof this two-statesystemis such'that one half of a beam which is pure K0 cl/a, whe,ren, is the refractiveindex of the medium. Theq
or pure R0 initially, dicays quickly leaving a long-lived beam of particles .ou.i xr. ruo,
0 = cos-r(c/trn).i: '
haveomong otbers,two pa^rticulardecaymodes:
\
Tbe three-dimensionalwavefrontis found by rotation around the line of flight of the
Kr, + ur-*e**vo, particle.
_
Kl + r**e-+i,..
13.6 A proton decayor a neutrino interactionwill finally givea number of visiblepho
tons that read the boundaryald a fraction of theseare detectedby the photomultipliers
A manifestatioa of cP non-invariance is that these two modes have unequal transition
stationedtbere,A givenphotomultipliercan give the relativearrival time of a pbotonthat
ratee. The frgt exceedsthe secondby O,Bvo,The description of the experimeut to measure
it may detect with a precisionof I to 2 ns and a pulsesignalproportional to the number
tbis chergeasymmetry needsno distinction betweenlefl and right. If the siga of the charge
, of photons arriving at its sensitivesurface.The problem is t0 look at tbe pattern of hit
of the leptou emitted in the faster decayis the sameas the chargeof the leptor in their
photo6ultipliers, the signal timiags aud energiesto obtain ma:<imuminformation about
atgms, then the conclusion is that they live in a world of antimatler.
any event, For a pa,rticularprotoDdecaymode there may be severalroutes from decay
 106 Chapter 13

to pbotomultlpller,The sameis true from a neutrlnoluducedevent,Thus the polnts to ill rq,, '

considerarol
l. The kinematicsof tbe primary event,
2. The possiblebranchingin secondary, or evensubsequent decays,or interactions.
3. How eachparticlelosesenergyand the distancetrevellgd,beforeit comesto rest or
iDteracts, Exerclrcr
4. The path lengtband"r'eiocity of chargedparticlesto determinethe emountand spatiel
giuei;e sot31tuminosrtyl'"
distribution of tbe Cerenkovlight emitted. 14,1 Estimitetheflux of pp chalrisolarneutiinosat the Earth
5. The relativetiming of the arrival time of light at the boundary. (Table14,2) 6nd thd tsct that two neutrinos 8re producodin evcry.conversion of four
ptoduces26.72M-By..Assumo thatthc pp
6. The effectsof qoo-coutainment of the decayproducts. iioio* to oi. o.parricle8ndthat.thisionverslon
ihainissolelyresponsiblo lorthssolarenergyproduction. lf3%of thc,energyislostthisway
7. The characteristics of the neutrino0ux at the detector.
whatis the averagonsutrlnosnsrgy?
For example,the neutrinofrom :
14.2 TheOavisdetector contaln3600 ronnos of CrCl.with the containing
chiorine 24.47%
P+t +?r'
bv numberof llCl. Thecross-3ectlon for the reactlonflCl+v.*c'+f!At svcrlgodovorthc
is undetectablebut the pion alwayshas a kinetic energyof 340 MeV. If a nuclearin- over.threshotd'p8rtof tho neutrinospectrumexpectod fromth9 decay!B*!B+c'+r'. is
teraction doesnot interveneit travelsa distanceof about 150 cm water emitting light x
I 10{! mr,Given that the productlon of flAr ls ono ovetytwo d8y3,calculatotho csptuto
into a conedecreasingfrom half angleof 38oto 0o, The amountof detectedlight is the ratoin SNU8ndthoflur of detectabte neutrinos'
same,within Suctuations,for all pionsof this energy.If the pion is movingnormally to a
how thefOllOwing
14.3 Investigare wouldbe usedin otderto dotectneutrinos:
teactions
boundary,all the Cerenkovlight strikesthe boundarywithin a time intervalthat is much
shorterthan the flight time of the pion.That intervalis spreadfor non-normalanglesbut -0.236MeV
in a way contrectedwith tbe light distribution,Thus this decaypion givesa very charac- llGa+ v.+llGe+c'
rlflni v.+r$Sn'r+ e- - 0.120McV
teristic pattern of detectedphotons.Therewill alsobe somephotonsfrom the flight of
I
thepositronintbefinaldecayof thechainzr+ - p+ - e+,normallyhappeningafterthe
pion has cometo rest. However,thesepositronsare delayedby a time characteristicof t!!Sn.
+7+0.1l6McV
the meanlife of the p+ meson,2.2 ps.The interactions I
tgsn+ y+ 0.498McV.
v*D-u+D+1t+
will give pionsof a wide rangeof energies, (1979)and for an indiumdetectorseeRaghavan
but otherwisebehavingas do the decaypions, [For the galliumdet€c\orsea Kksten
The neutrinosare producedin many of the decaymodesof K and r mesonspro- (1976).The" and' indicatoexchedstatesl
ducedin the upper atmospbereby primarycosmicradiation(nainly protons).Even deep
undergroundtheseneutrinoscomefrom all directioasaud aay siuglepion cannotbe elim-
inated becauseit is in a direction a.ssociated
with somenearunidirectionalneutrino 8ux.
Thustbe experimentsearchingfor p + v*r* hasto rely on observingeventsil an enerry Solutions
peak standingon a backgroundwith a broad energydistribution.The enerry resolution 14.1 Flom Table 14'2,the total euergyoutput of the sun is
availableby measuringthe Cerenkovlight is not good,whichmakesit hard to seea peak
^L6 = 333x1026Js-r
on a continuousbackground.Noneof the water detectorsha.sobserved&n eventthat can
= 2'39 x 103tMeV s-l '
be identifiedas a Drotondecav. '. r:l';i

Thereforetbe uumberof
Each o-particlb producedmeansthe getreratiotro126.72MeV.
o-particlesproducedis
N' = 8'94 * 193?t-t '
flux at the earth is
Doubling this givesthe numberof ueutrinos.Thereforethe neutrino
;NJi;td.d bi lzrp2, wben R is the Ea,rth-Sundistarce 1.5 x.10Ekm. The result is
6.33x 1ol{ m-2 s-t "

ghai& by two neutriaos.Tbe

The averageneutritroenergyis givenby 3Voof2632MeV
*"fi i; O,lOMeV. fact-the fraction is more like 2% leadingto an averageerergy ot
[n
/ 0.26MeV.l
 i08 Chaptert4
Chapter14 109
14.2 The 600tonnesof C2C! (molecular weigbt165.83) contains The neutrino capturereactionin tlfln has a thresholdof l2g kev. A capture
- leads
4x6xl()s the emissionof an electron,a delaycharacieristicof a meanlifc of 4.g5ps, gamma
a ray of
t633l_x6.022x1026 116keV followedby a secoud,y-rayof4gg kev. The intcrvarbetweenthe first
'y-raysis too short to be seen and second
atomsof chlorineof whicha fraction24.47v0 areffcr giving2.r3 x l03oatomsof that by any practicaldetector.The originarproposalwas that
isotope.An average capturerateof oneeuery't*ro this sequenceof eventscould be foundin a suitably designed,indiumloaded
ily, i, s.zsx 10-6s-r or 2.zl x 10-16 detector.
p-ereecond pertargetnucreus:
trai is z.zt ir.ru. About 2 tonuesof indium wourdbe required,instiumentedsuitably (an
fnturl -- rni, yierdis thecross-section unsolved
tiaes the flux;.thusthedetectableneutrinoA* i, I problem).The capture rate is about ?s0 sNU. unfortunately
for everyneut.ino eveat
there would be about 6 x r0r0 decaystlfln - rlfsn + e- + ,.. Finding
the required
6 - _ x loroY
? . ? l x t 0 _ s=2'7 :^ eventsin that backgroundis a challenge too greatlor existiagtechnology.
fiioT- m:2s-r .

14'3 (1) The galliummethod t\ priucipa.r Exercisa

14'?).The difrerence 1s yne in
is that the ta^rget
asthar usedby Davis(section
is suiliu'oil-t-; of chlorine,whichmakesfor a
differeatchemistryof sctraction.n iaaitiJo, ;h;fi; 14,4 Drawthe Feynman
diagrams
for theprocesses:
captule' neutrinosfromthe pp
cycle,whichchlorinedoesnot,
The targetflGa is stableard 39.920 of naturargallium.The product (a) c'+c- <v,*i,,
stable(meanlife 16.4days),decaying. llGe is un- (b) c'+c--v.*4,
t liC" Uy-.f-..tioncapture(e = 2BZkeV).Two
experiments areunderway(1993)uriogi? go iiio.r respectivery (c) 7+cr -v.*4te',
an o(peure of about21days,a,nygermanium "oa ofgallium.After
(- I atomper 2 tonnes)is chemically (d) c' + (Z,A) - e' * (Z,A) I v,.r -v,,
tracted,converted to theSas ex_
theelectroncaptures !e1t=an9,oriogi.ur.i;r, introduced
aredetected
into a counterwhere
by thesen;tivitio iu. eugu,electrons, asin Davis,s
equipmeat. Solution
The stardardsolarmodelpredictsa capturerate t4.4
of 128sNU of whichtwothirds (")
is dueto pp neutrinos. preliminary.results'are
*rrrri.r, with the expected flux of pp
neutrinos plusthe less-than-expected
flux fromothersolarcycres,
(andcorfrmedby theKamiokaude * ii..r".a uy o*i, g*\
e*purimeiqCJr. ri.8). 4 /'u
For an upto-datereoort,interested t."auo \-____-/-
r.r.rredto the proceedings of the
co$91e1ce (uuuiriooe, (tr$) ;;; "ti r'rnyr;"r, (proc.
9t:l:.."i:":
pp.lll-124, NorthHolland.): Suppl.)Vol.3r, \ou
"-/
(2) Indiun: theeaergrleveldiagramis shown
in thefigure.
(b) It is the same as for (a) except that the
neutrinos are labelled v" and.io.
(.)

vocapture
614k€V r=4.85xlots
498kev
<;
e-
Alomlc
mass For the reactionwith a positroutarget,reversethe
keV arrowson the electronline and relabel
as e+.

'l3ln 'lisn
t=7,4 x l9l. years
95.7% of natural
lndlum
 rr*iira. ". -, .,_r-"*:ei;
"".i

ll0 Chaptert4
Clapter Ii ill
(d)

Exercircl

<; 14.5 showthatthopotontialenorgydueto gravitational

uniformdensityandredius.Ris
attraction
ol a spherical
mass,r/ of

-g-
".'ri |
For the reactionwith an incidentpositroD,reve*e
the *ro*, oo Jhaerectronline and
relabelas e+.
whereO is thogravitational
constant.
(:l *9 (d) thereis anorherdiagram:the posirion
^"^.^]t:-"3 of the real or (virtual)
pnoton vertex"fon the electronline may be exchanged
with that of the Zo vertex. 14.6 csfculatetho pot'ntiarenergyin joulesfor one sorarmass
11M.l otmstorislol
unlformdensltyand radius(a) t lightyoar,(b) onesolarradius(X'" iniaUfe
f +.i1, tij
1 0 0 k ma, n d( d ) i 0 k m ,
It is likelythatlhe donsityis greaterat the contro.How wilt thls changeth6 potentisl
energy?

14,7 Suppose thattheironcoreof a pre-supernova starhasa massof 1,4 M^ anda radius

of l00.kmandthatit coltapsesto I uniformsphereof neutronsof radimio iil *.rr.ii"i
th' vifialtheoromof theformof equation(r 4.2) hotds.carcurare tho energy.onrrr.J'in
neutronization ondthe numberof olactfonneutrinos produced. Giventhai the remainino
energyis radiatedasneutrino-antineutrinopairsof all kindsof averagoohsrgyr z*i z rrruv]
calculato thetotalnumborradiated

14'8 Giventhat the supernovaof probremr4.7 is at a distanceof 163000rightyean,

calculata
thetotalnumborof neutrinos
of alltypesanlvingateachsqua16 m6trsatiheiarth.
Alsosstimat6the numberof reactions

i*P-n+c'
thatwill occurin 1000tonnesof water.Assumethatthecross-section
is givenby

^ --iF,T'
-4P'E'G1
"
where P. and d aretha positronmomentum and energyrespectiueii
and o. is the Fermi
couplingconstant.
Assume onlyone-sixth
of the neutrinos
arseiactidnantineutrinos.
14.9 Modifv,thanucleaisami-empirical
massformulairyrheadditionof a termgivingihe
mecnanrcarpotenrial
energydue td gravitationsl
anraction
and apply.it.toa neutronsta,
(z=01. Find tho smallostradius'r8noutronstar can have assumlngnuciear
density
throughout
andtheabsence of anyotherconstitu6nts.

Solutions
14.5 The dessity,p, of the body is givenby

p = 3M
m
 ll2 Chapter 14 Chapter14 113

Supposewe build this body layer by layer.on a part of way through this processwhere = 1.395x 10{6J .
we havereacheda radiusr, msssMr! f Rt, weadd a laycrthicknessdr and mass4rr2 pd,r,
This layer is sdded at a radius wberethe gravitationalpotential is -6Mrr/83 so that Tbis energybecomcsavailablcas tbe collapscoccursand is uscdin thc neutronizationof
tbe contributioo,dU, to the eaergris the iron a,ld in radiating neutrinos.
The energyrequiredfor neutronizationhas two parts:
1. the enerry,.91,requireddismantlethe iron a-ssumedto be atomic,ilto its co[stituent
du = -(#) gtrr2pdr)
nucleonsand electrons,
, =
3GM2ra,
-7_or 2, tbe energr,82, consumedin the reaction
r
e-+p+tr*t/cr0.782MeV.
Thus tbe mechanicalpotential enerry of the whole'assemblyis
of the coreand the atomicweight
Tbe total numberof iron nucleiNp. is givenby the ma.ss
u=tau = -loesg{4''di of iron:
1.4x 1.989x 1030x 6.022xL026=
NF" = 3.001x 1055.
3GM2
= --E-' 55.847
we assumethe iron bu z = 26, A = 56so that the total numberof nucleons,N, is given
bY
14.6 In this pioblem M = 1.99x 1030kg, hence
N = 56 N'" = 1.681x 105?'
'Y
= 1 . S 9x l 0 5 oJ m . The binding energyper nucleonis 8.? MeV (Fig. a.2) so the energyrequiredto dismantle
the iron is
a) 8= 1 lightyear= 9.46x l0r5 m U= -1.68 x 103{J. & = 8.7N = L.462x 1056MeV ,
b)R=R"=6.96x108m U = -2.28x 10{rJ.
c) .R= 100km wherewehaveueglectedthe bindingenergyof the atomicelectrons.The numberof protons
U = -1.59x l0{5J.
d).R=10km U = -1.59x 10{6J. (and electrons)to be convertedto Deutronsis 26 Nr" and eachconversionproducesone
electronneutrinoso the numberthus is
If the densityis greatertowardsthe centrethen the material is more concentrated
at regionsof morenegativegravitationalpotentialenergy;the total potential ener6ymust 26Np.= ?.803x 1056.
then be more negativethan found for the uniformdensitycase.
Eachconversioorequires0.782MeV' giving an enerry requirement
14.7 The gravitationalpotential energr,O, is giveuby (problem l4.S) ' 82= 6'102x 1056MeV '
e= -3cM2/5n. Thus the total energl requiredto neutronizethe 1.4 M6 of iron is
Il M = l.l'11'[a= 1.4x 1.988x 1030kg, then,sinceG = 6,628x l0-rr ms kg-r s-2, we Ey* E2 = 1.523x 1058MeV ,
have
= 2.440x l0{5 J .
Q=-3.1olxlo5o/g.
For .R= 100kn, O = -3.101 x 10{5J. Tbis energycomesfrom the increasein the core'sbinding energy,AB. Thus the energy
For rB= 10 km, O = -3,101 x 10{6J. to be radiatedis -
Heace,for the collapsefrom 100to l0 km ' 1.39sx 10'6- 2.440x 10{5J
AB - (4 + &) :
A Q = - 2 . ? 9 1x 1 0 { 6 J . = 1.151x 10{6J
The time averagedinternalkineticenerryandtbe gravitationalpotentialsatisfy(Eq. la.2) = ?'18f x 1058MeV '

2?*O=0. This eneigr is radiatedasneutrino-antineutrinopairsof averageenergy12 * 12 MeV and

thereforeihe numberofpairs radiatedis 2.994x 105?or 5.998x 10s7neutrinos.Including
Therefore, in this collapse
the neutronizationelectronneutrinosthe total numberis 6.77x 1057.
AT = -6912 Summarizing:
= 1.398x 10{6J , Energr consumedin neutronization = 2.44x l}as J'
aod the increasein binding energr AB is Numberof electronneutrinos.produced = ?.80x 1056'
Numberof neutrinosand aotfieutrinos
Aa = -411+0)-A? producedas pairs l = 5.99x 1057.
 '
ll4 ChapterJ4
Chaptal4 115
Noticethat in this calculationweallowedno kineticeuergr
for the electronneutrinos
producedin neutronization.-A.moreconviucing This is a negativecontributionto the biodingenerry.The gravitationalpotentialwill be
result would-beto sharethe energyto
be radiatedamongtheseand the ueutrinosof ihe pairs a positivecontributionto the binding energyand, using tbe resultsof problems4.1 and
of a[ generatious,eachneutrino
having 12 Mev. This changestbe last numberfrom 14.4,we makethe replacement
s.99 to s.21x 1057.
14'8 The distance in light years has to be
convertedinto metres.Dach year has _ 322e2- +3G(/VM")2
365| days,eachday 24 horjrsand goon. Hence 20rcsB 5R
We assumeuucleardensityso that R = Ra/{t/r = l,llrltl3 x l0-l! m and we havefor the
f63 000light years = 163000x 365.28x 24 x g600x 2.998x 108m neutronstar bindingenergy
= - 1 , 5 4x l 0 2 lm .
we tokethe numberof neutrinosproduccdto be B= (av- oe)ff- /'.Nztt
*%Itl
5.9gx r0r?eothot the numborcrossing
onosquoremetreel the earthis
we expectN to be so largethot N > /v2/3and we neglectthe surfaceterm, For nuclei
5.99x 1057 ov = 15.56MeV, o1 = 23.29MeV (Table4.1)so that, for small .lV,the bindingenergr is
= 2'01x 10" neutrinosm-2 '
GJAilgqtG negativeand we expcctno nucleicomposedoolelyof Deutrons,However,at large/v the
The reaction gravitationalterm can dominateand at somevalueof N, B is zero and for larger iv is
positive.The critical valueof N givesthe minimumsizepossiblefor a neutronstar which
!1*p+sag+
must havea positivebinding energy.The critical N is given by
e = _(M" _ M, + m")c2= _1.804MeV ,
and an effectivecross-section
givenby (Table12,9)
o=(av-aa)No+"*ry*

AP"E:G2F Therefore
o= *2t3 (o1 -'oy)sit4
nhaC t\o =-.
we neglcctthe recoilmomentumandenergyof the neutron
so that the averageneutrino Substitutingnumberswe obtain
givcsa positronof kinctic cnergy10.20MeV
and hcnceE" = 10.?l MeV, wh'ichin turn
has N o = 4 . 8 1x 1 0 5 5
P"c= r[gg@= lo.zoMeV. with a radius
siving r?=4345m.
nnip€tr
, = = 7.73 x16-.6
*z .
r(hc)a
The cxpectednumberof eventsis the productof the
aumberof freeprotonsin the targer,
the cross-section
and the numberof eiectronantineutrinoscrossingonesquare
metre
= x 106x 6.022x 1026 x Z.?3x 10-a6x x z.Orx l0r{ = 1.23.
#F I
of course,wc canonly obscrvcan integcrnumbcrof events,
but this numbercan be used
in tbe Poissonformulato give the probabilityof
observiag0, l, 2... events.
14'9 we usethe semi-empirical massformulafrom Table4.r. For a neutronstar, treated
,_
as u-niformdensitysphere,z = 0, A = N, wbere
lf is the numberof neutrons.Thus the
binding energyappearsto be

B = a,N - a.N2l3- o,r.N,

l{owcvcr,we tnust now includea term for thc gravitational
bindingenergy.The coulomb
tcrm that wc havedroppedis, for a uniformlycharged
sphereof odiu, E, given by
22 322e2
" Attt 2lresR'