UNIT I: ESSENTIALS OF WRITING SKILLS

BASIC GRAMMAR AND USAGE

After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand

• different ports of speech, namely nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and
prepositions . .
• how connectives, prepositions, and adverbs link different ports of speech in English
• different types of determiners and their uses
• how different phrases work in sentences
• use of different tenses, modols, and active/passive voices in a sentence
• direct and indirect speech and their uses
• clause and its types
• what non-finites ore and their types
• types and uses of punctuations

2.1 WHY GRAMMAR?

Grammar helps us develop an efficiency to express ourselves correctly in a language. It also helps us develop
the habit of thinking logically and clearly. Therefore, the learning imparted through discussions, examples,
practice tests, and exercises in this section aims at developing accuracy of expression and effectiveness of
usage. To begin with, let us briefly know the important aspects of English grammar and practise the areas
that are problematic and confusing.

2.2 FIXING NOUNS

Let's identify the different types of nouns in the paragraph given below:

Education (Abstract Noun) is often considered a means (Common Noun) of transformation (Abstract
Noun). True education (Abstract Noun) is believed lo hove the power (Abstract Noun) to transform the
ignorant and innocent child (Common Noun) into a knowledgeable, enlightened, happy, and evolved
individual (Abstract Noun). Modern education (Abstract Noun) system (Abstract Noun), however,
seem to hove put all such noble pursuits (Abstract Noun) on the backburner. One ofter another, edu-
cational institutions (Common Noun) all over the world (Common Noun) seem to hove capitulated to
the cult (Abstract Noun) of success (Abstract Noun), as they focus. on getting their students (Common
Noun) jobs (Common Noun)-and through it-money (Common Noun), status (Abstract Noun), com-
fort (Abstract Noun), and luxury (Abstract Noun). People (Collective Noun) these days seem to have
decided to ignore the words of wisdom (Abstract Noun) by the great poet (Common Noun) W.B. Yeats
(Proper Noun) who, in his inimitable way (Common Noun), once said, 'Education (Abstract Noun) is
not the filling of a pail (Common Noun) but the lighting of a fire (Common Noun). '
 16 English Language and Communication Skills

. d bscract nouns, can ace as the subjeq

All these types of nouns, namely proper, common, collcct1ve, h an . a ombinacions wit . h several ot h er kinds'
c l e use t em in c
object, or complement in a sentence. Very irequent Y w d cratives (chis article), quantifiers (sorne
. (h" book) emons
of words such as articles (the man), possessives IS ' ) All such noun combinations can be broadly
rice), adjectives (black sugar), and other nouns (bomb blaSC · he subJ·ect obJ·ect, or complement in ,
categorized as noun phrases and they too, l1·ke nouns, can b act
. kas t I dge of nouns:
' •
sentence. The cable given below w1·11 h eIp you revise
. Your as1c now e

Noun Definition Examples

Proper Noun Used for specific person, place, or thing; always starts Jodhpur, Taj Mahal, Shanker, Leela,
with capitol letter Lord Buddha

Common Noun Used for naming people, places, and things in general Furniture, dogs, students, people,
pork
Collective Noun Refers to a group of things or persons Family, bunch, jury, team
Abstract Noun No physical entity; refers to ideas, emotions, and concepts Love, honesty, freedom
Compound Two or more words used as one-word noun; sometimes Rainfall, post office, classroom,
Noun separated by hyphen mother-in-low
Countable • Singular • Book, chair, cow
Noun • Plural • Bananas, tables, flowers
Uncountable Refers to liquids, substances, and ideas; cannot be Happiness, iron, beauty, milk,
Noun counted bravery, oil

2.2. 1 Nouns/Noun Problem: Dealing with Problem Areas

There are several difficulties chat we encounter while using nouns/ noun phrases in sentences. In the following
section we take up some of these common areas with the help of examples and exercises.
Nouns: Singular or Plural?
Some nouns are mostly used in singular form while some other nouns are always used as plurals .

• I. Where are your belonging/belongings?

2. The company is planning to buy furniture/
EXERCISE 2. 1
Choose the correct noun forms (singular or plural) in the following sentences:

always feel young and energetic.

7. The armed force/forces need to be alert all the

furnitures for 3 lakh rupees in the next year. time .
3 . Have you broken your looking glass/glasses 8. In store we discovered the equipment/
again?
equipments that was not being used.
4. He combs his hair/hairs backward.
9. The premise/premises of the building were
5. Every Diwali, a large amount of pollutants are soon caught in flames .
emitted into the air/airs.
10. Eventually the new jean/jeans got torn in the
6. People interested in a variety of music/musics
scuffle.
 Basic Grammar and Usage 17

Nouns: Countable or Uncountable?

While many nouns can be counted and their plurals can be denoted easily by adding an -s or -es ac the end
such as arm , arms, one arm, both arms, one potato, one kg. potatoes, some of the nouns cannot be created
as countable entities. Attempt che foUowing exercise co figure out how co use such nouns correctly:

EXERCISE 2.2
Cross out the incorrect expressions in the following sentences. Check the right options in the answer key.

l . Give me two breads/two packets of bread. 9 . I saw the child trembling with fears/fear.
2. Can we have a coffee/a cup of coffee to begin 10. A large number of people/peoples have
with? gathered to greet the leader.

3. The picture gallery/pictures gallery is to your left. 11. The goods train/good train derailed on its way
4. We are planning to buy a lot of scenery/ back.
sceneries for the new house. 12. Don't take unnecessary air/airs; fame is just
5. Weather is/Weathers are usually warm in this ephemeral like a perfume.
part of the country.
13. The batsman makes room/rooms and hits the
6. Wrestlers often take large quantities of milk/ ball to the fence .
milks to build their stamina .
14. The sculpture was cast in exquisite stone/
7. The police have found some evidence/evidences. stones.
8. Can I finally have some leisures/leisure in my 15. The crowd came to pay their last respect/
life? respects to the departed soul.

For denoting plural sense for nouns usually considered uncountable, we at times use some quantifiers such
as some, much, both, none, etc.
At times, the plural versions of certain nouns give different meanings from their singular forms:

Singular Noun Plural Noun

The balloon floated in the air. Don't assume so much airs!
I have great respect for the leader. They went to pay their last respects to the leader.

Nouns with Unusual Plural Forms

Plurals for some nouns can be denoted by adding an -a or -ses at the end. Take a look at the following
sentences:
• The company has signed a number of memoranda (FReFRoranduFRs) with other companies.
• Though a desert land, you will find quite a few ooses (eas+5eS) in Rajasthan.
 18 E'ngtish l.anguagtt and Communication SJdl/.s

• Suddenly, the company seems to have plunged into multiple criseJ (Gfime6) .
• What are the criteria ( ~ ) of selection in your company\!
• Several such plMnomena (pheAomeR&Rs) can be witnessed in the universe.

2.3 POSSESSIVE FORM ('S) OR OF

Take a look :a the following sentences:
• It is someone else's mobile.
• The recommendations of the report have been given at the end.
• Why have you torn the cover of the booke
• Dhoni's press conference eventually silenced the journalists.
• He has fallen in love with Keats' poetry.
• By mistake he brought his classmate's notebook.
For showing possessive case of nouns, keep in mind the following tips:
• Use ('s) to show possessives of living beings such as the king's palace, Milton's Paradise Lost, the
friend's residence, etc. (Noc the palace of the king, Paradise Lost of Milton, the residence of
friend)
• Add just the apostrophe ('s) to denote the possessive case for plural nouns, e.g. , girls' lipsticks,
teachers' attitude, etc. (Noc the girls's lipsticks, tcachcrs's attitude)
• Use ofto show possessive with non-living things, e.g. , the front gate of the building, the back of
the wall, etc. (Noc the building's front gate, the wall's back)
• Use apostrophe ('s) for the last/second noun when a pair of nouns or several nouns come together,
e.g., the monk and the pupil's journey ended abruptly; that is Tagore, the poet's house, etc.
(Noc the monk's and the pupil's journey ended abruptly; that is Tagore's the poet's house)
• \Vhen cwo nouns are joined by words such as in and of, use -s with the first noun to denote plural,
e.g., the commanders-in-chief (Noc commander-in-chiefs), sisters-in-law (Not sister-in-laws)

2.4 PRONOUNS
The words that replace nouns are known as pronouns. Since a pronoun essentially comes in place of a noun,
ic can be used in subjective, objective, or possessive case. Like nouns, pronouns can also be of various types.
Given bdow is an overview of pronouns and their different types:

Personal Pronouns he, she, we, you, they, etc.

Impersonal Pronouns it
Demonstrative Pronouns this, these, that, etc.
Indefinite Pronouns one, none, some, none, many, few, we (in general sense), etc.
Distributive Pronouns each, either, neither, etc.
ReAexive Pronouns myself, himself, herself, etc. (He fell and hurt himselij
Emphatic Pronouns myself, himself, herself, etc. (He himself is going to see us)
Relative Pronouns which, who, that
 Basic Grammar and Usage 19

Sec furth er how pronouns can be uscJ in nominalivc (subj ective), objective, possessive, and refl ex ive/
emphati c form s:

Subjective Form Objective Form Possessive Form Reffexive/Emphatic Form

me my, mine myself

you you your, yours yourself

he him his himself

she her her, hers herself

it it its itself

we us our, ours ourself

you you your, yours yourselves

they them their, theirs themselves

who whom whose

While using pronouns cake care of the following grammatical conventions in English usage:
• Use pronouns in subjective form when the pronoun is required to serve as th e subject in a
sentence:
He (mm) attended the meeting despite indifferent health.
She (lief) is planning to visit Kerolo in summer holidays.
We (us) were shocked to discover the facts.
They (them) con be seriously mistaken.
• Use pronouns in objective form when the pronoun is required to serve as the object of a verb or
preposition:
Konwaldeep told her (she) that he might have to leave the country.
The receptionist informed us (we) that the forms were not yet printed.
The policemen assaulted them (!hey) with cones.
You cannot fool me (I) like thotl
• Use pronouns in objective form when they come after as, than, except, and be verb:
She is taller than me.
Nobody knew about it except us.
'Open the door, irs me.'
Her brother was as hospitable as her.
• When there are two subjects or objects in a sentence, place them after nouns and arrange them in
the third, second, and first person order:
My friend and I (I ond my friend) went to watch a movie last night.
You and I (I ond yoli) will have to sit across the table to sort it out.
Her friend or she (slie or lier friend) is going to be the show stopper.
My wife has got the coupons for you and me (me ond yol!) .
20 Eng lish Language and Commun/rotion Skills

• Use perso nal and reHe.xive/emph:uic pronouns ca re-fully:

He hurt himself in the process . (Hurt no one else, but himself)
He hurt him in the process . (Hurt someone elsel
Having reached late, she eventually found herself a seat in the auditorium . (She found the seat for
herself)
Since she was late, her friend found her a seat in the auditorium . (Someone else found the seat for
her)
• Some idiomatic e.xpres.~ions rake reAe.xiYefrmph:uic for m of pronouns:
'Look at yourself! Who do you think you are trying to copy? '
She should be ashamed of herself.
leave it, I can look after myself.
See this and enjoy yourself. (
• AYoid using reAex ive pronouns after verbs sud, as wash. drt'ss, 1111dre.rs, shave, ere. unless rhe action
suggests special cffurr:
He changed the wig and went to attend the party.
She dressed up quickly and rushed to office.
But:
After the accident, he finds it difficult to dress and shave himself.
After the bath, she managed to dry herself on a towel.
• Pronouns such as thry. )'OIi, 11 -e, one, someone. etc. may refer to people in ge neral and normally fo llow
the following patterns:
Though the government has been denying it, we know what the truth is. (We refers to people in
general)
One cannot be so philosophical all the time, can one?
Someone has left their mobile here. (Takes singular verb has but is referred to in plural possessive their.)
Everyone knows that they are supposed to stop at the red light.
H av ing revised the basics, let's attempt the following e.xercises to consolidate the concepts:

EXERCISE 2.3
Cross out the incorrect pronoun in each of the following sentences:
l. Yesterday I/me went to watch a movie. 6 . We all know that Smita acts better than him/

2 . Don 't worry! It's I/me in the backyard. himself.

3. Let's distribute the chocolates belween you and 7. While riding , she fell off the horse and hurt her/
I/me. herself.

4 . She does not know what to do with her/herself. 8. Can she ever figure out what she/her is
(Both the pronouns being used for the same doing?
person) 9 . He is likely to drive home him/himself today.
5 . That/This was quite ingenious. 10. Leave it, this bag is our/ours.
 Basic Grammar and Usage 21

• 1. 'Whot has he been searching for? Hos he

misplaced _ _ _ _ mobile again?'
EXERCISE 2.4
Write appropriote pronouns in the blanks of the following sentences:
6 . The little parakeet twittered in _ _ _ _ __
gleeful squeak.

2. Allofushovedecidedtowithdrow_____ 7. Needless to soy that the pleasure is entirely

application from the office. _ _ _ _ _ _ ,I

3 . Someone seems to hove forgotten 8. Everybody appears to hove pocked

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ library cord at the counter. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ suitcases.

4. One cannot be too careful in life, 9. If anyone needs to consult the doctor,
con _ _ _ _ _ _ •? _ _ _ _ _ _ con first register at the counter.

5. Everyone seems to hove invested 10. In Indio, _ _ _ _ _ _ don't get to learn pho-
_ _ _ _ _ _ money in the market. netic symbols at school level.

2.5 ADJECTIVES
Take a look at the following situation and observe carefully the words in bold:
In a generally hot country like Indio, it is only in winters that one con experience the soothing comfort that
the Sun con provide. When its mild and caressing rays begin to fill us with comforting warmth, happiness
in tiny hearts begins to experience the luxuriating glee.
The words highlighted here are referred to as adjectives. By this time, you must have figured out that the
word that describes the quality of a noun or pronoun is known as an adjective. There are various types of
adjectives. An easy way to categorize them into different types has been suggested below:
Take a look at the following chart and observe the different types of adjectives:

Adjectives Telling Us about Examples

Perspective, view, opinion, etc. Great victory, horrible day, amazing feeling, etc.
Age/State Old woman, new employee, latest rule, etc.
Colour Green pants, blue tie, red lace, etc.
Qualities Silent march, mild touch, dry skin, easy task, etc.

Purpose
Sick leave, eye drops, ear plugs, washing machine, etc.

Quantity Some rice, little strength, much hope, etc.

Ten soldiers, thirty students, two girls, etc.
Number
Size Big room, small carpet, huge crowd, long queue, etc.

Type
Psychological problems, economic issues, etc.
Punjabi man, Bengali woman, Japanese child, Spanish language, Indian
Origin
culture, etc.
22 English Language and Cammunicarion Skills

The table given below gives a quick look at adj ecti ves and rheir types:

Adjectives Definition Examples

~ ~ ~::'..__ _ _ _ __'.'.H:'.o'..:
w'.:.'.
m:a::_
ny- a-nd
_ h_o_
w_m
_u_c-:h- - -~Li:tt;::
:le~. -;:fe=-w::-,-:a::n=-y~. -;
si;::x_ _ _______
Quantitative Adjectives
Opinion Adjectives Attitude, ju d gments, Delicious, lovely, nice, be~ I
observations
Interrogative Adjectives Question words that qualify a Which book, what reason - - - - - -
noun
Comparative/Superlative No physical entity; refer to Better, faster, best, strongest~
Adjectives ideas, emotions, and concepts eldest, toughest '

Classifying Ad jectives
Factual Adjectives
Words that tell us type Classical dance, Indian history--i---tal
·
·
pizza, Kas hmm ' 100
· · showI, goods train
Size, colour, age, shape, etc. Black, small, big, oval -_

The most important thing about adjectives is not to worry about their car_ego_ry or type, bur ro use U!IJl
accurately. Given below are some of the notable aspects and the usage of adJecuves:
• Choose carefully between -er, -est, -ier, -iest, and more, most for appropriate comparison:
This room is bigger than the adjacent one. (Single syllable words such as big, short, nice, fit, short
large, etc. toke mostly the -er, -est comparative structures.) '
It was the happiest day of his life. (Words ending in consonant + y structures such as happy, lucky,
dirty, pretty, silly, funny, easy, etc . toke -ier, -iest comparatives .)
• Longer adjectives rake more + adjective and most + adjective structures in comparisons:
This is the most advanced (edYeAcesl) form of technology.
He was more comfortable (cemforleeler) sitting in the cosy room.

• Some adjectives can take both -er, -est, and more, most constructions:
Ramesh is the most clever (or the cleverest) boy in th is class.
The simplest girl (or the most simple) was actually the ablest (or the most able) in the class.

• Some adjectives are not used in comparative and superlative degrees:

/n that situation, it was the perfect decision (more perfecl, most perfecl).
Given the circumstances it was the ideal choice (more ideal choice , mos! ideal choice) she could
make .

• The more ... the more constructions need to be used properly:

The higher you go, the cooler it gets.
The more positive you are, the more successful you can become.
The richer he grew, the more impatient he became for more money.
The more careful you are in decision making, the less regrets you accumulate in life.
 Basic Grammar and Usagt! 23

• The + adjective constructions suggest plural subjects. Use plural verbs for them:
The poor are always exploited by the rich .
The young are mostly in a hurry to do things.
The old find it difficult with the rap id changes in the society.
• Adjective pairs form ed with endings -ing and -ed are confusing. Distinguish them properly:
We were amused to see their antics.
The teacher narrated on amusing anecdote in the class.
The manager seemed interested.
It was an interesting offer to make.
• See the meaning and usage of few, a few, the few/little, a little, the little in the following examples:
Few reporters were seen at the venue. (Hardly any/no reporters were seen.)
A few reporters were seen at the venue. (Some reports were seen .)
The few reporters who were there too left quickly. (Whatever small number of reporters)
There is little chance of his survival. (Hardly any hope of survival • bad news)
There is a little chance of his survival. (Some chances of survival • good news)
The little chance that the patient hod soon
vanished as he quickly slipped into a coma. (Whatever little chance)
• Compare only the comparable variables. Errors creep in when incomparable variables arc forced
into comparison. Avoid such faulty comparisons. Observe the examples given below:
The population of America is greater than Canada. (Incorrect)
The population of America is greater than that of Canada. (Correct)
• See examples of older, oldest and elder, eldest to understand the difference between them:
Meet my eldest brother. (relation in the some family)
He is the oldest employee in our organization. (no family relation)
The elder one is in England.
The older couple looked particularly disappointed.
• Some adjectives take to instead of than in comparisons:
In office, she is superior to me (s11peFier IRaA me) in rank .
In some extremely backward communities, women are regarded as inferior to men.
• Use as ... as or so . .. as judiciously:
This room is as spocious as the one that you hove just seen. (Appropriate)
This room is so spocious as the one that you have just seen. (Inappropriate)

But:
Shoshank is not so brilliant as Sorvesh . (Possible)
Shashank is not as brilliant as Sarvesh. (Also possible)
• Read the following examples to know the difference between last and latest:
The fast man in the queue (lalest maA iA IRe ei11e11e) too collapsed due to oppressive heat.
The latest technology (lasl leeRAeleg)') has brought about phenomenal changes in our lives.
 24 Enc,lish Language and Camnwn lco tion Skills

EXERCISE 2.5
Rewrite the following sentences using appropriate adjectives:

l. The report is really good; it not only discusses 6 . I approached the officer, but he hardly seemed
the problem but also gives few suggestions. interesting in listening to me .

2 . The faster you drive on a serpentine hilly road, 7. You can certainly do it, but you need Jo exert
(
poorer are your chances of returning home little more.
safely.

8. Movies produced in India are more

3. Yesterday he was really sick, but today he is than Iran.
more better.

9. Ashwln is the most successful spinner rhan any

4. This film is so good as the one released last other spinners In contemporary Indian team .
year by the same director.

5. Our eldest man in the colony too left the house

recently. 10. Poors are easily manipulated by rich .

2.6 VERBS
The verb is probably the most important component of English language. You can think of a se ntence
without a subject or an object but you cannot think of a sentence without a verb. Even the shortest sentence
contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example in <lay-to-day life; you use so me
of the following expressions:
Stop! Come! Gol Sill
However, you cannot make a one-word sentence with any other part of speech.
Verbs are commonly regarded as 'action words' in a sentence. In English language, there are a large
number of verbs that denote action, i.e., highlight the idea of 'doing' something. For example, words such
as write, teach, sing, dance, and work co nvey some action .
 Basic Grammar and Usage 25

But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence or a state of ' being' .
For example, verbs such as be, appear, exist, seem, feel, and belong convey a state.
A verb always has an explicit or implied subject. For example,
Professor Bhat leaches us English .

Professor Bhat is the explicit subject in this sentence, whereas in the following sentence the subject is
implied:

Stop!

You is an implied subject here.

In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are the words that cell us what a subject does or is; th ey
describe
1. Action {Siddarth plays cricket very well.)
2. Stale (Mohit looks very tired.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Almost all the verbs in English change in form
according to subject and tense. For example, the verbs sing, dance, and cry have the following forms:
• to sing, sing, sings, sang, singing, sung • to cry, cry, cries, cried, crying
• lo dance, dance, dances, danced, dancing
Now let us learn more about verbs.

2.6. 1 Classification of Verbs

Read the following sentences carefully and take a note of the verbs used in them.
• Mr Verma is a doctor. • We must pay our taxes in time .
• The earth revolves round the sun.
A:re the above verbs same in nature? No! In fact, there are many different types of verbs, which are shown
in Fig. 2.1 below.

Verb

Helping verb Main verb

i i
(Based on (Based on !Based on
Linking verb Auxiliary object) action/state I past forms)

i
Principal
l
Modal
i
Semi-modal l Transitive l Dynamic l Regular

Figure 2.1
l Intransitive

Different Types of Verbs

l Stative l Irregular
 26 English Language and Communication Skills

I. Helping Verbs: prima ry/modal

2. Main Verbs: rransirive/incransirive, dynamic/stative, regular/irregular
Linking verbs or copular verbs Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a different state
Linking verbs are mostly used intransitively. Linking verbs such as ' be', 'seem', 'become', and 'look' are
quire commonly used in everyday speech. Such verbs are generally followed by complements. For instance,
look ar rhe following examples:
• Monisho is intelligent. jMonisho = intelligent) • The sky become dork. jthe sky -, dark)

• Dr Gupta is a surgeon. jDr Gupta = surgeon) • The bread hos gone stole. jbreod -, stale)

• Rohit seems tired . jRohit = tired) • His body turned pole. jbody-, pole)

• Ashok sounds greedy. jAshok = greedy)

Auxiliary verbs Auxiliary verbs are rhe verbs Auxiliary verb

which help to form a tense or an expression.
They however cannot form a complete sentence
on their own and require main verbs ro denote Principal Modal Semi-modal
rhe action. The principal auxiliaries are to be,
to have, and to do. However, modals and semi- •
lo be
•
con-could •
la need
modals also form auxiliaries since rhey com-
bine rhe main verb to convey a disrincr sense. •
lo have •
may-might
,j,
dare/ used lo
Figure 2.2 shows the different types of auxiliary
verbs. •
lo do
,j,
shall-should
Let us read the following examples: ,j,
• I om waiting for you. jto be auxiliary) will-would
• My father hos deposited that money in the
bank. Ito have auxiliary)
•
must-had lo
• You con do this project in time . jean auxiliary)
• They used lo visit us quite often jused to
•
ought lo
auxiliary)
Figure 2.2 Different Types of Auxiliary Verbs
Main Verbs
Read the following sentences:
• I write.
• They run.
• Children play.
. . • We laugh.
These highlighted words are main verbs- the d .
. b ' Y enote actton and have m · frh •
M am ver s are also called lexical verbs Unlik .. b eanmg o etr own.
· e auxi1tary ver s main verbs h · h
are th ousands of main verbs and we can classify h . th ' . ave meanmg on r eir own. There
.. . t em m e followmg ways:
• Transmve and mtransitive
• Dynamic and static • Regular and irregular

Transitive and intransitive verbs Read the foll ·

owmg sentences carefully:
• He read a novel yesterday.
• Snigdho loves swimming.
• My mother hos planned a trip to Mumbai.
• Moria wrote a letter to Peter.
 Basic Grammar and Usage 27

ll1e verbs in the above se ntences-read, planned, loves, wrote-require objects in order to complete the
sentences. Such verbs are called transitive verbs.
A trn11Siti11e ve,-b takes a direct object. For example, Somebody killed the snake. An intransitive verb does
not require a di rect object. For example, He died. However, many verbs can be used transi tively as well as
intransitively.
Now look at the following examples:
• I om reaching shortly. • The letter reached us lost night.
• My friend speaks lost. • They speak English fluently.
• We ore flying high in the sky. • Children ore flying kites today.
Dynamic and stative verbs The verbs which describe actions are called 'dynamic verbs'. For example, hit,
kill, fight, run, go, throw, explode, write, ere. These can be used with continuous tenses. There are ocher verbs
which describe a state or a situation and are called 'stative'. For example, like, love, prefer, impress, hear, see,
so1111d, belong to, comist oj need, resemble, seem, etc. They cannot normally be used with continuous tenses
(though some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning) .

Regular and irregular verbs This is another classification which you need co understand regarding verbs .
The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is chat they have different endings for their past
tense and past participle tense forms . For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is
always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense and the past participle endings are variable; so it
becomes essential to learn them by heart.

Regular verbs The following examples give the base, past tense, and past participle forms of a few regular verbs:
• Cook, cooked, cooked • Smile, smiled, smiled
• Cleon, cleaned, cleaned • Wash, washed, washed
• Water, watered, watered • Smoke, smoked, smoked
• Turn, turned, turned • Work, worked, worked
Irregular verbs The following examples give the base, past tense, and past participle forms of some irregular
verbs:
• Do, did, done • Write, wrote, written
• Eat, ate, eaten • Sing, song, sung
• Drink, drank, drunk • Be, was, been
• Cut, cut, cut • Throw, threw, thrown
• Sleep, slept, slept • See, saw, seen

2.7 ADVERBS
While adjectives modify a noun or pronoun, adverbs add meanings to a verb, an adjective, and anocbcr
adverb. See rhe following examples and observe the functions of adverbs:
• Children perfonned brilliandy. (Verb+ Adverb)
• It was meticulously planned. (Adverb + Verb)
• It was very meticulously planned. (Adverb+ Adverb+ Verb)
• They were really good friends . (Adverb + Adjective + Noun)
 28 English Language and Commun ication Skills

•
T k' I fr th I b
,o mg a cue om e exomp es a ove, 1 n1
. d b Al ·r · th
I1ves or a ver s. so wn e, in e spa ,
solved for you :
EXERCISE 2.6
·de ·,fy whether the words highlighted in the sentences below ore odjec-
ce the structure of the words given in bold. The first sentence hos been

1 . The thief walked briskly through the groove.

6 . We reached the airport quite eorly. _ _ __

briskly (Adv); (Verb + Adverb)

7. Father's sudden death terribly shook him . _ _
2 . The speaker was really nervous. _ _ _ __

8. For the meeting, he seemed elegantly poised.

3 . The speaker spoke rather nervously. _ _ __

9 . Ir was rather surprising that she did not scream

4. The food served in the parry was not good al him . _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ __
enough. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
10. The shuttler was quite excited al having
5. How can you be so meon? _ _ _ _ _ __ achieved a milestone in her coreer.

Many a time we form adverbs from adjectives and complements. See the following examples:

The contest was easify won .

It was on easy victory.
He seemed furious. He paced about the room furiously.

(
Nobody was prepared for the leader's sudden death. Suddenly, a visitor appeared from nowhere.
Why are you being so unreasonable? Why ore you behaving so unreasonably?
Lost year, we bought an automatic washing machine. It automatically washes all types of clolhes.

EXERCISE 2.7
Given below is a passage about a visit lo some fort. Choose either the adjective or the adverb from the options
given for each blank:
Visiting Amer Fort in Jaipur was a _ _ _ _ _ __ was _ _ _ _ _ _ (heavy/heavily) crowded.
(wonderful/wonderfully) experience . Hoving Scores of tourists both from Indio and abroad had
crossed the crowded wall cify area, our bus moved thronged the place. As a result, the _ _ _ _ __
(slaw/slowly) as we began (narrow/narrowly) rood in front of it was swarmed
to mount the rood leading lo the fort. It was on with multiple cify buses , tourist buses , cars, outo-
(extreme/extremely) cold rickshows, and two wheelers. The young and the
day. The bus left us right in front of a hill al the age, men and women, all of them kept getting
top of which the fort stood _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ off their respective vehicles and began lo move
(majestic/majestically) . The rood in front of ii closer to the fort's _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (glorious/
 Basic Grammar and Usage 29

gloriously! inviling aura. All of lhem seemed quile _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (energetic/energeticallyl .

(excited/exciting! al The young kepi lhem good company while lhe
having been given an opporlunily lo wilness one of age lrudged behind
lhe ageless monumenls of Indian hislory. Among all (leisure/leisurely!.
age groups lhe children began lheir upward march

Just as there are various types of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, adverbs coo are of various kinds. Take a
look at the table given below to understand the different types of adverbs :

Adverbs Examples
Adverb of TI me Now, soon, always, slill, yel, elc.
Adverb of Manner Poorly, brillianlly, leisurely, eleganlly, elc .
Adverb of Place Here, lhere, everywhere, inside, elc .
Adverb of Frequency Usually, often, occasionally, never, elc.
Adverb of Degree Guile, very, exlremely, ralher, elc.
Adverb af Affirmalion or Negalion Cerlainly, definilely, absolulely, etc.

An important thing to learn about adverbs is to place them accurately in a sentence. Take a look at the
following examples and see how a change in the position of the adverb can change the meaning o f the
sentence:
• Only a fool like you will do such a lhingl (Nobody else bul only a fool will do.I
• A fool like you will do such a thing onlyl (A fool will do nothing else but only such a thing .)

• Clearly, he did nol answer lhe question. (It is clear thal he did not answer.)
• He did nol answer the question clearly. (He tried but could not give a clear answer.I

I. Usually, the type of adverb can decide its placement in a sentence. For instance, Adverbs of Manner
are generally placed in the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
2. Adverbs ofTime and Place are placed alter the verb or the object.
3. Adverbs of Frequency are placed between the subject and the verb.

See the examples below co understand the positioning of adverbs:

• Murad entered lhe room quite excitedly. (Adverb of Mannerl

• Rimika never visils us now. (Adverb of Frequency!

• He hasn'I come yet. (Adverb of nme)

Note At times, the type of verb can decide the position of adverb in a sentence. For example:

• Rohan is never lale for school. (Subject + Verb + Adverb)

• Smita never fails lo answer lhe question. (Subjecl + Adverb + Verbl
 30 English Language and CommunlcaHon Skills

II EXERCISE 2.8
Rewrite the following sentences placing the adverbs correctly in each of them:

1. He could sense the problem always .

7. Nadal pumped aggressively the air.
2 . Rub gently the old man's leg .
8 . The newly recruited marketing manager qu ietly
3 . The plane landed somehow safely. sat in the meeting.

4 . Last month sharply the sales fell .

(
9. Place there the book .

5. Nearly he was dead in the accident.

10. You could see him rarely reaching late.

6 . This man speaks the truth always.

2.7.1 Adverbs: Areas of Concern

Errors creep in as we often overlook the minute differences in the meaning and usage of some adverbs.
Therefore, take care of the following confusing pairs of adverbs:
Quite and Rather Quite is usually used in positive remarks. Rather is used in negative remarks.
• Food was quite good. (Positive Remark)
• Movie was rather boring. (Negative Remark)
• They spoke to us quite nicely.
• They handled the drunk rather shabbily.
(Positive Remark)
(Negative Remark) (
!Note) The adverb quite can be used to convey both positive and negative ideas but rather is normally used
to convey a negative sense:

• It was quite strange that they did not th ink of it in advance. (Correct)
• Keats' poetry is rather pictorial. (Incorrect)
Quite suggests 'completely' and 'fairly' with some adjectives:
• Waiting for Godot was written quite absurdly.
• Don't expect her to turn up in lime; she is quite hopeless in this sense.
• At the end of the day, I felt quite exhausted.
• The younger son's parking sense is quite horrible.

Still and Yet Still is used in both positive and negative statements. Yet is used moscly in negative
statements.
• Have you received any reply? No, not yet.
• Are you still waiting for the reply?
 Basic Grammar and Usage 31

• After holidays, he hasn't joined office yet.

• You are nearly twenty and you still can't manage even your wardrobe!

Too and Enough Too is placed before an adjective or adverb for negative connotations and is not appropriate
for conveying appreciation and or positive attributes. Enough is placed after an adjective or adverb for both
positive and negative connotations.
• The thief was too short to jump the wall. (too + negative attribute)
• The thief was tall enough to easily jump the wall. (positive attribute + enough)
• The thief was not strong enough to jump the wall. (not + positive attribute + enough)

2.8 PREPOSITIONS
Take a look at the examples given below and observe carefully the highlighted words:
• Our train is passing through a tunnel. • Mr Vats is travelling by plane.
• Are you still confused about the career • Is he junior to you in the department?
options? • The river is flowing above the danger mark.
• Majestic, the super boar, is speaking at the • The child was running towards me.
top of his voice. • I am waiting for you at the railway station.
The small words highlighted in all these sentences are known as prepositions and are placed before a noun or
pronoun to establish their relation with other parts of the sentences. However tiny they might be, preposi-
tions can completely change the meaning of a sentence. See how small prepositions change meanings in the
following sentences:
• Casper, the little cat, is sitting on the moving car.
• Casper, the little cat, is sitting underneath the moving car.
• Casper, the little cat, is sitting in the moving car.
• Casper, the little cat, is sitting beside the moving car.
Therefore, in order to express ourselves correctly, we need co use prepositions accurately while speaking
English. Lee's learn how with the understanding of standard practice, these prepositions can be used appro-
priately. In, on, at, under, inside, underneath are used co denote a position:
• Mother is inside the room. • I am waiting for you at the doctor's.
• The suitcase is on the trunk. • A slimy lizard slid underneath the carpet last
• The keys are in the drawer. night.
Since all of these denote position, understanding which preposition is to be used to communicate ourselves appro-
priately is crucially important. To discover their distinctive meanings, take a look at the following expressions:
• In Delhi, in garden, in US, in the queue, in 1972, in the morning, in winter, in the month, in class, in
lesson, in photographs, in films, in hospital, etc.
• On the road, on sixth floor, on page 46, on the beach, on the rooftop, on Monday, on the tree, on
Sunday morning, on that day, etc.
• At her desk, at the bus stand, at 458/2 Mandir Marg, at the function, at the bottom, at home, at the
moment, at night, at two o'clock, etc.

Note: In and at are both used for buildings. Observe the difference:
• Just five spectators were there in the theatre. (inside the building)
 Q

32 English language and Communication Skills

• Where are you? I am waiting for you at the theatre. (reference is to venue)
• There Was chaos all around, so we waited in the hotel. (inside the building)
• We were at the hotel. (taking food probabl )
s· Y
mce P«po,it;o~, depend a lot on colloe;u;0 n,, <emembe, to pkk the ,;ght p«po,;tfon by follow;ng the
commonly practised grammatical conventions Given below are some of the areas where such g ·ca1
conventions
. can resolve our .confusion: · rammau

In, On, or By for Transport By without a/an/the is used to denote means of transport. On and.
poss1'b le with a/an/the. 111 too arc

• We are going to Jodhpur by train. (by suggests mode of transport)

• The keynote speaker will come by air. (not by the air)
• The salesman often comes on his bike. (not in or by his bike)
• The passenge~s are sitting even on the coach. (on top of it)
• There were thirty passengers in the coach.
In Time or On Time?
(inside the coach)
(
• Starting sharp at 6, we were quite in time for the flight.
(early enough)
• Don't worry, we are on time.
(at the right time)
• These days, many trains reach on time.
(at the scheduled time)
• We reached the station just in time.
(at the last moment)
In the Way or On the Way, In the End or At the End
• On the way, we observed fascinating sights.
(while journeying)
• The tree fell in the way and we could not move for a while.
(blocking the road)
• At the end, however, the hero makes the villain realize his
folly with mighty punches on his face. (when the movie gets over)

• Clara keeps rejecting suitors only to choose the worst of them

in the end. (after a long time, finally)

By, Until, or Till

• The applications must reach the office by 31st January 2017.
(not later than)
• The university website will not be open until 10th January 2017.
(not before)
• We will need the report by next Friday.
(not later than)
• I'll not be able to look at your report until next Friday.
(not before)
• Wait, till I come back.
(somewhat informal)
Into, Onto and To for suggesting movement
• On hearing this, she went into the room.
(inside)
• I am going lo the meeting.
(purpose)
• Pour water into the jug.
(direction)
• He barged into the room flustered and angry. (enter)
• I wonder how his name got onlo the list of awardees.
(something added to a list, etc.)
 Basic Grammar and Usage 33

Beside or Besides
(beside is a preposition
• The bridegroom sat beside (not besides) the groom.
meaning by the side of)
(besides is a conjunction meaning
• Besides these, the company can also adopt other
apart from, in addition to)
measures to preempt such accidents in future.

For or Since
(since - point of time)
• It has been raining since morning.
(for - period of time)
• It has been raining for the last two hours.

Before or In front of
(for non-living objects)
• The famous statue is right in front of the museum.
(for living beings)
• The actress has been asked to appear before the jury.
• The students were waiting for the Principal in front of the college gate. (for non-living objects)
(for living beings)
• How many more people are standing before you?

With and Within

(suggesting togetherness)
• Can I come with you?
• We'll have to submit the assignment within a fortnight. (before the end of ... )
(suggests company togetherness)
• You can do wonders with such a team.
(before the end of ... )
• The flower began to wither within a week or so.

Forand From
(purpose)
• I have come for the interview.
(indicates the place)
• The candidate had come from Patna.
(implied)
• Madhubala is still revered for her beauty.
• From East to West, you observe variegated shades ~f culture in this country. (indicates direction)

Toor With
• On this issue, I agree with her. (to share a point of view)
• I don't get along well with her even though most of the time I agree to her suggestions. (to accede to)

Above or Over
(higher than)
• The river is flowing above the danger mark.
(indicates position)
• They have built a bridge over the river.

Below or Under
• Pesky, the little pet, is sitting quietly under the table. (covered by)

• After the snowfall, the temperature recorded below freezing point. (less than)

Aboutand Of
• Do you wish to talk about your marriage? (more informal)

• Do you ever think of your marriage? (plan)

34 English Language and Communication Skills

• The singer was talking about ragas when the radio went off. (discuss)
• Last night I dreamt of parachuting to an alien land and meeting strangers. (phrasal verb)
• The report discusses the problem exhaustively. (not discusses about the problem) (common error)
Funhc:r, lc:t's lc:arn more: about prepositions by the grammatical st rucmres th at precede or follow them. In
order to accommodate: more such collocations small expressions have been written instead of full sentences:

Collocations: Verbs + Prepositions

endowed with accustomed to filled with

consist of apprised of laughed at

pay for belong to enquire about

suffer from accused of discourage from

thank for grateful to compare with/to

suspected of aimed at refer to

besotted with spend on translate into

odd to blamed for critical of

criticized for split into invited to

provided with alarmed at situated at
robbed of armed with judged by
accessible to confined to addicted to
worried about fond of reflected on

Going further, attempt the following exercises to learn more about prepositions:

EXERCISE 2. 9
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions:

1. Are you listening me? 7 . He always confuses Sarita and

her sister.
2. We are waiting the train .
8 . Stop it! You have been fooling around
3. Can you do it me?
quite some time now.
4. He is going present a paper there.
9. The sandalwood thief slipped
5. The couple is seen living _ _ _ the first floor. the thick dark grove of trees .

6. such situations all you need is grit 10. These two girls keep whispering
and determination. each other's ears all the time l
 Basic Grammar and Usage 35

• 1. He is _ _ _ _ _ _ his neighbours.
EXERCISE 2. 10
Pick correct prepositional expressions from the options given for each of the fo llowing sentences:

6.
again?
Why can't you start all over
(a) sick with (b) sick of
(a) come on (b) come in
2. I saw him standing and
----- the
mirror. 7 . The book _ _ _ _ _ _ _ twenty chapters.
(a) looking into (b) looking at (a) consists with (b) consists of

3 . Mostly, the dejected writer remains 8. My grandmother generally gets _ _ _ __

----
- - - - himself. small happ~nings around .
(a) confined to (b) confined with (a) alarmed at (b) alarmed with

4 . Mr Singh has often been - - - - - - - 9 . Anita Desai has often been

for his poor verbal skills . Virginia Woolf.
(a) compared for (b) compared with/to
(a) criticized with (b) criticized for
10. Unfortunately, she married someone who was
5. Gradually, she was
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ drugs and ruined himself
receiving visitors in evenings.
within two months of their wedding.
(a) accustomed to (b) accustomed with
(a) addicted on (b) addicted to

EXERCISE 2. 11
Cross out the incorrect prepositions/prepositional phrases in the following sentences:
6. A lot depends on/depends at how the middle
1. I am concerned about/concerned with what is
going to happen to the programme. order performs.

7 . Initially, the producer was not interested with/

2. The poor in this country are even deprived of/
deprived for two square meals a day. interested in the script.
8. After the sudden demise of their father, they
3. Caught up in adverse circumstances, he is
have to fend for/fend at themselves.
fighting with/fighting for his survival.
9. The fault is entirely yours! You were standing
4 . Desperately, she moved from window to
window, enquiring from/enquiring about the right in the middle of the road/on the middle of
the road!
plane .
10. All these monuments were damaged with
5. You are not supposed to hit your opponent
under the belt point/below the belt point. the fanatic intruder/by the fanatic intruder.
36 English Language and Communication Ski/ls

II EXERCISE 2. 12
Read the extract below and fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions:
]

I reached the cinema hall well ___ time to be right
___ front _ _ _ the queue _ _ _ the ticket-
window. I kept standing there ___ a long while,
the window remained shut, but the queue _ _ _
me kept growing all the time. More and more people
joined __ and the long queue swell even _ _ the
boundary wall. Thrilled __ the idea _ _ lead-
ing such a large contingent __ cinegoers, I really
felt flattered __ my achievement. Meanwhile, two
eager boys __ me started talking _ _ _ what was
so great about the movie. They first began ___
how good the acting ___ their favourite movie
star was. One - - one, they analysed his dancing,
romancing, fighting, cavorting, and jumping skills.
Then their discussion drifted ____ how the
villain too had emerged as potent adversary _ _
the protagonist. Having discussed the exploits of the
hero and the villain, they went ____ describe
how wonderful had their favourite heroine looked
_ _ each frame _ _ the movie and how charm-
ing she looked _ _ her dancing sequence! Silently
cursing them _ _ ruining all my interest _ _ the
movie, I kept waiting _ _ the ticket-window to
open.

2. 9 CONNECTIVES, PREPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS AS LINKERS

In English, we use several connectives, prepositions, and adverbs to link different parts of speech, clauses,
and sentences. Broadly, they can be referred to as linkers and discourse markers. In this section, we'll
learn how to use such linking devices accurately and effectively so that the errors that arise of them can be
avoided.
Given below are some examples and usage based exercises on such linkers so that you can use them
correctly:

Broad Classification of Linkers

Purpose of Linkers Examples

To add
To illustrate
To highlight time ... event
sequence
To compare and contrast
To underline reasons
To indicate conditions
To establish purpose
Pair and choice linkers
To concede and disagree
and, also, loo, as well, as well as, in addition, besides, furthermore, further,
moreover, moving further, furthermore, again, and so on and so forth
for example, for instance, in fact, etc.
when, while, ofter, now, once, after, until, before, till, as soon as, no sooner ... !hon,
hardly hod/scarcely had ... when, the moment, from the time, since, even as, etc.
but, although, though, on the other hand, still, even then, however, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the opposite, all the some, on the other hand, ofter all, on the
contrary, anyway, since, while, whereas, etc.
because, so, consequently, furthermore, therefore, as a result
if, in case, unless, until, as long as
to, in order to, so that, so as to, for
or, neither, either, nor, either ... or, neither ... nor, both ... and, not only ... but also
even if, even do, in spite of, despite, anyhow, somehow
 Basic Grammar and Usage 37

To conclude ideas
Other linkers
to end, in the end, coming to the end, to wind up, to sum up, in short, before I close,
briefly, in a nutshell
as if, as though, even if, even though, even so, indeed, and speaking of, while
coming to describe, regarding, as regards, with regard to, by the way, as far as,
as for that, to begin with, on the whole, quite frankly, admittedly, understandably,
obviously, I guess, I reckon, I am afraid, or rather, actually, at least, sort of, talking/
speaking about/of, all right, right, OK, to a great extent, to some extent, in general,
broadly speaking, mind you, I mean, you know, in my view/opinion, I/suppose/
feel, well, actually, to tell the truth, herein, herewith, hereby, by and by, whereupon,
wherein, henceforth, erstwhile, then on, from that time/day/month/moment, etc.

Now, let's see how some of these linkers are used in sentences:
But and Although
• I wonted to attend the party, but was not feeling well.
• Although I wanted to attend the party, I was not feeling well.
• Though I wanted to attend the party, I was not feeling well. (though is a bit informal)
Even if and Even though
• Even though the movie is boring, people will go and watch it. (the movie is boring)
• Even if the movie is boring, people will go and watch it. (the movie may be boring)
In spile of and Despite for concession
• Despite injury, Kapil Dev took a five-wicket haul to dismiss the mighty Aussies on a paltry 81 way back
in 1981-82.
• lnspite of injury, Kapil Dev took a five-wicket haul to dismiss the mighty Aussies on a paltry 81 way
back in 1981-82.

To, For, In order to, So that, So as to, So as not to, In order not to, etc. for purpose
• I'll send you an alert so that you don't forget about it.
• I hurried up so as not to miss the bus. (I h1mieel Uf3 Rat ta miss the bus.)
• Why don't you join us for lunch?
• See, now you are beginning to dye your hair to look young I (to is a bit informal than in order to)

While and Whereas for comparison; While for simultaneous action

• I saw a snake while coming back home.
• Dr Vishakha is an expert while/whereas her husband is just a na"ive.

Because and So for reason

• I had to take back the charge from her because she was just very casual.
• She was very casual, so I had to take back the charge from her.

In case, If, Unless, Until, etc. for condition

• In case he comes, tell him that I am not there.
• Unless you improve your handwriting, you are not going to score well in exam.
• If you listen to me patiently now, you may not have to regret in future .
....
38 English Languagl! and Commun ica n·on Skills
Basic Grammar and Usog~ 39
And and As well as And is so meti mes co nfused with as wdl as. And is additive CTI1is + 11
is parenthetical; si milar to with, alongside, besides, and in addition to. The first noun d eciJ:l- Aa lllf 7 . _ __ _ _ _ is the situation, you need not 9 . - - - - - - - ~ the company hos increased
lose heart. the number of working hours per week.
noun is singul ar o r plural. whrthcr ~
(a) Whatever lb) Whoever lo) On the other hand lb) W ith regard to
• The owner as well as the servant is 1-I in the showroom.
8. _ _ _ __ _ she spatted the assailant in the 10. ________ the office r was
• The boys as well as the Principal ore Ii<) standing in the field .
kitchen, she let out a stifled scream. transferred to some distant location .
The Principal as well as the boys are Iii) standing in the field . !Better option)
lo) While lb) As soon as lo) As a result lb) As
• --~- --- EXERCISE2.13
Choosing from linkers ond discourse markers such as by the way, while, whereas, because, as ii 0

either... or, neither ... nor, whether ... or, and as, fill in each of the following blanks appropriately:'
l. _ _ _ _ you talk sense, ___ you keep
your mouth shut/
2. Women at the club kepi gossiping _ _ __
their husbands ployed cards.
3. He talks ta me _ _ _ _ _ he were my boss.
4. _ _ _ you allow me _ _ _ _ not, I am
going to the rave party.
5. The application cannot be submitted now
_ _ _ the last date was 13 October 2016.
6 . Our company backs itself on customized
[i)
EXERCISE 2.14
For each of the blanks in the following sentences some options ore given . Choose the appropriate linkers for~"
I . I know it may just be a futile journey.
- - - - ~ I am going ta give it a try.
la) By all means lb) Nevertheless
2.
your story sounds interesting,
I don't think I am sufficiently impressed I
/a) As though lb) Even though
3. _ _ _ _ _ _ the backlog issue is concerned,
we are going lo clear it up in the next week.
(a) As for as (b) Though
4. The imaginative captain kept rotating his
w EXERCISE 2. 15
Choose the correct option and cross out the irrelevant linkers and discourse markers for each of the following
'
sentences:
I. _ _ _______ let me explain what we we ore witnessing quite a chaotic situation oil
products _ _ _ _ _ they thrive on thelrg,<ll
turnover.
understand by the term 'surfeit economy' . (First around . (On the contrary, On the whale, By
of all, Coming lo, As regards, With reference lo) and by)
7. You ore telling me I keep doing I 2 . Think properly before taking this decision. 6 . - - - - - - - ~ let me summarize the
repeatedly.
- - - - - - ~ it is the question of your points we have discussed so far. (Ta wind up,
8 . The boy called up _ career. (Before, By all means, After all) Ta begin with, Turning lo)
sent the pen drive. 3 . I om quite particular about my health and don't 7 . - - - - - -~ we all need holtdoys, but
overstep my limits. - - - - - ~ I don 't take these days we are really struggling to meet the
9. , when is yo ur Rightl
more than three cups of coffee in a day. (By the deadlines. (Of course, By all means, Certainly)
10. ____ you don't hold the membership way, For example, By all means)
8. _ _ _ _ _ if you don't want to go, leave it;
cord, we cannot consider giving you the 4. I saw her coming back _ _ _ _ _ _ I was I'll manage somehow. (Just as, Since, I.oak)
discount. coming out of the class. (Even as, even if, even
though) 9 . - - - - - ~ the price per unit is also beyond
our budget. (Mon,o,,er, lhenofun,, It seam)
5. The long queues in front of ATM, and banks
10. Sir, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ the ink cartridge got over
are continuing; workers are finding ii difficult
and we could not get any printouts for nearly
to get any work; and everybody seems lo be
three hours. (As, Actually, Since)
facing some financial crunch. - - - - - ~
bowlers _ _ _ _ _ the batsmen did not
settle into a rhythm . 2. 10 DETERMINERS AND ARTICLES
(a) So as not to The words that add to the meaning of nouns, noun phrases, and adjectives arc ge nerally referred ta as deter-
(b) So that
miners. Broadly speaking, determiners can be divided into the following categories:
5. I searched for him everywhere, - - - -
he was not seen anywfiere. Determiners Examples
(a) In fact (b) but Articles a , an, the
6 · - - - - - - the impact of globalization Possessives my, his, our, their, her, etc .
on our culture, let's understb nd what hos Ol1 Demonstratives this, that, those, these, etc.
culture been . Quantifiers all, each, every, either, some, any, no, much, many, etc .
(o) Coming to (b) About
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40 English Language and Communicon·on Ski/IS Basic Grammar and Usag~ 41
Since
. I we. have
. already learn t a few things about possessil'C:S. demonstratives, and qua nu'fi ers I '
NotC5
arnc es in this section. ' 't s f0cu,
• Use a/an when the concexr is generalized and not specific.
• Use th, when the context is specific.
2. 10. 1 Articles Sometimes, it is not required tp use any of the articles. See the following examples:
Take a look ac the fo llowing paragraph: , Milk (o/oa/lhe milk) is sold here in bulk.
When Sunil Gavaskar came to open the innings for India agoinSI the · Ah
West d b in 1983 ' h•was u
Indies
fi O • He goes lo school (o/oa/lhe sehool) everyday.
tremendous pressure to perform . India hod already lost th e rst leSI in me ad and he had ndo
.. . f fiery pace had sentfh,t..
seven runs in two innings. In fact, in one of the innings, Malcolm Marshall's scored i,i • I love cricket(~).
d
master's bat flying out of his hands. It brought about on oII-roun crcticosm ram all across and m "' • France ( ~ ) is a culturally vibrant country.
bitter critics started writing him off. So, when Gavoskar walked on lo bat for the second test in Dany ol i., • They are !ravelling by train (by-tl,&-1,aiR) .
9 t ~.,
was o lot at stakes for him besides the expectations of millions of his fans to score the 2 th elh,, • You can send the cheque by Friday (by the f,idoy) .
of his career. But the great opener rose to the occasion and started assaulting the mighty leS ''°"'J • Women (ln&-w&me<>) ore generally more expressive than men (!A<HReA) .
I 10
away. Batting with great determination, technique, and class, the champion opener we pacer, Slro~~
In order to use articles properly, bear in mind the following grammatical conventio ns:
amazing chapter in the history of Indian cricket. n on SCri~~
• Don't use the before routine meals.
The words such as a, an, and th, chat you see in rhe above paragraph are known as · I
underscand how co use them appropriately: arttc es. Read furn,, I usually go for a walk after dinner (alter~). (routine meals in the night)
But: The dinner (aim>ef) served was stale and tasteless. (refers to some particular dinner)
A or An • Don't use th, before the names of countries and languages.
• Megha is studying in a college in Canada. (a is being used for words starting with a consonant"""" China (lhe-G,ma) has started focusing on English (on ~ ) recenrly.
More examples: a match, a laptop, o large chureh, a good book, a terrorist, a tiny shop, etc. But: English is the mother tongue of several Western countries including the United Stales of America.
• She is an Indian. (on is being used for words starting with a vowel sound) (country made of small slales/parls/islands)
More examples: an attitude, an old institute, an inkpot, an interesting story, etc. • Don't use the before days, months, years, seasons. days, parts of day and night, etc.
Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 ( i n ~ ) .
[l) EXERCISE 2. 16
Christmas (the Ch,islmos) is celebrated with great fanfare in this country.
We can conduct this programme on Friday (on ~ ) -
At night ( a l ~ ) you can hear some peculiar sound in the room.
Choose the article a or an according lo your understanding so far:
• Don't use th, before nouns such as church, school, office, hospital, home, etc. for specific ro utin e
I. Next year, she will go to _____ (a/an) 4. Seeing the ghost approaching her, she , business:
university in Netherlands. closed her eyes in _____ (a/an) feoml When I was in hospital (the hes~ilol) for fifteen days, I really missed home.
2. _ _ _ __ (A/An) woman was seen expression. I usually go to office (tl.e-elliee) al 10 a .m.
pushing the corf along the street. Quite religiously he visits Church ( ~ ) on every Sunday.
5. Though she appears to be - la/~ But: The hospital remains quite crowded . (some specific hospital)
3. Will you be getting _ _ _ _ (a/on) Chinese, she is _ _ _ _ (a/on) ind one!!~ People in this village fetch waler from the temple. (temple being used for some other purpose)
M.B.B.S. degree for this? We are going to the school lo deposit the fee of our ward. (nol for studying)
• Use th, in structure where an adjective follows a proper noun:
Going furcher, try to figure out how the choice between a, an, and the is ma e .m cliff<ere nt srrucrures gjvcn tJ.f Alexander, the famous conqueror, died a sadder but wiser man.
d
, A sound was heard outside. (the sound is not known) Sachin, the little master, is revered by cricket lovers.
• The sound was heard quite distinctly. (we know what sound we are talking about) • Retain th, in the reverse order as well:
The famous eonqueror Alexander died a sadder but wiser man .
• We took a taxi. !we are not speaking to any particular taxi)
Cricket lovers revere Sachin, the little master.
• The taxi longer than expected. (the taxi we have referred to earlier)
• Use th, + adj,ctiv, structure when yo u wish to denote an entire class o r type through it:
• An envelope was dropped at his doorstep. (we don't know which envelope) ferred The wise (wioe) know the truth .
When lhe envelope was opened, anthrax was found in it. (the envelope that has already been re
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