IPT Study Notes

Chapter 1- Introduction to Information Skills and Systems

1.2- Information Systems in context

A diagrammatic representation of an information system

Hardware
Input: entering data into a computer e.g. mouse, keyboard

Processing: Changes data to produce information following a series of instructions. Performed by

the central processing unit (CPU).

Storage: Retaining data over a period of time.

Control: Coordinates the operations of input, processing, output and storage. Part of the CPU
organises the flow of data.

Output: Presentation or display of information to a person, or transfer of data to another computer.

1.3- Information Processes

Collecting
It is the information process that involves deciding what to collect, locating it and collecting it.
Collecting involves 4 steps:

 Defining the required data- deciding what data is required

 Identifying the source of the data
 Determining how the data will be gathered
 Gathering the data
Organising
It is the process that arranges, represents and formats the data for use by other information
processes. The organisation of data depends on the purpose of the information system. Organising
gives some structure to the data.

Analysing
It is the process which interprets data, transferring it into information. It involves examining data
and giving meaning to it. When data has been ordered and given some meaning by people, it is
called information.

Storing and Retrieving

Storing and retrieving is a 2 step process for retaining data: Storing saves data for later use;
retrieving obtains data that has been previously saved. Before, during and after processing, data and
programs are temporary held in the memory.

Processing
Processing is the manipulation of data and information. It occurs whenever the data or information
is modified and updated. It carried out by the CPU.

Transmitting and Receiving

Transmitting and Receiving is the transfer of data within and between information systems. Data is
transferred between computers and devices in 2 ways: serial transmission (transmission of pieces of
data one after another) and parallel transmission (transmission of data simultaneously using
separate lines).

Displaying
Displaying is the presentation of information from an information system. It must be well organised,
attractively presented and easy to read and understand. It can be displayed via screens, printers,
speakers and plotters.

1.4- The nature of data and information

Data
Data is a vital ingredient of an information system. Data will be appropriate if it is:

 Relevant: Useful to the purpose of the information system

 Accurate: Collected from a dependable source and entered without errors
 Timely: Current, and kept up to date
 Secure: Protected from deliberate or accidental damage or loss

Data needs to be entered into the information system in correct form. When data is entered into the
information system it is organised as a particular video type. The data type describes the kind of
data, such as images, audio, video, text or numbers.

 Images are data in the form of pictures, such as drawings, paintings or photographs
 Audio is the data in the form of sounds
 Video is the data in the form of pictures AND sounds combined and displayed over time
 Text is the data in the form of predefined characters, letters and numbers
  Numbers are the data in the form of predefined characters whose meaning and format are
specified

Data Type Examples

Text Sarah, M, Yes
Number 41, 3.456. 10%, $89
Image Diagrams, photographs, charts
Audio Music, Voice recording
Video Film clips

Information
Information is an important factor in an organisations current and future success. Information is an
asset and there are substantial costs associated with its collection, maintenance and storage.
Information will be valuable if it is:

 Relevant: Useful to the purpose of the information system

 Accurate: verified to ensure it is correct
 Timely: Appropriate and current
 Organised: Arranged to meet the purpose of the information system
 Cost- effective: The benefit to the organisation is greater than the costs of producing it

1.5- Digital Representation of data

Digital Data

The Binary System

The system of counting used by computers is called the binary system. It is an arithmetic system
using a base of 2 (the digits 0 and 1).

Examples

Convert the binary number 1001110 into a decimal number

Powers 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
of 2
Value 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
Number
64 + 8 + 4 + 2

= 7810

So the binary number 1001110 equals decimal number 78

Convert 10910 into binary

Powers 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
of 2
Value 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1

= 11011012

So, the decimal number 109 equals to the binary number 1101101

The Hexadecimal System

The hexadecimal system, or hex, is to the base of 16, and uses 16 digits- 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A,
B, C, D, E, F

Examples

Convert 1B0516 into a decimal number

Powers of 16 163 162 161 160

Value 4096 256 16 1
Binary number 1 B 0 5
(1 x 4096) + (11 x 256) + 0 + (5 x 1)

= 691710

Convert 423 to a hexadecimal

Powers of 16 163 162 161 160

Value 4096 256 16 1
256 + 160 + 7

= (1 x 256) + (10 x 16) + (7 x 1)

= 1A716

1.6- Social and Ethical Issues

Data Security
The security of data involves a series of safeguards to protect the data from deliberate or accidental
damage. Some of these are listed on the following:

 Passwords
  PIN numbers
 Biometric devices
 Data encryption
 Firewalls
 Waste/ shredding
 Backup procedures
 People in the information system

Computer crime provides our society with a different issue. First, even though hundreds of cases of
computer crimes are reported each year, many crimes go unreported.

Data Accuracy
Organisations can provide access to information they have not created, for example, by including a
link to their Website. Today, there is a huge amount of information and it is relatively easy to publish
on the internet. As a result, there is no guarantee that all information is accurate or reliable, and it is
difficult to check in a reasonable amount of time.

Data validation
The accuracy of the data must be checked before it is processed into information. This is called data
validity. Data validation can be built into a software application. Some of the examples are listed
below:

 Range checks are used if the data we restricted to a small range of a particular value. E.g.
21/02/2001 is acceptable whereas 21/13/2001 is not
 List checks are used when the data can be compared to a set of accepted data. NSW is
accepted but 2SW is not
 Type checks are used to determine whether the data is correct
 Check digits are a number calculated from the digits of a code number and then added to
that number as an extra digit

Copyright
Copyright is the right to use copy or control the work of authors and artists, including software
developers. It is indicated by the © symbol. In Australia, the copyright act regards any original work
as the intellectual property of the person who created the work. Copyright ownership is automatic
and applies whether or whether not the work is accompanied by the copyright symbol.

Copyright protection is not the same for every piece of software. Site licenses permit an organisation
to make a limited number of copies of the software for use on the same site. A site can refer to a
number of buildings, such as a school. Purchasing a site license is cheaper than buying individual
copies of a program. Similarly, a network license allows people to use a program or a network.
Chapter 2- Tools for Information Processes
2.1- Collecting
Hardware
There are many types of hardware collection devices used for different types of data. The devices
that are used specifically to enter data into a computer system are referred to as input devices. An
input device should be convenient to use, reliable and allow data to be entered accurately. The data
may be in a number of forms, including text, numbers, images, audio and video.

Software

Operating Systems
The operating system is the software that supervises and controls the hardware. It is responsible for
controlling all the peripheral devices (input and output devices). The operating system contains
specific software for each type of peripheral device. 
On a personal computer, the operating system is usually stored on a hard disk and starts
automatically when the computer is turned on. Loading the operating system into the
computer’s memory is referred to as booting the system. Diagnostic checks on memory
and peripheral devices are performed when booting the system. A small program that initiates the
loading of the operating system is contained in memory.
The operating system provides a convenient interface between the hardware and its user. This is
referred to as the user interface. The first widely used operating system was the OS/360 system. It
was developed in 1964 for all computers in the IBM System/360 family. UNIX is a popular operating
system that can be used on everything from personal computers to mainframes. Like many
mainframe operating systems, UNIX time-shares the host central processing unit (CPU) to be able to
run multiple tasks and support multiple users.

Data Entry
The collection of data involves entering images, audio, video, numbers and text.

 Images are created using graphics programs or are captured using a scanner, digital camera,
video camera or the Internet. Clip art refers to prepared pictures that are grouped into
topics such as technology, animals and education. There are millions of clip art drawings and
photos available to suit most purposes.
 Video and audio are used in multimedia productions. Data collection should be carefully
planned before any data is entered. The user should clarify a purpose, identify the audience
and gather ideas.
 Text and numbers are entered into most software applications. The collection of data for a
database often requires a great deal of research and the use of non-computer tools such as
surveys and interviews. Spread sheets should be carefully planned before data is collected. It
is important to understand the relationships between the data, and how a spread sheet will
solve the problem.

The Internet as a collection source

The Internet is a source of data. It allows someone at one computer to collect data stored on
another. Web sites present information on a particular topic. Each single document is called a Web
page. In addition to the Web, data is collected from newsgroups. A newsgroup is a discussion group
on a specific topic. People read newsgroups each day and they provide a large diversity of opinion
and knowledge. The Internet also allows data to be downloaded. It is possible to download files
containing text, graphics, animation, video, sound and software.

Social and Ethical Issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The
following are some of the issues that relate specifically to
the collection of data.

 Data needs to be free from bias. Bias means that the data is unfairly skewed or gives too
much weight to a particular result. For example, if a survey about television habits was only
completed by teenagers and the results were generalised to the entire population, it would
have a bias. Several checks should be made to limit the impact of bias.
 The accuracy of the collected data is a vital ingredient of an information system. It depends
on the source of the data and whether the data is entered correctly. The accuracy of data is
often difficult to check in a reasonable time. It is often necessary to compare data from a
number of different sources and determine which data is accurate. Data validation
techniques used to check the entry of data includes range checks, list checks, and type
checks and check digits. 
 Copyright is the right to use copy or control the work of authors and artists. It is against the
law to infringe copyright. You are not allowed to use or copy the work of another person
without their permission. If data is collected from the Internet, it is protected by copyright.
Text and images obtained from a Web site should not be used without acknowledgement or
permission from the owner. 
 Privacy is the ability of an individual to control personal data. Data collected on individuals is
not always accurate. Inaccuracies can be caused by mistakes in gathering or entering the
data, by a mismatch of the data and the person, or by information being out-of-date. For
example, a car is recorded as stolen, but is later recovered and returned to the owner. If the
data has not been quickly updated, the legal owner runs the risk of being arrested as a car
thief. What opportunities exist to check and change data if it is wrong? Physical privacy is the
ability of an individual to avoid invasion of their personal time, space and property.
Information technology increases the opportunities to invade physical privacy by such
means as computer-generated phone calls, junk mail and electronic junk mail (spamming).
 Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work environment. It is the
process of designing or arranging workplaces, products and systems so that they fit the
people who use them. The way a computer is used and the work environment can affect the
body. Participants who enter large volumes of data into information systems need to be
aware of ergonomic issues.

2.2- Analysing
Analysing is the interpretation of data. It involves examining the data and giving meaning to it. When
data has been ordered and given meaning by people it is called information.

Hardware
Analysis depends on the storage and processing capabilities of the information system
  Large amounts of storage are needed to receive and retain data over a period of time. If the
primary storage (memory) and secondary storage (storage) resource are abundant, then first
processing is possible
 Fast processing is needed to complete the many calculations often required for analysis. This
performed by the Central Processing Unit. Applications requiring complex analysis use
parallel processing. This is the simultaneous processing of instructions using multiple
processors or CPU's. Parallel processing is much faster than using one CPU. This type of
processing is examined later in the computer.

Software

 Searching is the process of locating data and information. Most information have a "find"
and "search" command
 Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. Sorts are either performed in
ascending order (A-Z or 0-9) or descending order (Z-A or 9-0)
 Modelling and simulations are used to make predictions and examine discussions concerning
real situations. A model is a representation of some aspect of the real world and a simulation
is the use of a model
 "What- if" predictions are a powerful feature of spread sheet software. The software allows
the user to make changes to one item of data and observing the effects on other items
 Charts are a graphical representation of numerical data. The convert data in rows
and columns into a picture that can be read at a glance. Charts make data easier to
understand 

Social and Ethical Issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues. The following
are some issues that relate specifically to analysing data:

 Unauthorised analysis of data occurs when people gain access to an information system
 The incorrect analysis of data results in accurate information. If data has been poorly
organised or an inappropriate model used to represent a situation, the analysis will be
wrong
 Privacy is eroded by linking databases for analysis: Most people in pursuit of society's
benefits readily give information about themselves to selected organisations. They may also
leave a trail or electronic data when they use a credit card, visit the doctor, use the library,
access the internet or subscribe to a magazine 

2.3- Organisation
Organisation is the process that arranges, represents and formats data for use by other information
processes. It is carried after the data is collected. Data is digitised using hardware of collection
device.
What is digitalising?
Digitalising is the process of translating data into the binary digits (bits) that can be stored and
processed by a computer. The fact that all data is represented in a series of bits means that a
computer can organise and transmit data of any type.

Hardware
Hardware collection devices organise data by digitising it. Digitising is the process of translating data
into the binary digits (bits) that can be stored and processed by a computer.  Every type of data must
be represented digitally in the form of bits to be used by a computer.

 Text: All characters such as letters, numerals, punctuation keys, spaces and special symbols
are converted into binary using a standard method of conversion such as ASCII or EBCDIC.
These work by assigning each character with a decimal number and converting this number
into binary code 
 Images: Images are divided into tiny dots called pixels. One or more bits are assigned to each
pixel. The relationship between the image and the bits in memory is called bit-mapping. The
number of bits assigned to each pixel depends on the number of tones and colours used.
The quality of a digitised image is improved by increasing the number of pixels or increasing
the tones and colour.
 Audio: Sound is digitised using a method called sampling. This involves taking a number of
samples or ‘slices’ of the sound wave. This is called the sampling rate. Each sample is
assigned a number of bits. This is called the sample size. Better quality sound is achieved by
increasing the sampling rate and/or the sampling size 

Software
Application software organises data.

 Multimedia is the presentation of information using text, graphics, animation, audio and
video. It uses at least three of these media types. Data is organised by combining data in
different formats. Audio software is used to organise audio and animation software for
video.
 Word processing is the most widely used application software. It allows characters to be
entered and documents to be created. Word processing is used to write letters, reports,
assignments, articles and books. Data is organised when creating and saving a document.
 Desktop publishing is the use of specialised software to combine text and graphics to create
a document. It is used to create many different types of publications such as magazines,
newspapers and books. Data is organised by combining data in different formats.
Publications are built by arranging different design elements such as headings, columns of
text and graphics.
 A spreadsheet uses a rectangular grid made up of rows and columns to organise and store
data that requires some type of calculation. A cell is the intersection of a row and column.
The organisation of data involves entering data into a cell as a label, value or formula.
Spreadsheets perform calculations on values (numbers) and not labels (text).

Social and Ethical Issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The
following are some of the issues that relate specifically to organising data.
  Current trends in organising data include the increasing use of the Internet and hypermedia.
The Internet is growing at a very fast rate and has become an everyday tool for many
people. Data is organised and stored using Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML). In addition
to the growth of the Internet, software applications are providing better ways of
accessing different types of data. For example, in early versions of word
processing programs it was impossible to import an image into a document. Today
this process is simple.
 Poorly organised data results in irrelevant information. If a database is poorly defined, it will
contain additional data that is not necessary to solve the problem. It is important that data
types be clearly defined for the information to be relevant and accurate.
 Data must be appropriate and complete. This issue was raised by the threat of the
‘millennium bug’ or ‘Y2K’ problem in the late 1990s. Not considering the end of the
millennium, programmers used a two-digit field instead of a four-digit field to record the
year. They used two digits to minimise computer memory and processing. With the change
from 1999 to 2000, computer programs would be in danger of malfunctioning because they
would identify ‘00’ as being 99 years before ‘99’ instead of one year after. It has cost
billions of dollars to fix the incompleteness of this data.

2.5- Storing and Retrieving

Storing and Retrieving data is a 2 step process for retaining data. Storing saves data and information
for later use, retrieving obtains the data and information that has been previously saved

Hardware
Volatile means that when the computer is switched off, or the power supply is interpreted, the
contents of the memory are lost. Secondary storage provides a non-volatile and more permanent
storage area than memory

Floppy and Hard disks

A floppy, or diskette, is a magnetic disk made of flexible plastic and covered with magnetic material.
Even though floppy disks do not have a large storage capacity and are slower than a hard drive for
accessing data, they are portable and cheap storage medium.
A hard disk is a magnetic disk made of flexible plastic and covered with magnetic material;
the vivid construction allows it to be constructed 10-100 times faster than a floppy disk, giving it
faster access to data. Hard disks store more data than floppy disks because the data is stored
more densely

Partition
A partition is area that functions as a separate disk. Each partition is assigned a letter as though it
were a separate disk drive. The size of each partition is variable and must be specified. On IBM
compatible computers, hard disk partitions usually start with the letter "c".

Removable Cartridges
Removable cartridges are disks encased in a metal or plastic cartridge that are removed like a floppy
disk. They are fast, though usually not as fast as fixed cartridges. Zip disks are slightly larger than a 3
and half inch floppy disk and about twice as thick. They can store 100-250Mb of data and have a
transfer rate of 1.4 megabytes per second. Jaz disks can store up to 2GB of data and have a transfer
rate of 5.5MB per second. Jaz disks are suited to storing large files for multimedia graphics and
sound.

Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is a technique used by an operating system to increase the amount of memory. It
works by setting aside part of the hard disk and treating it as though it were memory. A common
method used by operating systems to perform virtual memory is called paging.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a long thin strip of plastic coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. This type is
wound onto reels, sometimes in a cartridge. Tape is read, written on a tape device that winds the
tape from one reel to another, causing it to pass a read/write head.
The main disadvantage with magnetic tape is that it uses sequential access to retrieve data. This
form of access starts at the beginning of the tape and reads all the data until the required item is
found. Sequential access is slow, making magnetic tapes unsuitable for data that is updated often.

Optical Disks
An optical disk is storage medium on which data is read and written using laser technology. They are
polycarbonate plastic disks whose surface is coated with a reflected layer of metal.

 CD-ROM disks are 12cm wide and capable of storing 650Mb. However, once the data has
been stored on the CD, it is read only and cannot be changed or added to
 CD-R disks allow data to be written once but read many times. They are also called WORM
disks. A CD-R drive is required to write data
 CD-RW disks allow the user to write, erase and rewrite data. Erasing the disk is achieved by
heating the disk and quickly cooking it. A CD-RW is slower than a hard disk and after
frequent use of areas of the disk tend to become inaccessible 

Flash Memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip that retains data when the power is removed. Flash
memory is erased and written in fixed blocks ranging from 512 bytes to 256 kilobytes. Flash memory
cards look similar to a credit card and some in a variety of formats such as PC cards, Compact Flash
and Smart Media. They are widely used in digital cameras, modems, mobile phones and portable
computers.

Software and Application Software

Formatting a disk prepares a disk to accept data by organising it into tracks and sectors. It is tracked
by a band which is formed by concentric circles, and a sector is a section of a track that can store
data.
Application software stores data to a storage using the "save" command. This first time data is
saved, it must be given a file name. The "save as" command allows the user to change the file-name,
location and file format of the data.

 Hardware interface software controls the hardware devices used for storage. It is usually
classified as part of the operating system. Each storage device has particular specifications
that are controlled by the hardware interface software.
 File management software organises files on a storage medium such as a hard disk. It is
usually part of the operating system. In general, a file is recognised by a file name and
contains either a program or data. Depending on the operating system, the file name can be
between 8 and 255 characters long. There may be thousands of files on a hard disk and to
work effectively the user will need quick access to these files. The files are stored and
organised in folders or directories.
 File formats are used for different data types. On many types of computer systems, a file-
name extension is used to identify a file format. Some of the common extensions are BMP,
JPG, GIF and PCT for graphics; WAV, MID and MP3 for audio; MPG and QT for video; and
DOC, TXT and RTF for text files. Image, video and audio files require significantly more
storage than text and numbers.

Social and Ethical Issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The
following are some of the issues that relate specifically to storing and retrieving data.

 Security of data and information is a major issue. The cost of replacing stored data that
is deliberately or accidentally damaged is enormous. Data security involves a series
of safeguards to protect data, such as passwords, personal objects, biometric devices,
firewalls, data encryption, and securing waste, carefully screening employees and having
appropriate backup procedures.
 Unauthorised retrieval of data refers to people gaining illegal access to information systems.
These people are called hackers. Hackers are often involved in information theft or financial
theft. Their crimes are often not reported due to adverse publicity and are not regarded in
the same light as conventional robbery
2.6- Transmitting and Receiving
Communication Concepts
Serial transfer transmits data 1 bit at a time through a single line. Parallel transfer transmits more
than one bit of data simultaneously using separate lines. Obviously parallel transfer is much quicker
than serial transfer because it can send more than one bit at a time. However parallel transfer is only
used for distances less than a few metres otherwise errors can occur in transmitting the data and the
cabling is too expensive. Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In
asynchronous transmission each byte is identified with special stop and start bits. This has become
the standard for all personal computers. A party is used to check for errors in transmission require all
data to be sent at the same time.

Communication within the Computer

A bus is a pathway of wires and connectors that provides the link between the peripheral devices,
input, and storage, process and output devices. A bus can be thought of as a highway on which data
control within the computer. This size of the bus is called its width. There are 2 different types of
buses:

 An internal bus is located on the motherboard and links the CPU and memory. These buses
are photochemically edited layers of metal that create electrical channels
 An expansion bus connects peripheral devices to the CPU and memory. If the expansion bus
connects directly to the CPU and bypasses RAM it is called a local bus. There are different
types of buses, such as ISA, EISA, and VESA AND PCI.

Peripheral devices are linked to the CPU using expansion slots and plots. An expansion slot is an
opening where the circuit board can be inserted into the motherboard to extend the capabilities of
the computer. The circuit board that is inserted is called an expansion card or expansion board.
 A part is a socket to connect peripheral devices; it is usually located at the rear of the system unit.
Parts are either parallel or serial.

 Parallel parts transmit 8 bits (1 byte) at a time along an 8 parallel line. They are used to
connect devices that send and receive large amounts of data such as printers and disk drives
 Serial parts transmit data one bit at a time using only one communication line. Serial parts
are often called COM or communications parts and assigned a number such as COMI and
 CONZ. Serial parts connect any peripheral device, such as a mouse, keyboard, modem or
plotter

Modem
A modem is a device that enables data to be transmitted from one computer to another. The word
modem stands for modulator/demodulator. A modem converts digital signals sent from a computer
into analogue signals suitable for transmission along a telephone line. Analogues systems are pulses
in the form of waves. Depending on the modem uses, they can be electrical pulses or light pulses.
When the signal is received by another modem, it reverses the process by converting the analogue
signal into a digital signal suitable for the receiving computer.

Networks
When a number of computers (or terminals) and their peripheral devices are connected it is called a
network. The devices used to send data to a computer system or receive data from a processor
called terminals. Terminals can either be smart or intelligent or dumb

 Smart terminals can be done same low-level processing such as text editing
 Intelligent terminals have both memory and processing capabilities
 Dumb terminals do not contain a processor and consist of keyboards and monitors

Local Area Networks (LAN'S) connect computers or terminals within a building or group of buildings
on one site. There are 3 advantages of using a LAN.

 They allow limited hardware resources such as printers, hard disks and modems to be
shared
 They allow application software to be shared
 They improve communication among users on the network by allows messages to be sent
and received

Wide Area Networks (WAN's) connect computers over hundreds or thousands of kilometres. WAN's
relied on links such as coaxial cables, fibre optic cables and microwave devices.

Social and Ethical Issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The
following are some of the issues that relate specifically to transmitting and receiving data.

 Because it is so easy to publish information on the Internet, the accuracy of information

received from the Internet is not guaranteed. It is necessary to compare data from a number
of sources and determine which data is accurate.
 The security of data transferred over the Internet is a greater problem than for data stored
on a single computer. One method to protect data from deliberate or accidental damage is
 the use of certificates. A certificate or digital signature is an encrypted code that identifies a
particular person or Web site. It aims to ensure that unauthorised persons cannot access
data.
 ‘Netiquette’ refers to the way people communicate with each other on the Internet. It is
about being considerate to other users of the Internet and thinking about the effect of your
actions. There are some conventions regarding appropriate behaviour when sending
electronic mail, chatting or using newsgroups. For example, send inoffensive messages, do
not infringe copyright, respect the privacy of people in chat rooms and be friendly
to newcomers 
 Acknowledgement of sources is necessary when downloading data. Data obtained from the
Internet is protected by copyright. To cite an Internet source it is important to include the
author’s name, title of the completed work, URL of the page and download date 
 Privacy can be an issue when receiving information from the Internet. Some Web sites use
cookies to record information about visitors to their site. A cookie is a file that is put on the
user’s hard disk when they visit a Web site. The cookie stores information such as the date,
the Web pages visited and the transactions completed. When the user visits the same site at
a later date, the information in the cookie is available to the Web site hosts. Some
people argue that cookies store personal information about the user, and that this is an
invasion of privacy.
 In some areas of employment, information systems have improved the nature of work—the
way people do their jobs. This may involve people retraining and learning new skills
(multitasking). However, in other areas information systems have had the opposite effect.
Some people’s jobs now require fewer skills. This is called deskilling
 The Internet is having an impact on traditional businesses. Some businesses are being
established that trade entirely online. Many other businesses are establishing Web sites as
an additional way to promote and sell their goods and services. The Internet has four main
advantages over traditional ways of doing business: it offers a global market; it allows 24-
hour access; there are lower marketing costs; and there are lower storage costs. The amount
of business being transacted on the Internet is increasing at a phenomenal rate. Most
experts predict that Internet business and the number of customers on the Net will continue
to rise over the next few years. Traditional businesses that provide an opportunity for
human inter-action are being challenged. Do you think Internet businesses will
replace traditional businesses?

2.7- Displaying
Displaying is presenting the output from an information system to meet a given purpose. It is the
presentation of information in the form of text, numerals, images, audio and video. A range of
hardware and software combinations are used to display different types of information.

Hardware

CRT Monitor
A monitor is a screen that uses cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to a television. Images are
produced by firing a beam of electrons onto the inside of the screen, which contains a coating
of phosphor  The electron beam usually starts in the upper hand corner and moves from left to right
and top to bottom in a series of zig zag lines called a raster scan.
LCD Monitor
The most common types of technology used in flat screens are a liquid crystal display (LCD). It
consists of a layer of crystal material placed between 2 polarising sheets. Light is passed through a
liquid crystal material and current is applied at particular points. This causes the pixel to be
activated.

Dot Matrix Printer

A dot matrix printer prints characters or images using dots. Each dot is formed by the impact
between a pin, printer ribbon and the paper. There can be between 9 and 24 pins located in
the printer head. A 24-pin printer produces higher quality output than a 9-pin printer. Dot matrix
printers are reliable and cheap, but they are noisy and do not produce the highest quality output.
Dot matrix printers have resolutions from 60 dpi to 180 dpi.

Ink Jet Printers

Inkjet printers produce characters by spraying very fine drops of ink onto the paper. The print head
of an inkjet contains a nozzle with anywhere from 50 to several hundred small holes. The ink is
propelled through a combination of nozzle holes to form the characters. Inkjet printers produce
high-quality output in either colour or black and white. They are quiet, light and relatively
cheap although the ink cartridges are expensive. Inkjet printers are very popular and are an ideal
solution for people who want high-quality output without high volume. One disadvantage is that
inkjet output is usually not waterproof.

Lazer Printers
Laser printers use data from the computer to direct a laser beam at a positively charged revolving
drum. Where the drum is charged by the laser beam it attracts toner (powdered ink). The toner is
transferred onto the paper and fused using heat and pressure to form the image. Laser printers print
a complete page at a time. Laser printers used with personal computers print from 4 to 20 pages
per minute while high-speed laser printers can print more than 100 pages per minute. Most laser
printers offer 600–1200 dpi output and use standard size paper. The highest quality models produce
output to rival commercial printing processes.

Speakers
Sounds are produced using a speaker. A small speaker is usually located in most personal computers
inside the system unit. However, high-quality stereo speakers are often connected to the computer
using a port and a sound card. The speakers are sometimes built into the sides of the monitor. In
addition to sounds and music, speakers work with voice output.

Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high-quality drawings such as maps, charts and
building plans. The drawings are often larger than the available paper sizes of a standard printer.
Plotters are operated using commands from the computer and can be used to draw an amazing
array of shapes and figures. There are two different types of plotters: pen plotters and electrostatic
plotters.

 A pen plotter produces images using coloured ink pens on the surface of the paper.
Depending on the output, pen plotters are either flatbed or drum. A flatbed plotter looks like
a drafting table with pens suspended over it. The movement of the pens is controlled by the
plotter software. Most flatbed plotters have different coloured pens of different widths.
 They are used in engineering and drafting applications. A drum plotter works in the same
way except that the paper is rolled around a drum or cylinder. The pens only move to the
left and right as the drum rotates. The drawings from a drum plotter are restricted to the
width of the printer but are unlimited in length.
 An electrostatic plotter creates images by moving paper under a row of wires. When the
wires are given an electrostatic charge they touch the paper and create the drawing.
Electrostatic plotters produce high-quality output and are faster than pen plotters.

Software
Each piece of application software displays data. The chapters in Part 2: Application software
contains detailed information on the display features of various applications. The following is brief
summary.

 Reporting is used to organise and display data from a database for printing. Database
management systems allow complete control in the design of a report in either a tabular or
column layout. It is possible to insert headings, sort data, choose fields, switch fields, change
column width and select records. The purpose of the report determines its content, format
and style.
 Formatting changes the appearance of the data. Text is formatted by changing the font,
alignment, tabs, indenting, bullets, numbering and style. Additional design elements include
headers and footers, colour, drop caps, text effects, call outs and borders. Numbers in a
spreadsheet are displayed using built-in formats such as currency, percentage or fixed. Page
layout is the arrangement of text and graphics on a page. A publication that is well designed
will convey its message effectively and efficiently.
 Spacing between lines of text is altered to improve the appearance and readability of a
document. Character spacing refers to the spacing between individual letters. It is changed
in a number of ways such as scale, points, position and kerning.
 Mail merge combines a letter written on a word processor with data from another document
such as a database. It saves time and makes final documents more personal.
 Tables are rows and columns of cells that are filled with text and graphics. Text can be
displayed horizontally or vertically, and the width or height of the rows and columns can be
altered. Tables can be sorted in alphabetic, numeric or date order.
 Charts are a graphical representation of numerical data. They convert data in rows and
columns into a picture that can be read at a glance. Charts make data easy to understand.

Social and Ethical Issues

The widespread use of information technology has raised a number of ethical issues for people. The
following are some of the issues that relate specifically to displaying data.

 The communications skills of those presenting displays need to be effective. Presentations

are effective if the information displayed is well organised, attractive and easy to
understand.
 Current trends in display are changing the way people interact with computers. Fifteen years
ago screens were small and unable to handle different font sizes and graphics. Today larger
monitors can display text, graphics, photographs and video. Display technology using large
flat screens is becoming more common.
 Visually inspired people need appropriate displays. This issue is a concern on the Internet.
Web page designers should consider how people with disabilities will be able to access their
information. For example, it may be necessary to provide text alternatives to audio
 information for the hearing-impaired. All people with a disability are entitled to access
technology. Special devices have been developed to help people with vision,
hearing, mobility and dexterity impairments.
 Offensive material available on the Internet such as pornographic, racist and violent material
is a major concern. Children with Internet access can potentially view inappropriate
material, either deliberately or unintentionally. There is a significant amount of offensive
material on the Internet and it is easy to find. Some people believe that offensive material
should be banned, while others argue that banning any materials compromises our free
society.  Clearly, parents and schools need to prevent children from accessing offensive
material. Censoring software such as Net Nanny can also be used to screen out
inappropriate material. Chatting on the Internet is also an issue. Some people can behave in
ways that is offensive and threatening, and may even have criminal intentions. In order to be
safe, it is advisable never to disclose any identifying personal information to anyone over the
Internet.
Chapter 3- Planning, Designing and Implementation
3.1- Introduction

The system development cycle or

system life cycle consists of 5 board
stages:

 Understanding the
problem- identifying the
requirements of a
system that would solve the
problem
 Making decisions-
determining the feasibility of a
new system to solve the problem
 Designing solutions- creating the new system
 Implementing- using the system to solve the problem
 Testing, evaluating and maintaining- the ongoing operation of the system

3.2- Understanding the Problem

Preliminary investigation
A preliminary investigation determines whether a quick fix of the existing system will solve the
problem or a new system is necessary. The fundamental operations and problems of the existing
system must be understood. The preliminary investigation takes into account the needs and
concerns of all the participants.

Data collection methods

Data collection is very important. If the data is incorrect, the new system may not meet the needs of
the participants. Data should be gathered in an organised way to ensure nothing is omitted

Requirement report
The requirement report is a statement about the needs of a new system. It outlines the aims and
objectives of the new system and how it will help the organisation. The requirement report also
provides an overview of the new system in terms of the data/information to be used, the
information processes and the information technology required.

Project Plan
A project plan organises the project be specifying who, what, how and when. It includes Gantt
charts, scheduling of tasks, journal and diary entries, a funding management plan and a
communication management plan

Project management software

Project management software contains most of the features of information management software.
It is a tool to plan, manage and communicate information efficiently in a large project; Project
management software allows projects to be joined, tasks to be split among team members and for
the project to be tracked over the Internet or via email.

Gantt chart
A Gantt cart is a popular way of managing a project. It provides a quick method of determining if the
project is on schedule. Gantt charts are used in meeting to review progress and identify problems. A
Gantt chart is a bar chart with each bar representing a task.

3.3- Making Decisions

This stage involves making decisions using the data gathered in the preliminary investigations

Feasibility Study
A feasibility study is a short report that analyses potential solutions and makes a recommendation

Sections Content
1. Title Page Project name, report title, authors, date
2. Contents A list of report sections and page numbers
3. Problem Definition Exact nature of the problem
4. Requirement Report Aims and objectives of the new system
5. Summary of investigation Overview of the existing system: benefits, costs
and constraints
6. Alternative solutions Details of each new proposed system
7. Recommendations Recommended course of action with justification
8. Project Plan Schedule
9. Appendix Supplementary material such as surveys, Gantt
charts and diagram
The recommendation is based on a number of criteria, such as economic, technical, schedule and
organisational.

 Economic: Compares the costs of developing the new system with expected benefits. A
financial analyst is often used to assess economic feasibility. Economic feasibility is also
called cost/benefit analysis.
 Technical: Determines the information’s technology requirements of the new system and
the technical demands that will be placed on the new system.
 Schedule: Determines whether time is available to implement the new system
 Organisational: Determines whether the new system will fit into the organisation and meet
its current goals. It determines if the new system will have enough support to be successfully
implemented.

Analysis
When the detailed analysis is completed, an analysis report is written. It provides more detail than
the feasibility study.
3.4- Designing Solutions
Context Diagrams
A context diagram is a graphical method of representing a system using a single process together
with inputs and outputs (external entities). There are only three symbols in a context diagram: the
process, the data flow and the external entity.

Data Flow Diagram

A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical method of representing a system using a number of
processes together with inputs, outputs and storage. DFDs focus on the flow of data between
information processes in a system. They show where data is collected, organised, analysed, stored,
processed, transmitted and displayed. DFDs provide a simple technique for visualising the
movement of data and describing what participants do, rather than what the computers do. There
are four main symbols used in a DFD: the process, the data flow, the data store and the external
entity.

Context and Data Flow Diagram symbols

Context Diagram: Example

Data Flow Diagram: example

3.5- Implementing
Conversion
Conversion involves changing from the old system to the new system. It must be carefully planned
and executed to avoid errors.

Direct Conversion
Direct conversion involves an immediate change to the new system. A date is chosen on which the
old system ends and the new system begins. All data from the old system is transferred to the new
system. Direct conversion is not popular even though there are minimal transition costs. It does not
allow time to check whether the new system will operate correctly and that participants understand
the system. If the new system fails or problems occur, the old system is not available as a backup.
Parallel Conversion
Parallel conversion involves the old and new systems working together for some time. Participants
can compare the two systems and obtain a good under-standing of the differences between them. If
there are any problems with the new system they can be solved before the old system is
discontinued. However, parallel conversion results in additional workloads for participants as they
must operate both systems. It may also result in confusion about which system has the correct data.

Phased Conversion
Phased conversion involves the gradual implementation of the new system. Certain operations of
the new system are implemented while the remaining operations are completed by the old system.
When one operation of the new system is successful, another operation is implemented until the
new system is fully operational. Each operation is individually tested. If there is a problem with a
certain operation it is possible to switch back to the old system. Unfortunately phased conversion is
often confusing, with some participants working on the old system and some on the new system.

Pilot Conversion
Pilot conversion involves trialling the new system in a small part of the organisation. The old system
is still available if the new fails or experiences problems. Pilot conversion is usually undertaken by a
keen group of participants who appreciate the benefits of the new system. If pilot implementation
works, it is usually easier to motivate the other participants of the organisation to adopt the new
system.

Training Specialist
Training specialists teach participants how to operate their system. Training is needed in the
installation of a new sys-tem and to ensure that the computer is being used efficiently.

Technical Support Staff

Technical support staffs are people who assist participants of a system. This service is usually
provided over the phone and is known as a help desk. Technical support staff needs to be
completely familiar with the system.
3.6- Testing, Evaluating and Maintaining
Computer operators
Computer operators perform tasks on computer equipment, such as starting up, monitoring
performance, running jobs and backing up.

Managers
The managers are responsible for the effective use of the system. They oversee the computer
operation and ensure that participants and machines work efficiently. There are many different
types of managers with slightly different roles.

Evaluation
The evaluation determines whether the system is working as expected or if changes are requires. It
occurs after the new system is established and minor problems have been fixed. The systems analyst
often completes an evaluation in consultation with participants

Maintenance
Maintenance is the modification of the system by taking minor improvements. During the operation
of the system, participants may discover deficiencies and suggest improvements. Maintenance may
also involve installing new hardware and upgrading software packages.

3.7- Social and Ethical Issues

Machine and Human Centred systems
Machine centred systems are designed to simplify what the computer must do at the expense of
participants. They assume people will follow procedures that may be confusing in order to get the
end result of what they want.

Human centred systems are those that make participants work as effective and satisfying as
possible. They allow people to do their work without wasting time and effort dealing with the
information technology

Ergonomics
Ergonomics refers to the relationship between people and their work environment. It is the process
of designing or arranging workplaces, products and systems so that they fit the people that use
them.
Impact of systems on work
Work that is satisfying is the result of a job design that involves a variety of tasks and a balance
between work and rest. When appropriate rest pauses are taken, the effects of fatigue are reduced
and efficiency improves.

Work pressure can cause high levels of stress and adversely affect health and efficiency. There are a
number of factors that influence work pressure, such as workload, job design, social relations and
job security. Undue pressure may result in feelings of anxiety, depression, anger, fatigue, lack of
vigour and confusion.

Multiskilling
The introduction of information systems has improved the skills of people in a number of jobs. It has
also forced people to retrain or risk long term unemployment. When people retrain or learn new
skills it is called multiskilling.

Deskilling
Information systems may have the opposite effect on some jobs, resulting in a job requiring fewer
skills. This is called deskilling.

Telecommuting
Telecommuting is where people work on a personal computer at home and use electronic mail to
communicate with people in the office. It provides participants with flexible hours and savings on
transport, clothing, food and time.
Chapter 6- Databases
6.1- Basic Features
A database is an organised collection of data. Some examples of databases are taxation records,
library catalogue systems, car registration records, student records, CD-ROM encyclopaedias and
census reports.

Data structures
 A file is a block of data. When you have done some work on the computer it is stored in a
file. The L-Z telephone book would represent a file. A file in a database is divided into a set of
related records
 A record is a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database. Information about a
person in the telephone book is a record. A record is divided into one or more related fields
 A field is a specific category of data. The family name, address and telephone number in the
telephone book are all fields. Fields are known as data items or categories, and are made up
of characters
 A character is the smallest unit of data that people can handle, and includes letters,
numbers and special symbols

Data dictionaries
 The field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully selected to avoid confusion.
Field names should be relatively short, clear and unambiguous.
 The data type or field type is the kind of data in the field. Each field stores data of a single
data type. Some common data types are text, number, currency, yes/no and date/time.
 The field size, or field width, is the number of characters in each field. To keep the size of the
database small and to help it work faster, the field size should be limited to the smallest
number of characters that can be expected for that field.
 The field description specifies the contents of the field.

Database keys
 A single key is a field where each item of data is unique. Care must be taken when choosing
a single key, as some fields (such as family name) are not always unique
 A composite key, or compound key, is made by joining 2 or more fields together. It is used
when no item in any field can be guaranteed to be unique. For example, a compound key
can be made from fields such as Gender and Date of Birth.
 A primary key is a single key or compound key that must have a value. Primary keys cannot
be empty or null
 A secondary key is a field that contains useful items of data often used in searches.
Secondary keys are not always unique.

Tables
A table or list organises data into columns (fields) or rows (records). It will display more than one
record but only the number of fields that will fit across the screen.

A form, or label, is used to view enter and change data in a table. It is often used to display the data
for every field in a single record. In most databases, the layout of the form can be changed.
6.2- Modifying a Database
Data is inserted into a field in a table or form by placing the cursor in the desired location. New
records are inserted by moving to the last record and typing in the new data. The user can insert
new records by choosing an appropriate command. It does not matter where the new records are
inserted, as the records can be rearranged by sorting.

Data is deleted from a field in a table or form by placing the cursor to the right of the character to be
deleted and pressing the ‘Backspace’ key. A block of characters can be deleted by selecting the data
and pressing the ‘Delete’ key. The user can replace existing data by selecting the data and typing in
the new data.

To add a field, the user must first decide on the field name, field size and data type. The user will
then need to go back to each record and enter data into that field. Remember, it is convenient to
use a table to enter new data into a single field across many records.

6.3- Finding Information

Sorting
Sorting is the process of arranging data in a particular order. It is a way of organising data. Sorts can
be performed in either ascending or descending order.

A filter is used to limit the records viewed in the database. Records are filtered by selecting the
records or specifying a certain condition.

Searching
Searching is the process of examining a database in order to retrieve data. The user types in a word
or a string of characters and the DBMS searches though the data looking for a match. It is often
possible to limit the search to a particular field.

Query
A query is a search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. It is a question you ask of
the database.

The data in the query is often called the criteria. There are 3 methods in entering a simple query:

 Menu: This is often the easiest way to pose a query but is the least flexible. The DBMS
presents the user with a list of options from which to choose.
 Query by example (QBE): This requires the user to enter the criteria against a field. For
example, if you were looking for people who lived in Eastwood, you would type ‘Eastwood’
in the ‘Suburb’ field and leave the remaining fields blank. The DBMS would then search the
database and select all records that have Eastwood in the ‘Suburb’ field.
 Query language (QL): This is a specialised language designed to allow users to access
information from the database. It is the most complex method because the user must learn
the language but it provides the most power and flexibility. Different DBMS’s support
different query languages. SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard query language
but there are different versions of it in use.
Operators
Rational operators (=, <>, <, > <=, >=) are characters or symbols indicating the relationship between
2 expressions.

Wildcard characters represent one or more unknown characters. Some common wildcard characters
are the asterisk (*) that substitutes for any number of characters and the question mark (?) that
substitute for 1 character.

Logistical operators (AND, OR, NOT) are used to combine simple queries so that a search is carried
out on one or more fields.

Operator Description
Relational
= Equal to
<> Not equal to
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
Contains
Does not contain
Begins with
Ends with
Is blank
Is not blank

Logical
AND Together
OR Either one
NOT Exact opposite

6.4- Reporting
A report is the formatted and organised presentation of data. The purpose of a report will determine
its content, format and style.

Report Sections
 Report header: Appears once at the beginning of a report.
 Page header: Displays information such as title, column headings or any other information
needed at the top of every page.
 Page footer: Displays information such as the date, page number or any other information
the user wants at the bottom of every page.
 Report footer: Appears once at the end of a report. It displays items such as report totals.
Chapter 7- Spreadsheets
7.2- Formulas
Operator Description Example
Arithmetic
+ addition =6+2 gives 8
- subtraction =6-2 gives 4
* multiplication =6*2 gives 12
/ division =6/2 gives 3
^ exponentiation =6^2 gives 36
% Per cent =15% gives 0.15
Relational
= equal to =3+2=4 gives FALSE
<> not equal to =22-1<> gives TRUE
< less than =22<20 gives FALSE
> greater than =22>20 gives TRUE
<= less than or equal to =15+4<= gives TRUE
>= greater than or equal =15+4>=20 gives FALSE
Text
& text joining =’A=’&FALSE gives A=FALSE

Functions
Functions make calculations easier. Spread sheet programs contain about 100 built-in formulas
known as functions. Functions are used to perform simple or complex calculations. To use a function
you must follow special rules or syntax. Functions consist of a function name such as SUM, a set of
parentheses () and arguments

Absolute and relative referencing

Absolute referencing means that the cell references in a formula do not change if the formula is
copied or moved. The formula is copied exactly, with the cell references remaining the same. The $
sign is used to indicate an absolute cell reference.

Relative referencing allows you to copy the mathematical processes in a formula (such as the
operators and functions) while changing the cell references so that they relate to the new
destination cell. Relative referencing is the default option, so no special symbol is required.

7.3- Formatting a Spreadsheet

Macros
A macro is a series of commands stored in a file that can be executed by pressing a few keys. Macros
are used to automate repetitive tasks; they save time and reduce keyboard errors.

The easiest way to create a macro is to record it. The user selects the appropriate “Record macro”
command and enters a name for the macro, so it can be saved as a file. The user then carries out the
desired series of actions which are recorded by the macro recorder. When the actions are
completed, the user stops the macro recorder by selecting the appropriate command or button.
Chapter 8- Graphics
8.3- Bit-mapped Graphics
Graphic format name Extension Description
Bit- map BMP A standard format used by
Microsoft Windows
applications.
PC Paintbrush PCX A common, older format,
compatible with BMP.
Tagged Image File Format TIF A format used for scanned
(TIFF) images up to 300 dpi.
Joint Photographic Experts JPG A compression format used for
Group high quality still images. Widely
used on the internet.
Graphics Interchange GIF A format used mainly for Web
Format graphics

8.2- Vector Graphics

Graphic format name Extension Description
Computer Graphics Metafile CGM An international standard for
vector graphics.
Encapsulated Postscript EPS A Postscript format used in
professional publishing.
Macintosh PICT PCT A format used widely on Apple
Macintosh computers.
Windows Metafile Format WMF A format used commonly in
Windows applications
WordPerfect Graphic WPG The format used for graphics in
WordPerfect (a word
processor).
Chapter 10- Multimedia
10.1- Basic Features
Interactivity means that the user is able to choose the sequence and content of information.

Hypertext is text that includes an embedded link to another piece of text, an image or another web
page.

In lossy compression, some data is actually removed from the file. The resulting file is smaller in size
but the quality is reduced. In lossless compression, no data is deleted, which means the file can be
recovered in its original state. This type of compression works by replacing repeated data with
something that takes up less room.

10.3- Types of Media

Animation is the movement of an object. It is the result of a series of graphics or frames presented
in rapid succession.

Cell-based animation involves drawing and displaying individual frames or cells. Each frame is stored
separately and is loaded into a graphics page in primary memory. The animation works by displaying
the first frame from a graphics page while creating the second frame in another graphics page. The
second frame is slightly different to the first frame, depending on the items to be animated. The
second frame is then displayed and the third frame created in the graphics page of the first frame.
Animation occurs by alternating the display of graphics pages. This method of animation requires a
very powerful computer to achieve 30 frames per second.

Path-based animation involves displaying the movement of objects on a fixed background in a

particular sequence or path. Only the pixels of the moving object are changed; those making up the
background stay the same. This saves memory and processing time. Animation is achieved by
drawing the object, wiping it, and then drawing the object in a new position.

The sampling rate is the number of times a sample (slice) is taken from the sound wave. During a
sample, the amplitude of the wave (volume) is measured and converted to a number. The higher the
sampling rate, the better the sound. The sampling rate is expressed in kilohertz (kHz), which is
thousands of cycles per second.

The sample size (or bit resolution) is the number of bits per sample. The most common sampling
sizes are 8-bit sound and 16-bit sound. Better quality sound is recorded using 16-bits but for voices
8-bit sound is usually sufficient.

Morphing is the smooth change between two different images. It involves transforming the shape,
size, dimension and colour of one image so it appears to merge into another image.
Warping involves transforming or distorting a portion of an image. It divides the image into objects
that can be manipulated.

10.4- Multimedia Design

File type Data Description
type
WAV SOUND Stores either 8-bit or 16-bit sound. Produces large size files
RealAudio SOUND Hear RealAudio sound file included in a Web page. Internet
 Explorer and Netscape Navigator include a RealAudio player
MIDI SOUND Connecting computers and electronic music instruments. A
musician uses a MIDI instrument to play music and the
computer. Allows 16 instruments to be played simultaneously.
The sound recorded in a file format is called the MIDI sequence
MPEG VIDEO Family of formats that have become a standard for
compressed video. MPEG files achieve high compression ratio
by using lossy compression and only strong changes from one
frame to another
MP3 SOUND It compresses CD-quality sound using a compression ratio of
11:1. MP3 compresses a file by removing the high and low
frequencies that are out of hearing range
QuickTime VIDEO For the Apple computer
Animated GIF IMAGE GIF image than can be animated